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Assuring the Freedom of Americans on the High Seas: The United States Response to Piracy, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, First Session, March 15, 2011

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From the opening statement of Frank A. LoBiondo: "The subcommittee is meeting this morning to review efforts by the United States and the international community to respond to piracy on the high seas, and hopefully help prevent future attacks. Since the subcommittee's last hearing on this topic, Somali pirates have vastly expanded the range of their attacks on merchant vessels to encompass much of the western Indian Ocean. But even more alarming, the pirates have dramatically increased the number and viciousness of their attacks. This includes the recent hijacking of the U.S. sailing vessel, Quest, which ended in the ruthless murder of four United States citizens. I believe I speak for all of us who are on this subcommittee when I express my sincerest and deepest condolences to the families of the victims, and my outrage at this brutal violence against American citizens. As I said at our last hearing, piracy cannot be tolerated by the United States. I really think we need to re-emphasize that. We just cannot tolerate it. And the international community. This hearing provides us with a chance to examine ways to respond to that ongoing threat. Piracy has become a multimillion-dollar industry, as a result of ransoms that continue to be paid out by vessel ownership groups. I do not think we are tracking ransom payments to the extent that we should be. As a result, I am extremely concerned piracy could be benefitting the terrorist groups operating in Somalia, and that these groups could use their profits to carry out terrorist acts here, at home, and abroad. At the same time, I am worried the Federal Government may hold vessel owners criminally liable for ransoms they pay to free captive mariners." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Kurt Amend, Stephen L. Caldwell, Kevin S. Cook, William F. Wechsler and Frank A. LoBiondo.

United States. Government Printing Office

2011
Political Economy of Piracy in the South China Sea

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"In the past two decades it has increased substantially, leading to a renewed interest in piracy and its possible nexus with maritime terrorism, especially after the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States. Although it has been widely reported and investigated, piracy remains difficult to understand and to control. […]. This article attempts to analyze piracy through the perspective of political economy, with an emphasis on state and market stakeholders and on the economic, technological, and institutional factors affecting ocean governance of piracy. The major area of concern here is the South China Sea, where approximately half of the world's reported incidents of piracy have taken place since the 1990s. Following the usage of the International Maritime Bureau (IMB), this estimate includes instances of both piracy as defined under international law--theft on the high seas--and armed robbery or theft in the territorial waters or ports of coastal states. This article will examine the scope and trends in piracy in the South China Sea as well as the factors that motivate this form of maritime crime. It continues with an analysis of the factors that impede antipiracy efforts, including uncertainties over definitions and legal jurisdiction, the underlying dynamics of piracy, and uncoordinated efforts at detection, pursuit, arrest, and conviction of pirates as well as recovery of crew, cargo, or ships. It concludes with an analysis of the limited progress made by state and market stakeholders to improve antipiracy security in the vital shipping lanes of the South China Sea."

Naval War College (U.S.)

Rosenberg, David

2009-06
Sea Piracy in Southeast Asia: Implications for Countering Maritime Terrorism in the United States

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"Sea piracy has infested the seven seas throughout history. In modern times, the United States has paid little attention to piracy because the nation's isolated vastness has protected the shipping industry from maritime crime. But the events of 9/11 have changed the lens through which America views security. This thesis investigates modern day piracy and links between piracy and terrorism in order to determine implications for U.S. maritime security strategy. Specifically, the maritime environment in Southeast Asia and associated maritime security policies are researched because a sizable proportion of the world's sea piracy occurs in that region. U.S. maritime security policy is also evaluated."

Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.)

Geragotelis, John M.

2006-06
Ongoing Efforts to Combat Piracy on the High Seas: Hearing Before the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, May 5, 2009

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From the opening statement of Carl Levin, "Good morning, everybody. Today we have four witnesses before the committee to discuss the government's efforts to combat piracy on the high seas. We're delighted to have with us: Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Michele Flournoy; Director of Strategic Plans and Policy on the Joint Staff Admiral Sandy Winnefeld; Senior Advisor to the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Ambassador Steve Mull; and Acting Deputy Administrator of the Maritime Administration (MARAD) James Caponiti. The recent surge in piracy off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden has moved the issue of piracy on the high seas out of the history books and off the movie screens and onto the front pages of the world's newspapers. Piracy must be an urgent part of our National security dialogue. The April pirate attack on the U.S. flag ship Maersk Alabama a few weeks ago and the ensuing rescue operation of ship Captain Richard Phillips, orchestrated by our Nation's military, and particularly our Navy and Navy SEALs, underscores the value of the Armed Forces in confronting and stopping piracy." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Carl Levin, Michele A. Flournoy, James A. Winnefeld, Stephen D. Mull and James A. Caponiti.

United States. Government Printing Office

2009
International Piracy on the High Seas, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, February 4, 2009

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From the opening statement of Elijah E. Cummings: "Today we convene our first hearing in the 111th Congress to examine the causes of piracy at sea and its effects on global shipping. The term 'pirate' may conjure in many people's minds romantic images of swashbuckling adventurers. However, in reality, a 21st century pirate is frequently a desperately poor individual from an unstable or failing state roaming the ocean in a small skiff waiting to attack vulnerable cargo ships with a rocket-propelled grenade launcher. [...] Our hearing is intended to provide a comprehensive examination of piracy, including its prevalence, its current and potential impact on shipping, and the nature and effectiveness of the international efforts being implemented to combat it. [...] Further, as we will examine, while the first priority of the international forces active in the Horn of Africa's region is preventing or intervening in pirate attacks, the question of what to do with captured pirates is an important and complicated one, given the absence of the rule of law in Somalia and the complexity of international legal arrangements pertaining to crimes at sea." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: William D. Baumgartner, Ted Branch, James Caponiti, Peter Chalk, Phil M. Davies, Giles Noakes, Peter Swift, Elijah E. Cummings, John Linder, and Christopher Koch.

United States. Government Printing Office

2009
Piracy on the High Seas: Protecting Our Ships, Crews, and Passengers, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Surface Transportation and Merchant Marine Infrastructure, Safety, and Security of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, May 5, 2009

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From the opening statement of Frank R. Lautenberg: "Many of us thought that pirates were something from the past, found only in history books and movies. The pirates are back on the high seas. And on April 8th, the U.S.-flag ship MAERSK ALABAMA was transporting food to hungry people in Kenya when it was attacked by four Somali pirates. [...] But as the Nation focused on the ALABAMA incident, another attack on a U.S.-flag ship occurred. Only 5 days after the ALABAMA attack, Somali pirates again attacked a U.S.-flag ship, the LIBERTY SUN. [...] So, today, I hope the Navy can tell us how they can ensure safe passage in the future. In 2008, just last year, there were 111 pirate attacks off the Horn of Africa, almost double the number in 2007. And this year alone, there have already been 86 attacks. As a result of these attacks, nearly 300 non-U.S. crewmembers are being held prisoner by Somali pirates. Pirates are now attacking ships over more than 2 million square miles of ocean, more than half the size of the United States. In addition to the lives they threaten, these pirates threaten supplies for American troops who are serving abroad, humanitarian relief bound for East Africa, and commercial shipping across the world. [...] We need to take bold action to keep our seas and our ship crews safe. And I understand that the Coast Guard is in the process of updating their security policies for commercial ships in the program known as the MARSEC security directive. This is long overdue, and it needs to be completed. And the international community needs to have a strong, united front against these bandits of the sea. The International Maritime Organization has 168 member nations. They must all join together to prosecute and stop piracy in this region." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Frank R. Lautenberg, Tom Udall, John Thune, Philip J. Shapiro, Richard Phillips, Michael A. Perry, Roy Kienitz, Brian M. Salerno, Theresa Whelan, John D. Rockefeller IV, Daniel K. Inouye, American Maritime Officers, International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots, Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association and Seafarers International Union, and Olympia Snowe.

United States. Government Printing Office

2010
High Noon on the High Seas: A Proximity - Complexity Model of Maritime Piracy Threats

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"An apparent contradiction between rhetorical claims of piracy threats to international shipping and actual attack trends has established the need for a more structured approach to strategic risk assessment. This article provides new insight into risk assessment methodologies by integrating a structured, multi-dimensional approach to attack profiling within a more comprehensive Proximity--Complexity model. This model was empirically examined by conducting a comparative risk assessment in two regions widely cited as high risk, the Straits of Malacca in Asia and the coastal waters of Nigeria. Results indicate that the consideration of geographic proximity of attacks as a risk factor may need to be more carefully examined. Further, the authors suggest that counter-piracy strategies could benefit from a multi-stage risk assessment methodology that integrates both structured and geographic approaches within a more comprehensive analytic framework."

Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.). Center for Contemporary Conflict

McGinley, James E.; Berliner, Jonathan P.

2009-04
BTS Special Report: International Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea: Hindering Maritime Trade and Water Transportation around the World

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This report details the rate of piracy in the world, noting that while in some areas the piracy rate has drastically reduced or at least stabilized, it has exploded in East Africa over the last several years. The report also includes several maps showing the rates of piracy in the world since 1998 and the countries from which the piracy victims and vessels came.

United States. Bureau of Transportation Statistics

Chambers, Matthew

2010-04
International Piracy on the High Seas

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This document was prepared by the staff of the Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Staff of the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure. It provides background information on piracy, including international definitions, a historical overview, and modern piracy data. The report pays special attention to the Horn of Africa region, the methods used by Somali pirates, the international response to piracy, prosecution of pirates, and possible future of Somali piracy. It concludes with a brief overview of piracy in regions other than the Horn of Africa.

United States. Congress. House. Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure

2009-02-04
High Noon on the High Seas: 'A Proximity-Complexity Model of Maritime Piracy Threats'

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"This article addresses piracy threats to international shipping and attack trends as well as the need for a more structured approach to strategic risk assessment. It provides insight into risk assessment methodologies by integrating a structured, multi-dimensional approach to attack profiling within a more comprehensive Proximity--Complexity model."

Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.). Center for Contemporary Conflict

McGinley, James E.; Berliner, Jonathan P.

2009-04
Combating Piracy on the High Seas: Hearing Before the Full Committee of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, March 5, 2009

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From the opening statement of Ike Skelton: "If we had called such a hearing two years ago, many might have wondered why. Until recently, piracy seemed a thing in the past, part of the stories we tell our children or part of the history lessons about the Barbary pirates or Blackbeard. Recent events in the Gulf of Aden and off the coast of Somalia, however, make this very much a current and important issue for American national security. Piracy fits in the spectrum of low intensity conflict, with threats like terrorism and cyber warfare. These threats are all fed, in part, by globalization, which radicalizes significant numbers of people who feel alienated and disenfranchised and who seek to undermine the security and prosperity of those they hold responsible." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: John M. McHugh, William E. Gortney, Stephen Mull, Daniel W. Pike, Karl and Wycoff.

United States. Government Printing Office

2010
Piracy: A Legal Definition [December 13, 2010]

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"Pirate attacks in the waters off the Horn of Africa, including those on U.S.-flagged vessels, have brought continued U.S. and international attention to the long-standing problem of piracy in the region. The United States has been an active participant in piracy interdiction and prevention operations focusing on the Horn of Africa region. As part of anti-piracy operations, the U.S. military has detained individuals accused of acts of piracy against U.S.-flagged vessels. In some instances these individuals have been released, others have been transferred to Kenya for criminal prosecution in the Kenyan courts, and some have been brought to the United States for criminal prosecution in the federal courts. [...] The United States Navy, after thwarting two separate alleged acts of piracy, transferred suspected pirates to Norfolk, VA, for criminal trials in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of VA, on charges of piracy. One of the trials, United States v. Hasan, ended with the defendants found guilty on numerous charges, including piracy. The other case, United States v. Said, is on appeal based on a court ruling dismissing the charge of piracy. A common issue between the two cases, and yet the greatest distinction, is how the two trial courts interpreted the definition of piracy under 18 U.S.C. § 1651. The Said court stated that the act of piracy, as defined by the law of nations, requires a robbery on the high seas. Thus, it appears that absent an actual robbery at sea, individuals may not be found guilty of the act of piracy under 18 U.S.C. § 1651. [...] In Hasan, the trial court ruled that the act of piracy, as defined by the law of nations, is reflected by Article 110 of UNCLOS [Unites Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea] and thus does not require an actual robbery at sea to be convicted of piracy. The divergent U.S. district court rulings may create uncertainty in how the offense of piracy is defined. Congress may provide guidance to the courts by clarifying the definition of piracy under 18 U.S.C. § 1651. However, in the absence of legislative clarification, the courts may arrive at differing interpretations."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Mason, R. Chuck

2010-12-13
Piracy: A Legal Definition [October 19, 2010]

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"Pirate attacks in the waters off the Horn of Africa, including those on U.S.-flagged vessels, have brought continued U.S. and international attention to the long-standing problem of piracy in the region. The United States has been an active participant in piracy interdiction and prevention operations focusing on the Horn of Africa region. As part of piracy interdiction operations, the U.S. military has detained individuals accused of acts of piracy against U.S.-flagged vessels. In some instances these individuals have been released to return to land, while others have been brought to the United States for criminal prosecution in the federal courts. The U.S. Constitution gives Congress the power 'To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high seas, and Offenses against the Law of Nations.' Since 1819, U.S. law has defined piracy not as a specific act, but rather 'as defined by the law of nations.' Supreme Court decisions have upheld Congress's power to define piracy in terms of the law of nations. Contemporary international agreements, including the Convention on the High Seas, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (SUA Convention) address piracy. The United States is party to two of the agreements, and the third (UNCLOS) is generally accepted as reflecting customary international law."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Mason, R. Chuck

2010-10-19
Long War against Piracy: Historical Trends

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"This study surveys the experience of the United States, Great Britain, and other seafaring nations in addressing the problem of piracy at sea, then derives insights from that experience that may be relevant to the suppression of the current surge of piratical activity. Wombwell, a retired naval officer, traces the course of several outbreaks of piracy during the past 300 years in a variety of geographical areas. Although each case varies in its details, Wombwell concludes that enough similarities exist to permit several useful generalizations. Among these are the causes of piracy, the factors that permit the behavior to flourish, and the range of countermeasures that have been available to policymakers seeking to eradicate the problem. When conditions are favorable for piracy to develop, and no strong response is made by the forces of law and order, what began as low-level brigandage often grows to outrageous proportions, ultimately requiring significant military resources to suppress or eliminate the threat posed to legitimate commerce. [...] Although piracy has been a problem for several decades in other international sea lanes, the actions of the Somali pirates have focused world attention on the issue. This study is especially pertinent to the US Army because the historical record clearly indicates that piracy seldom, if ever, has been eradicated solely through naval operations alone. As Wombwell makes abundantly clear, only when nations have acted to remove piracy's enabling conditions ashore through military and/or political means has the scourge of piracy truly been eliminated. Moreover, in almost every case, because of the extensive resources needed to combat piracy, the nation taking the lead against the pirates was a dominant military power, either on a world or regional scale. Thus, as the author suggests, the land forces of the United States may at some point be called on to assist in making the waters off the Somali coast safe for international commerce once more."

Combat Studies Institute (U.S.)

Wombwell, James A., 1956-

2010-05
Somali Piracy: An Age-Old Solution to a Modern Day Problem

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From the thesis abstract: "The purpose of this monograph is to propose a solution to the problem of piracy off Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden. This report provides a historical background of piracy and more specifically, the history and the 'roots' of Somali piracy. Of most significance is the lawlessness and lack of governance in the failed state of Somalia. Piracy off the waters of Somalia and the Gulf of Aden has spiraled out of control. The U.S. Navy and the international community have been unable to eliminate piracy, let alone reduce the threat. Despite the increased resources dedicated to Somali piracy, the attacks continue to increase. Pirates simply adapt and change their tactics, attacking ships further and further out to sea, in areas where there is no naval presence. Almost unanimously, experts agree Somali piracy will not be eliminated until there is functional governance in Somalia. The same experts also agree that effective governance in Somalia is not likely to occur anytime in the near future. The solution to the counter-piracy effort is the development of a Somali-based maritime security force, in a sense, privateering. This incentive-based coastguard would be responsible for patrolling the waters off Somali to protect shipping vessels and to control illegal fishing. Laws outlawing ransom payments to pirates -which exacerbates piracy -must be passed. Leveraging neighboring African countries such as Kenya and Somaliland for capacity building and training must also be considered. Coordination of these efforts should be the responsibility of the AU. Ultimately, the goal is to develop an alternative source of income for the Somali population to deter them from engaging in piracy."

U.S. Army Command and General Staff College

Larson, Gregory R.

2010-05-19
Counter Piracy off Somalia; A Case for Applying the Comprehensive Approach Strategy

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From the thesis abstract: "Some argue for a robust military solution inside Somalia to counter the piracy problem while others maintain that the problem is not at all suited for employing military force. Many articles focus on the impact of piracy on the International Shipping. Only very few take a holistic view on the issue, and discuss 2.or 3.order consequences of piracy in the area as a whole. Counter Piracy Operations have been going on for some years but, so far, only military means have been employed by the international community to counter piracy in the region. No unified holistic strategy has been applied, even though there seems to be consensus that the root causes are found in Somalia itself. With a holistic focus on the piracy issue off the coast of Somalia, this paper will analyze the root causes of piracy, the actors to influence, the Push-Pull factors and balance of risk involved. The paper identifies that the international community has so far primarily addressed the Pull factors focusing on naval force, disrupting pirate camps and law enforcement while leaving the Push Factors ashore largely unaddressed. Looking towards Afghanistan, the paper suggests employing elements in NATO's [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] Comprehensive Approach in order to address all factors driving piracy, and recommends a design for how the Comprehensive Approach can be applied to the case of Somalia. The paper combines the current military efforts on Counter Piracy with a local civilian support to the Somali costal population primarily in Northeastern Somalia in a mutually supportive way From the Sea suggesting a naval PRT [Provincial Reconstruction Teams] construction supporting Ink Blots of engagements ashore. In contrast to Afghanistan, the suggested Comprehensive Approach is applied bottom up, because it is focused only to counter piracy leaving the strategic effort to restore governance in Somalia to another time horizon."

Naval War College (U.S.)

Termansen, Dan B.

2011-01-03
What is the Primary Etiology of Contemporary Somali Piracy and Can the Current U.S. Counter-Piracy Strategy Be Effective Without Addressing it?

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"In 1991, Somalia collapsed into civil war. A lack of governmental regulations and control of territorial waters ensued. Nations blatantly disregarded Somali sovereignty and encroached on its territorial waters and fishing rights. Somalis, who depended on the sea for their livelihood, viewed this encroachment helplessly. Small groups began to rob the more vulnerable foreign national vessels that stole their fish. Eventually, Somalis recognized that piracy for ransom was a way to make a living. Somewhere along the way, Somalis stopped conducting piracy for social reasons and began to conduct it for economic ones. Twenty years later, Somali piracy has become a multi-million dollar business with economic, political, strategic, and human costs than cannot be ignored. Various militaries, commercial organizations, and non-governmental entities have begun to focus on the problem of modern-day piracy. However, all have approached piracy at its conclusion; the attacks at sea. In fact, only one percent of all anti-piracy funds focus on its etiologies. Many believe piracy can be defeated without addressing the causes and drivers. However, to be successful, a holistic approach must first determine the true causes of contemporary piracy before we can propose solutions. [...] A thesis presented to the Faculty of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE."

U.S. Army Command and General Staff College

Crofoot, Tiko Stiles

2015
Old Glory and the Jolly Roger: The Cultural Constraints and Strategic Imperatives of Modern Piracy

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From the thesis abstract: "This thesis discusses piracy on the open seas. It describes acts of piracy, puts the practice into historical perspective, and shows how a recent surge in maritime piracy incidents differs from other maritime piracy afflicting the world's oceans at the turn of the twenty[-]first century. This is half of the reason for writing. The second purpose for is to examine the US military response to the dramatic increase in piracy near Somalia that occurred in 2008. The thesis examines the US response through the theoretical lenses of strategic culture and structural realism. These theories seldom appear alongside each other in security studies literature; their juxtaposition explains the US behavior toward the contemporary African piracy epidemic and provides a framework for examining other national security issues. This thesis concludes that although certain national security elites push US strategic culture toward interventionist or isolationist extremes, some world events elicit foregone responses best described by the ideas of structural realism. Tacit realization by national security actors that these events exist in spite of what elite groups profess or desire in turn defines strategic culture in a fundamentally different way. Given its place in the existing world order, the United States had little choice but to respond to piracy, even though its strategic preference was to ignore the problem. The valuable lesson from piracy represents in microcosm many problems of national strategy. If US cultural preference is again at odds with a strategic imperative to use force, and elites indulge the former, the nation may forfeit its structural role as the world's existing hegemon. This is historically significant, as ceding the role of hegemon at this time would be a voluntary act, not forced by a stronger nation or an altered balance of power. The United States would become the first superpower to lay down that mantle voluntarily. Although US foreign policy appears now to have reconciled strategic cultural preferences with structural imperatives in the case of piracy, strategists must recognize the potential for the same kind of tension in all international relations problems. If the tension between preference and imperatives goes unresolved, the outcome can diminish national power. The United States should not proceed down that path unawares."

Air University (U.S.). School of Advanced Air and Space Studies

Birch, Paul R.

2009-06
Strait of Malacca Formula: Success in Counter-Piracy and Its Applicability to the Gulf of Aden

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From the thesis abstract: "Piracy is increasing at an alarming rate in the Gulf of Aden and off the Somali coast. Piracy in the Strait of Malacca region once ran rampant, but has steadily declined since 2003. It seems useful to apply the counter-piracy tactics used in this region to the Gulf of Aden area to attempt a decline in pirate attacks. An attempt to apply the counter-piracy tactics used in the Malacca region to the Gulf of Aden region will fail. The Strait of Malacca littoral states all have well-functioning, established governments which give them the ability to apply the rest of their counter-piracy 'formula' of state-sponsored naval forces, regional intelligence sharing, surface surveillance radars, a court system and fighting the origins of piracy on land. The governments in the Gulf of Aden region are too preoccupied with political or economic strife to deal with counter-piracy. Until governmental stability is achieved, few counter-piracy tactics will prevail. Foreign forces have come to the aid of the region. These forces are enforcing the applications of the formula to compensate for the inability of the weaker governments to do so. This is the short-term solution until governmental stability is achieved in the region, giving the indigenous states the ability to police their own waters and enforce their own laws. Recommendations include U.N. Security Council Resolutions or agreements with littoral states to pursue pirates in their territorial waters or in the pirate havens ashore, and coordinated planning between USAFRICOM [United States Africa Command] and USCENTCOM [United States Central Command] for combining the land and sea counter-piracy tactics."

Naval War College (U.S.). Joint Military Operations Department

Jamiola, Donald R., Jr.

2009-10-23
Piracy and Its Impact on the Economy

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"This thesis attempts to shed light on the growing threat maritime piracy has on the economy along with possible solutions (military and diplomatic operations) the world can take to combat this threat. Maritime piracy has been around since the beginning of time. As the first sea going vessels entered the water, there were pirates attempting to pillage their goods. In the twenty first century, the country of Somalia has become the major hub of operations for maritime pirates. They operate mainly in the Gulf of Aden and the Horn of Africa (HOA). Maritime piracy will never be completely eradicated, but through diplomatic and military means the threat can be greatly reduced. The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) keeps detailed records of each attack in order to establish trends and assistance in eradicating the threat of maritime piracy. While the overall impact of piracy has yet to be determined, the fact remains that sea piracy, either directly or indirectly, affects citizens on an international level. Although this problem will likely never be completely eradicated, it is necessary, through means of collaborative diplomacy and military forces; to work together internationally in order to decrease the impact maritime piracy has on global society."

Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.)

Islam, Rami H.

2010-12
Piracy: The Best Business Model Available

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"The word pirate typically conjures visions of swashbuckling adventure on the high seas. For hundreds of years, pirates have fascinated the public consciousness in legend, literature, amusement park rides, and even blockbuster movies. While often romanticized in popular culture, the reality of maritime piracy paints a much starker picture. It is a criminal enterprise that negatively impacts the security of the global commons, economics of seaborne commerce, and lives of the people it touches firsthand. Whether directly or indirectly, piracy affects everyone and demands an international effort to stem its influence. In this monograph, Dr. John Alexander sets the stage with a brief historical account of how maritime piracy has evolved over the centuries to its current state: a vast enterprise whose increasing profitability has attracted a confluence of nefarious actors including warlords and international criminal organizations. Further, Dr. Alexander speculates on the potential for intersection between pirates and ideological terrorist movements such as al-Qaeda and Associated Movements. Such a future would significantly elevate the stakes in a U.S. whole-of-government counter-piracy response. What role should the U.S. military, and Special Operations Forces (SOF) in particular, play in addressing the global issue of maritime piracy? Dr. Alexander points out many of the thorny legal considerations that contextually color any efforts to address counter-piracy. SOF have certainly been utilized to positive effect when the pirate enterprise has acted and taken American hostages. However, a course of action with more fundamental results should include supporting actions within those nations from which pirates find safe haven, a strategy with which SOF are exceedingly familiar. In the end, the best solution to criminal acts occurring hundreds of miles at sea may in fact lie with efforts, including the use of SOF, to improve the security apparatus on shore."

Joint Special Operations University (U.S.)

Alexander, John B.

2013-11
Fresh Thinking for an Old Problem: Report of the Naval War College Workshop on Countering Maritime Piracy

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"The International Law Department of the Center for Naval Warfare Studies at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, conducted a counter-piracy workshop on 7 and 8 April 2009. Comprising [of] fifty legal and policy experts from across the globe, the workshop captured a number of findings and vetted recommendations for continuing the effort against maritime piracy. The participants "took away" four major findings. First, it was apparent to them that piracy in the Horn of Africa has emerged from a complex political, economic, and cultural milieu. No single response will solve the problem. Second, regional capacity building and collective maritime action will be required to contend with the challenge of piracy so long as pirates enjoy sustained sanctuary in Somalia. Proposals to stop piracy by "fixing" Somalia, however, beg the question of how to go about the task, as it is doubtful that the international community has the capability or will to transform Somalia quickly into a stable and viable state. Third, the participants were convinced that only the major maritime powers have the skill and resources to help the regional states expand coastal and littoral maritime-security capability rapidly. Security assistance to the regional states, including training and provision of patrol craft, can shift responsibility for counter-piracy to the states of the neighborhood. Eventually, these states should acquire and operate offshore patrol vessels, even corvettes. Shifting responsibility for maintaining rule of law at sea to the regional powers, the workshop felt, benefits everyone. Finally, the civil shipping industry should take a greater role in protecting merchant vessels, including integrating passive design measures that make it more difficult for pirates to board a ship. In some cases, this means that provision of private armed security may be appropriate. The workshop was designed to take a fresh look at the threat of maritime piracy off the Horn of Africa, assess the tremendous progress in international law and diplomacy that has transpired to address the problem, and consider the way forward."

Naval War College (U.S.)

Kraska, James

2009-09
China's Role in Counter-Piracy Operations

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From the thesis abstract: "Piracy threatens commercial shipping passing through major choke points and sea lines of communication in regions such as the Gulf of Aden (GOA) and Southeast Asia. Piracy has become a larger security issue in the international community as the number of attacks has increased and ransoms have escalated. Countries such as China have become more involved in counter-piracy operations; however, China has neither joined the Combined Maritime Forces task force in the GOA to combat piracy nor been completely transparent about its maritime strategy in either region. There are varying theories about what is motivating China's behavior. Why is China involved in counter-piracy operations?: This thesis will attempt to answer the question, by comparing and contrasting China's behavior in these two regions. Three possible explanations will be analyzed in an attempt to answer the research question. Is China trying to meet the challenges of its rivals and establish a geopolitical position, safeguard its economic interests, or cooperate within the international community as a good global citizen? The research reveals that there is some truth to all three explanations that help to explain China's involvement with counter-piracy operations. Therefore, counter-piracy is a concern but more so a stepping-stone for a much larger maritime strategy."

Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.)

Patterson, Ann K.

2015-06
Piracy in the Horn of Africa: The Role of Somalia's Fishermen

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"Despite a strong naval presence, piracy off the Horn of Africa (HOA) has been rising at the impressive annual rate of about 100 percent since 2006. Repression at sea does not seem to be working, and it is critical to identify the root cause(s) of piracy before additional counter-measures can be applied with any measurable success. The rise in piracy off the HOA is blamed by some on the disenfranchisement of Somali fishermen. This paper investigates trends in Somalia's artisanal fisheries over five decades, and finds that the rise in piracy off the HOA is not a direct consequence of a decline in Somali fisheries. Somalia is unique in many ways, and a number of factors there combine to enable piracy to rise in ways unparalleled anywhere else in the world, or at any other time in history. Some alternative counter-piracy options can be explored, even in the continued absence of a strong central Somali government."

Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.)

Sone, Emmanuel N.

2010-12
Countering Piracy Off the Horn of Africa: Partnership & Action Plan [December 2008]

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"This Plan implements the National Strategy for Maritime Security (September 2005) and the Policy for the Repression of Piracy and other Criminal Acts of Violence at Sea (June 2007) as applied to piracy off the Horn of Africa. The Strategy affirms the vital national interest of the United States in maritime security, and recognizes that nations have a common interest in achieving two complementary objectives: to facilitate the vibrant maritime commerce that underpins economic security, and to protect against ocean-related criminal and dangerous acts, including piracy. Our Policy provides that we shall '[c]ontinue to lead and support international efforts to repress piracy . . . and urge other states to take decisive action both individually and through international efforts.' Accordingly, this Plan seeks to involve all nations, international organizations, industry, and other entities that have an interest in maritime security to take steps to repress piracy off the Horn of Africa. This Plan's objective is to repress piracy off the Horn of Africa in the interest of the global economy, freedom of navigation, Somalia, and the regional states. Accordingly, this Plan focuses on immediate operational measures to prevent, disrupt, and punish acts of Somali pirate organizations. We intend this Plan to respond to the growing threat and to be mutually supportive of longer-term initiatives aimed at establishing governance, rule of law, security, and economic development in Somalia."

National Security Council (U.S.)

2008-12
Somalia: Piracy Analysis and Warning Weekly (PAWW) Report (Horn of Africa) for May 19 - 25, 2011

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"The Piracy Analysis and Warning Weekly (PAWW) Report is a review of recent Somali piracy incidents and an outlook on threats around the Horn of Africa. […] Somali piracy incidents continue to occur at moderate levels. There were three piracy incidents in this one-week period: three attacks. Incidents took place in the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea."

United States. Office of Naval Intelligence

2011-05-26
USAFRICOM's Role in Counter-Piracy Operations Within the Horn of Africa

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From the thesis abstract: "Maritime piracy in the Horn of Africa has increased significantly over the last several years and continues to plague the surrounding waterways despite an increase in the presence of U.S. and Coalition naval forces, and an increase in overall international awareness of the threats to maritime security. Piracy not only threatens security within territorial waters, it threatens the maritime trade vessels transiting through the waters linking the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Piracy is a criminal act enabled by the 'sanctuary' provided by the conditions on land and current strategies are not targeting the root causes contributing to piracy within the Horn of Africa. In order to solve the threat of piracy within the Horn of Africa, USAFRICOM [United States Africa Command] must take a more proactive role by promoting and encouraging the development of a regionally sourced, multinational coast guard and bolstering theater security cooperation efforts ashore."

Naval War College (U.S.)

Sampson, Dennis W.

2009-05-04
Why the U.S. Navy Should Not Be Fighting Piracy Off Somalia

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From the thesis abstract: "Piracy off the coast of Somalia has surged at an unprecedented rate over the past year, causing dozens of nations to send warships to the region in an effort to secure a strategic maritime chokepoint through which 23,000 commercial vessels transit each year. The U.S. Navy is heavily invested in the area, leading a multinational, counter-piracy naval coalition organized as Combined Task Force 151 (CTF-151). However, in its current form, Somali piracy poses no legitimate threat to the national security of the United States and does not warrant the application of U.S. Navy operational assets toward its suppression. Through an analysis of the operational factors of space, time, and force, this paper will illustrate why the sea-based counter-piracy approach of CTF-151 will not succeed. It will also highlight strategic, legal, and economic reasons why the U.S. Navy should not be involved. It will discuss how a connection between Somali piracy and international terrorism would fundamentally change the equation, but that no such connection currently exists. Finally, the paper will offer the regional Geographic Combatant Commanders (GCCs) possible alternative courses of action, including an alternative operational scheme for CTF-151, worthy of consideration in formulating a long-term solution to the problem."

Naval War College (U.S.). Joint Military Operations Department

Zogg, Dennis M.

2009-05-04
Taming the Outlaw Sea

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"The goods of the world move predominantly by sea. Across that broad global commons, trade generally flows freely and well. Yet there are places today where the term 'outlaw sea' applies. Piracy, sadly, flourishes in several key choke point regions of the world's sea-lanes of communications. We must tame this outlaw sea. […] In other words, Somali pirates are armed opportunists who stem from a permissive and enabling environment formed by a weak state and who engage in a business enterprise subject to risk-and-reward calculations that can be influenced by the international community. The international community, including various governmental and nongovernmental organizations, as well as private enterprises, has an opportunity now to work together and exert the necessary influence both at sea and ashore to shift the calculus of piracy from profitable enterprise to futile folly. The United Nations, the European Union (EU), the African Union, the Arab League, and NATO are collaborating to influence the risk-and-reward analysis of Somali pirates. A wide range of countries--including Australia, China, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Russia, Singapore, Somalia, South Korea, and Ukraine--are cooperating to broadly address the issue as well."

Naval War College (U.S.). Press

Stavridis, James; LeBron, Richard E.

2010
Modern Day Response to Piracy in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

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"This paper examines the complex problems and issues regarding piracy attacks on merchant ships within the area of responsibility for the United States Pacific Command (CINCPAC). Piracy attacks against merchant ships of all flags, including U.S., continue worldwide at an alarming rate with minimal governmental response. The Straits of Malacca and Singapore, Phillips Channel (between Indonesia and Singapore) and the South China Sea have the dubious distinction as the most active piracy waters and will be featured in this paper. Piracy is a national security concern to the United States as it impacts the national military and security strategy."

Naval War College (U.S.)

Tokarski, Kevin M.

1993-06-18

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