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• Iraq: Recent Developments in Reconstruction Assistance [Updated October 14, 2004]

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  "Large-scale reconstruction assistance programs are being undertaken by the United States following the war with Iraq. To fund such programs, Congress approved on April 12, 2003, a $2.48 billion Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund in the FY2003 Supplemental Appropriation. On November 6, 2003, the President signed into law P.L. 108-106, the FY2004 Emergency Supplemental Appropriation, providing $18.4 billion for Iraq reconstruction. Contributions pledged at the October 24, 2003, Madrid donor conference by other donors amounted to roughly $3.6 billion in grant aid and as much as $13.3 billion in possible loans. Many reconstruction efforts on the ground are underway, but security concerns have slowed progress considerably. Most reconstruction funding is targeted at infrastructure projects - roads, sanitation, electric power, oil production, etc. Aid is also used to train and equip Iraqi security forces. A range of programs are in place to offer expert advice to the Iraqi government, establish business centers, rehabilitate schools and health clinics, provide school books and vaccinations, etc. However, of the $18. 4 billion appropriated by Congress in October 2003, only $7.9 billion had been obligated and $1.5 billion spent by mid-October 2004. Congress approved on September 29 an Administration-proposed re-allocation of $3.5 billion in previously appropriated reconstruction funds to give greater emphasis to security, employment generation, and debt relief. The report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tarnoff, Curt

  2004-10-14
• Export Administration Act: Controversy and Prospects [Updated January 2, 2003]

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  "The 108th Congress again is expected to consider legislation to rewrite or to reauthorize the Export Administration Act (EAA). In the 107th Congress, the Export Administration Act of 2001 (S. 149) was introduced on January 23, 2001. The Senate passed S. 149 on September 6, 2001 by a vote of 85-14. A companion version in the House, H.R. 2581, was introduced by Rep. Gilman on July 20, 2001. The House International Relations Committee reported the measure with 35 amendments on August 1. The House Armed Services Committee further amended H.R. 2581 and reported out the bill on March 6, 2002. The difficulty in passing a comprehensive rewrite of the EAA has resulted, in part, from the continuing tension between national security and commercial concerns. Industry groups, proponents of heightened export controls, the Administration, and Congress have all participated in the reauthorization debate."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.

  2003-01-02
• International Law and the Preemptive Use of Force Against Iraq [Updated April 11, 2003]

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  "On March 19, 2003, the United States, aided by Great Britain and Australia, initiated a military invasion of Iraq. Both the U.S. and Great Britain contended that they had sufficient legal authority to use force against Iraq pursuant to Security Council resolutions adopted in 1990 and 1991. But President Bush also contended that, given the 'nature and type of threat posed by Iraq,' the U.S. had a legal right to use force 'in the exercise of its inherent right of self defense, recognized in Article 51 of the UN Charter.' Given that the U.S. had not previously been attacked by Iraq, that contention raised questions about the permissible scope of the preemptive use of force under international law. This report examines that issue as it has developed in customary international law and under the United Nations Charter. It will be updated as events warrant. (For historical information on the preemptive use of force by the U.S., see CRS Report RS21311, 'U.S. Use of Preemptive Military Force'.)"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ackerman, David M.

  2003-04-11
• House Select Committee on Homeland Security: A Fact Sheet [Updated October 4, 2004]

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  "On January 7, 2003, the House created a Select Committee on Homeland Security. The panel is granted legislative and oversight jurisdiction over the newly created Department of Homeland Security. It is also mandated to study House rules, including Rule X, as they apply to homeland security matters and recommend changes to the House Rules Committee no later than September 30, 2004. The Homeland Security Committee's report was released and sent to the Rules Committee on September 30, 2004. For options on committee organization, see CRS Report RS21360, 'Department of Homeland Security: Options for House and Senate Committee Organization' and CRS Report RS21643, 'House Committee System: Jurisdiction and Referral Reform Options'. This fact sheet will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schneider, Judy

  2004-10-04
• Northern Ireland: Implementation of The Peace Agreement During the 106th Congress [Updated January 5, 2001]

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  From the Abstract: "This report provides background information on the implementation of the April 1998 peace agreement for Northern Ireland. It reviews the provisions of the agreement, how those provisions have been put into place, and what obstacles have faced implementation as of December 2000. The analysis then turns to related issues of particular interest to U.S. policymakers, such as police reform, the International Fund for Ireland, and fair employment. Finally, legislation in the 106th Congress relating to Northern Ireland is listed. This report will not be updated. See also CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report 98-542, 'Northern Ireland: The Talks Process as Prelude to the April 1998 Peace Agreement.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Donfried, Karen

  2001-01-05
• Research and Development in Russia: An Important Factor for the Future [August 24, 1998]

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  From the Abstract: "The Russian government reduced its research and development (R&D) funding by about 76% in real dollars from 1990 to 1996 as part of the restructuring and downsizing of Russia's R&D system and its reorientation toward civilian research and development following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The report assesses a number of recent changes in the Russian R&D system, including the large funding and personnel decreases, the evolving structure of a new Russian R&D system, and Russian R&D priorities under the new system. The report identifies issues for Congress, including whether U.S. cooperative R&D programs, recently established to assist Russia's peaceful transition to a market economy, are contributing to that goal and whether such programs should be continued in light of Russia's uncertain future and possible U.S. national security concerns. This report will be updated as circumstances warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Boesman, William C.

  1998-08-24
• Russian Capital Flight, Economic Reforms, and U.S. Interests: An Analysis [Updated March 10, 2000]

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  From the Abstract: "Russian capital flight is a longstanding problem with negative effects on the partially reformed Russian economy. Recent reports of Russian money laundering and other financial scandals involving the Russian Central Bank, the Bank of New York, other commercial banks, and even former President Yeltsin's household involve forms of capital flight and have drawn greater attention to the problem. They have been the subjects of Congressional hearings and have focused the attention of Members of Congress and others on U.S. interests in Russia and the effectiveness of U.S. policies. Recent legislation has been proposed as a result of concern over these scandals and Russian capital flight. This report will be updated as events warrant. For additional information see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief, Russia: Issue Brief, IB92089."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hardt, John P.; Cooper, William H., 1949-

  2000-03-10
• US-Japan Economic Ties: Status and Outlook [Updated May 29, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "In the few years, U.S.-Japan bilateral economic ties had become less tense, although issues over imports of steel from Japan, high Japanese tariffs on rice, and market access in Japan for insurance, glass, and photo film, have caused friction to increase recently. Moreover, differences have arisen over how Japan should deal with its current economic problems that have led to anemic or even negative economic growth since 1991. The United States and Japan work together in multilateral fora, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, a fledgling regional organization. There is a long history of congressional interest in Japan because of Japan's role as a world economic power and an important U.S. ally. Members are concerned about how trade and investment with Japan affects the United States as a whole and their constituencies in particular. These U.S.-Japan ties are frequently the subject of congressional committee oversight hearings."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cooper, William H., 1949-

  2002-05-29
• Colombia: The Uribe Administration and Congressional Concerns [June 14, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "On August 7, 2002, President-elect, Alvaro Uribe Velez, age 49, is scheduled to take office amid an intensifying conflict. Uribe's election has been widely attributed to his law-and-order campaign promises to pursue the guerrillas vigorously by increasing Colombia's military budget, doubling the size of the military to 100,000, and creating a one-million man civilian militia to aid the Colombian military, as well as to the worsening security situation in Colombia. Nevertheless, Uribe's campaign slogan, 'Firm Hand, Big Heart,' also reflected the social concerns that have marked his 20-plus year career in local, regional, and national government. In the United States, the election of a president with a reputation as a 'hardliner' poses new questions for Members of the Congress, especially as Congress considers whether to broaden the scope of U.S. aid to Colombia to provide funding for actions against Colombia's leftist guerrilla and rightist paramilitary forces."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Serafino, Nina M.

  2002-06-14
• Taiwan Security Enhancement Act and Underlying Issues in U.S. Policy [Updated March 1, 2000]

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  From the Summary: "Taiwan has become an increasingly controversial issue in U.S.-China relations, and has attracted more attention from Congress. Some Members believe that China poses more of a threat now to Taiwan than in the past, while they see Taiwan's ability to defend itself as having eroded over time. Questions have also been raised about U.S. policy toward Taiwan, and particularly about the consistency and credibility of U.S. defense commitments as spelled out in P.L. 96-8, the Taiwan Relations Act. In response to these growing concerns, Members of the 106th Congress have introduced the Taiwan Security Enhancement Act (S. 693, H.R. 1838), legislation to enhance U.S.-Taiwan military communication and cooperation, and strengthen Taiwan's security. The Administration says it shares the desire to bolster Taiwan, but sees the legislation as unnecessarily provocative and potentially harmful to US. security interests. This report reviews what the legislation does, discusses its political implications and its status, and assesses how the measure compares with current U.S. policy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2000-03-01
• Organization and Mission of the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate: Issues During the 109th Congress [January 11, 2005]

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  "The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296) vests in the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate (EPR) of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) authority to coordinate specified federal emergency management activities. The law consolidated many, but not all, federal emergency authorities and resources into EPR. This report briefly describes the entities that constitute EPR and identifies issues that may come before the 109th Congress. This report will be updated as significant events implementing the legislation occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bea, Keith

  2005-01-11
• U.S. Clothing Imports from Vietnam: Trade Policies and Performance [November 27, 2007]

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  From the Introduction: "In the relatively short period of time since the United States resumed 'normal trade relations'(NTR) with Vietnam in 2001, there have been several controversies regarding the importation of clothing from Vietnam into the United States. The controversies surrounding U.S. clothing imports from Vietnam include allegations of dumping, illegal transshipments, violations of the World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements, and a controversial import monitoring program. In addition, U.S. trade policy governing the import of Vietnamese clothing has changed course several times, leading to claims of significant market disruption and regulatory uncertainty. These claims are bolstered by the volatility of U.S. import data for Vietnamese clothing over the last seven years. […] Much of the recent contention about Vietnamese clothing exports to the United States has focused on the U.S. Department of Commerce's (DOC) implementation of an 'import monitoring program' for selected categories of Vietnamese clothing on the day Vietnam joined the WTO -- January 11, 2007. The announced import monitoring program began on the same day Vietnam joined the WTO and is to expire with the end of the Bush Administration on January 19, 2008. Under the program, the DOC will collect monthly data on the quantity and unit values of five categories of clothing imported from Vietnam -- shirts, sweaters, swimwear, trousers, and underwear -- to determine if there is sufficient evidence to warrant the self-initiation of an anti-dumping investigation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Martin, Michael F.

  2007-11-27
• International Food Aid and the 2007 Farm Bill [Updated October 31, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Legislative authority for international food aid programs in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. [Public Law] 107-171) expires in 2007. The 110th Congress has been considering the extension and reauthorization of food aid programs as part of the 2007 farm bill. On October 25, 2007, the Senate Agriculture Committee approved its version of the 2007 farm bill, which included reauthorization of food aid programs in Title III, the trade title. The House passed its version of the 2007 farm bill (H.R. 2419) with its version of the trade title on July 27, 2007. International food aid is the United States' major response to reducing global hunger. In 2006, the United States provided $2.1 billion of such assistance, which paid for the delivery and distribution of more than 3 million metric tons of U.S. agricultural commodities. The United States provided food aid to 65 countries in 2006, more than half of them in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of the food aid -- $1.2 billion or 57% -- was provided as emergency food aid. About one-third is used in non-emergency or development projects carried out by U.S. private voluntary organizations (PVOs) and cooperatives. […] The Administration and two groups of PVOs/cooperatives that carry out food aid programs have made recommendations for legislative changes in farm bill authorized food aid programs. The Administration's only food aid proposal -- to make P.L. 480 funds available for local or regional purchase to meet emergency food needs -- was not included in the House-passed farm bill. The Senate bill, however, does authorize the use of P.L. 480 funds for a pilot program for local or regional purchase of emergency food aid commodities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hanrahan, Charles

  2007-10-31
• Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Programs: Issues for Congress [Updated November 17, 2003]

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  From the Abstract: "Congress established the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program (CTR) in 1991 so that the United States could assist the former Soviet republics with the safe and secure transportation, storage, and elimination of nuclear weapons. The CTR program seeks to reduce the threat these weapons pose to the United States and to reduce the proliferation risks from nuclear weapons and materials in the former Soviet Union. Congress has authorized and appropriated around $300-$400 million each year for CTR. Most in Congress support the core objectives of the CTR program, but some have questioned whether all of the proposed and ongoing projects contribute to U.S. national security. Some have also questioned Russia's commitment, both political and financial to the some of the projects. This report reviews many of the concerns that have been raised in Congress during debates over CTR. It also provides a summary of the funding for different CTR projects. It will be updated at least once each year."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woolf, Amy F.

  2003-11-17
• Defense Outsourcing: The OMB Circular A-76 Policy [Updated December 10, 2004]

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  From the Summary: "This report provides information on the Office of Management and Budget's (OMB) Circular A-76, "Performance of Commercial Activities," and the impact of a related reform initiative, the Federal Activities Inventory Reform Act (FAIR) of 1998, within the Department of Defense (DOD). The Circular defines federal policy for determining whether recurring commercial activities should be transferred to performance by the private sector, or performed by federal government employees. The FAIR Act creates statutory reporting requirements for federal executive agencies, by requiring federal executive agencies to identify activities both 'inherently governmental' and those not inherently governmental, and to conduct managed competitions to determine who is best to perform the service. Competitive sourcing, through managed competitions, was a major initiative identified by the first Bush Administration's Presidential Management Agenda, and one of five government-wide initiatives to improve the management and performance of the federal government. It is likely that competitive sourcing will continue to serve as a major initiative in the second Bush Administration."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grasso, Valerie Bailey

  2004-12-10
• Current Palestinian Uprising: Al-Aqsa Intifadah [Updated January 5, 2001]

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  From the Summary: "The relative calm that prevailed in the West Bank and Gaza Strip after the Palestinian Central Council (PCC) decided to delay the declaration of Palestinian statehood on September 10, 2000, evidently masked a deep-seated frustration that many Palestinians felt toward the peace process. This frustration erupted after Likud party head Ariel Sharon led a tour of al-Haram ash-Sharif/Temple Mount on September 28, 2000, which Palestinians and many observers viewed as provocative. The ensuing protests sparked massive clashes involving Palestinian civilians, the Fatah Tanzeem, the Palestinian Authority (PA) police force, Israeli civilians (both Jewish and Arab), and the Israeli police and army. In turn, these clashes have created widespread disillusionment and outrage within the Israeli and Palestinian communities regarding the other's commitment to the peace process. As of January 10, 2001, 362 people were killed in these clashes, 306 of whom were Palestinians, 43 of whom were Israeli Jews, and 13 of whom were Israeli Arabs. The violence has also spread to Israel's border with Lebanon, triggering fear of a wider conflagration with Lebanon and Syria. Taking advantage of the chaos caused by demonstrations and clashes, Hizballah-a leading Lebanese Shi'ite organization-in a well-planned attack, captured three Israeli soldiers in the disputed Sheba'a Farms region. Hizballah has announced that it wants to exchange the soldiers for Lebanese and other Arab political prisoners currently held in Israeli jails. At this point, it appears that Hizballah is uninterested in opening up a full-fledged second front with Israel. Beyond Lebanon, the uprising has had significant implications, and has drawn widespread Arab and Islamic support for the Palestinian position. Members of 106th Congress responded to the al-Aqsa Intifadah by introducing bills that supported Israel's actions, encouraged the U.S. Administration to oppose any anti-Israel resolutions in the United Nations, called upon Palestinians to negotiate a resolution, and proposed cutting foreign assistance to the Palestinians if they did not stop the uprising."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.; Katzman, Kenneth; Ruebner, Joshua

  2001-01-05
• Vietnam-U.S. Bilateral Trade Agreement [Updated January 16, 2001]

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  From the Summary: "On July 13, 2000, U.S. and Vietnamese negotiators signed a sweeping bilateral trade agreement (BTA). Under the deal, which requires Congressional approval, the U.S. will extend temporary most-favored nation (MFN, also known as normal trade relations [NTR] status) status to Vietnam, a step that would significantly reduce U.S. tariffs on most imports from Vietnam. The World Bank has estimated that Vietnam's exports to the U.S. would rise to $1.3 billion - more than double 1999 levels - in the first year of MFN status, as U.S. tariff rates on Vietnamese exports would fall from their non-MFN average of 40% to less than 3%. In particular, Vietnamese garment exports are expected to record a tenfold increase in the first year after receiving MFN treatment. This report outlines the terms of the BTA, identifies U.S. and Vietnamese motivations for entering into the deal, analyzes the reasons for Vietnam's delay in signing the agreement, and explains Congress' role in the process of restoring normal trade relations treatment to Vietnam. This report will be updated periodically. Further information on U.S.-Vietnam relations is available in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB98033, 'Vietnam-U.S. Relations.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Manyin, Mark E.

  2001-01-16
• Smallpox: Technical Background on the Disease and Its Potential Role in Terrorism [Updated January 10, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "Smallpox, which kills approximately 30% of its victims, is estimated to have killed between 300 and 500 million people in the twentieth century before the World Health Organization's successful eradication program. The smallpox vaccine is effective at preventing smallpox but has a higher complication rate than any other currently used vaccine. The terrorist attacks of 2001 have increased fears that smallpox might be used as a weapon of terror. Smallpox has several properties that might make it desirable by terrorists, such as contagiousness and high lethality. These factors and its limited availability also make it difficult for a terrorist to use. Most experts agree that it is very unlikely that smallpox will be used as a weapon, but the high consequences of a successful attack have prompted exploration of methods to counter this threat. Also see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31694 'Smallpox Vaccine Stockpile and Vaccination Policy' and CRS Report RL31368, 'Preventing Proliferation of Biological Weapons: U.S. Assistance to the Former Soviet States.' This report will be updated as warranted."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gottron, Frank

  2003-01-10
• Cruise Missile Inventories and NATO Attacks on Yugoslavia: Background Information [April 20, 1999]

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  From the Summary: "Press reports suggest that, as of mid-April, there were less than 100 Conventional Air-Launched Cruise Missiles (CALCMs) and between 1,000 and 1,100 Block III Tomahawk land-attack cruise missiles (TLAMs) remaining in the U.S. military inventory. No additional CALCMs will likely enter inventory for at least several months, and only small numbers of additional TLAMs are scheduled for delivery in coming months. Depending on the circumstances, other kinds of weapons can be substituted for CALCMs and TLAMs, but in some cases, particularly for carrying out precision attacks on heavily defended targets in bad weather, CALCMs or TLAMs may be the most (or only) appropriate weapons. This report is intended primarily for Members and staffers who are following Operation Allied Force or who track procurement of Air Force or Navy weapons, particularly cruise missiles. It will be updated as events warrant. The overall status of NATO military operations in and around Yugoslavia is covered in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB10027, 'Kosovo: U.S. and Allied Military Operations.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  1999-04-20
• Crusader XM2001 Self-Propelled Howitzer: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated June 25, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "The Army has been seeking to enhance its self-propelled 155mm artillery capabilities since the late 1970's. In addition to several programs to modify the M109 artillery system, culminating in the current M109A6 Paladin, since 1987 these efforts have focused on what is now called the XM2001 Crusader. Initially begun in order to match the mobility and firepower of Soviet artillery, the Crusader program is now the center of a controversy over whether it is an appropriate investment given the Army's on-going transformation to a lighter, more mobile force. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld has announced his intent to terminate the program, however the Crusader's supporters in the House and Senate Armed Services Committees are seeking legislative provisions to maintain the program until at least May 2003 while an assessment of alternatives is conducted. This report will be updated as further events occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bruner, Edward F.; Bowman, Steve

  2002-06-25
• Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance [Updated December 22, 2004]

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  "Operation Iraqi Freedom accomplished a long-standing U.S. objective, the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, but replacing his regime with a stable, moderate, democratic political structure has run into significant difficulty. That outcome would contribute to preventing Iraq from becoming a sanctuary for terrorists, a key recommendation of the 9/11 Commission report (Chapter 12, Section 2). During the1990s, U.S. efforts to covertly change the regime failed because of limited U.S. commitment, disorganization of the Iraqi opposition, and the vigilance of Iraq's several overlapping security services. Previous U.S. Administrations had ruled out a U.S. military invasion to change the regime, believing such action would be risky and that Iraq did not necessarily pose a level of threat that would justify doing so. President George W. Bush characterized Iraq as a grave potential threat to the United States because of its refusal to abandon its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs and its potential to transfer WMD to terrorist groups. After a November 2002-March 2003 round of U.N. WMD inspections in which Iraq's cooperation was mixed, on March 19, 2003, the United States launched Operation Iraqi Freedom to disarm Iraq and change its regime. The regime fell on April 9, 2003. Although acknowledging that the insurgency is adversely affecting U.S. policy, the Bush Administration asserts that U.S. policy in Iraq will ultimately succeed as U.S., NATO, and other trainers build Iraq's various security bodies. Some believe the United States should add significant numbers of troops to the current level of about 150,000, plus about 26,000 foreign military personnel. Others believe the United States needs to take new steps to recruit major international force contributors, and yet some others believe that the United States should end its presence in Iraq."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2004-12-22
• Intelligence Community Reorganization: Potential Effects on DOD Intelligence Agencies [Updated December 21, 2004]

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  "Some Members of Congress and independent commissions, most recently the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, the 9/11 Commission, have argued that a lack of coordination among intelligence agencies contributed to the failure to provide warning of the terrorist attacks of September 2001. In response, in December 2004 Congress passed intelligence reform legislation (P.L. 108-458) that modifies the existing organization of the Intelligence Community and establishes more centralized leadership under a newly created Director of National Intelligence (DNI). As the legislation was being debated in the fall of 2004, attention focused on the extent of the budgetary and administrative authorities to be assigned to the DNI. Significant concerns were expressed by DOD officials, some Members of Congress, and various outside observers that providing the DNI with greater authority and control of intelligence agencies in DOD could jeopardize the increasingly close relationship between these agencies and the operating military forces. The conference committee on intelligence reform legislation (S. 2845) addressed these concerns with language that gave the DNI substantial authorities over intelligence budgets, but not operational control over their activities. The final version of the legislation also provided that the details of budgetary authorities to be exercised by the DNI and other cabinet officers be worked out in accordance with guidelines to be issued by the President after the DNI is appointed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2004-12-21
• Visa Waiver Program [Updated October 18, 2004]

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  From the Summary: "The USA PATRIOT Act enacted a requirement that by October 1, 2003, all aliens applying for admission under the VWP [visa waiver program] must have machine-readable passports; however, the act allows the Secretary of State to waive the requirement until September 30, 2007, and the requirement was waived for 22 of the 27 countries participating in the VWP. In addition, the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Reform Act of 2002 requires that by October 26, 2004, all countries participating in the VWP must issue their nationals machine-readable passports that incorporate 'biometric identifiers'; however, the deadline was extended until October 26, 2004 by P.L. [Public Law] 108-299. Notably, 'The 9/11 Commission Report' recommends that DHS complete as quickly as possible a biometric entry-exit screening system. S. 2845 as passed by the Senate, would require that each VWP country, as a condition of being in the VWP, have a program to issue tamper-resident, machine-readable visa documents that incorporate biometric identifiers which are compatible with the biometric identifiers used in the US-VISIT [ United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology] program. There is no comparable provision in the House-passed version of S. 2845. Additional legislation, H.R. 4550, would require those entering under the VWP to undergo an electronic verification of admissibility before embarkation. Other bills would suspend the VWP (H.R. 2235, H.R. 3522, and H.R. 3534). H.R. 3956/S. 2844 would add Poland to the program. This report will be updated if legislative action occurs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Siskin, Alison

  2004-10-18
• Secret Sessions of Congress: A Brief Historical Overview [Updated October 21, 2004]

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  "'Secret' or 'closed door' sessions of the House of Representatives and Senate are held periodically to discuss business, including impeachment deliberations, deemed to require confidentiality and secrecy. Authority for the two chambers to hold these sessions is implied by Article I, Section 5, of the Constitution. Both the House and the Senate have supplemented this clause through rules and precedents. While secret sessions were common in Congress's early years, they have been less frequent in the twentieth century. National security is the principal reason for such sessions in recent years. Members and staff who attend these meetings are prohibited from divulging information. Violations are punishable by each chamber's disciplinary rules. Members may be expelled and staff fired for violations of the rules of secrecy. Transcripts from secret sessions are not published unless the relevant chamber votes, during the session, or at a later time, to release them. The portions released then may be printed in the Congressional Record. This report will be revised when either house holds another secret session or amends its rules for these meetings."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Amer, Mildred L. (Mildred Lehmann)

  2004-10-21
• Internet: An Overview of Key Technology Policy Issues Affecting Its Use and Growth [Updated December 29, 2004]

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  "The growth of the Internet may be affected by a number of issues being debated by Congress. This report summarizes the following technology policy issues; internet privacy issues encompass concerns about information collected by website operators and by 'spyware,' and about the extent to which law enforcement officials are allowed to monitor an individual's Internet activities. Congress has passed several laws already, but continues to debate what other legislation may be needed, computer and Internet security in both the government and private sectors. Issues have also been raised about the vulnerability of the nation's critical infrastructures (e.g. electrical power supply) to cyber attacks. Issues for Congress include oversight and improvement of the protection of federal computer systems and cooperation with and between the private sectors, Broadband Internet access gives users the ability to send and receive data at speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. With deployment of broadband technologies beginning to accelerate, Congress is seeking to ensure fair competition and timely broadband deployment to all sectors and geographical locations of American society, electronic commerce (e-commerce) -- have grown substantially. Among the issues facing Congress are encryption procedures to protect e-commerce transactions, extension of the three-year tax moratorium on domestic e-commerce taxation, the impact of the USA PATRIOT Act, and how the policies of the European Union and the World Trade Organization (WTO) may affect U.S. e-commerce activities, anti-spam law, the CAN-SPAM Act, permits, but does not require, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to create a 'do not e-mail' list similar to the National Do Not Call list for telemarketers. Whether to require the FTC to establish such a list, and the extent to which the new law will actually reduce the amount of spam, remain congressional issues in the wake of the law's enactment, internet's domain name system (DNS) is currently under transition from federal to private sector control. Congress is monitoring how the Department of Commerce is managing and overseeing this transition in order to ensure competition and promote fairness among all Internet constituencies, the evolving role of the Internet in the political economy of the United States continues to attract congressional attention. Among the issues are information technology research and development, the provision of online services by the government ('e-government'), and availability and use of 'open source' software."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Moteff, John D.; Smith, Marcia S.; Kruger, Lennard G.

  2004-12-29
• Imagery Intelligence: Issues for Congress [April 12, 2002]

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  "Intelligence derived from satellites has become an essential element of military operations and foreign policymaking. In particular, precise imagery from space-based collection systems makes possible the effective use of precision-guided munitions that is becoming the basis of U.S. defense planning. Imagery intelligence also provides the factual bases for addressing many foreign policy issues. Congress has been concerned with satellite imagery because of its critical importance and its high costs. Independent commissions established by Congress to assess the state of the imagery intelligence effort have concluded that significant changes need to be made in the way the Nation's imagery effort is conducted. There is a consensus that greater emphasis should be placed on better collection targeting and improving processing, exploitation, and dissemination (the processes collectively termed TPED); that greater attention should be given to acquiring commercial imagery; and that the management of the imagery effort may need to be changed. Even before the events of September 11, 2001, there appeared to be a fairly widespread view within congressional committees that at least some additional funding should be directed towards imagery collection and TPED. Subsequent military campaigns have underscored the use of imagery in military operations and other counterterrorist efforts."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2002-04-12
• Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-War Governance [Updated April 23, 2003]

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  "In his 2002 and 2003 State of the Union messages, President Bush characterized Iraq as a grave potential threat to the United States because of its refusal to abandon its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs as required by U.N. Security Council resolutions and the potential for it to transfer WMD to terrorist groups. Since September 2002, the President has said that unless Iraq fully disarms in cooperation with United Nations weapons inspectors, the United States would lead a coalition to achieve that disarmament militarily. U.S. officials have made clear that this would include the ouster of Iraq's President Saddam Hussein's regime. On March 17, 2003, the United States launched "Operation Iraqi Freedom," a war effort to disarm Iraq and change its regime. The regime fell on April 9. The character of the government that would replace Saddam Hussein's Baath Party, and the exact process by which that government will be chosen, are yet to be determined. Some Administration officials reportedly had hoped that major military and governmental defections from the Hussein regime would serve as the core of a successor government. However, no senior Hussein regime figures defected, and the Bush Administration is expecting established opposition groups and emerging local leaders to form the core of a new regime. Some of the pre-existing disputes and schisms among the various anti-Hussein groups are already beginning to break out into a post-war power struggle, and there is a debate among Iraqi groups over how great a role the United States should play in the process of choosing a successor government."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2003-04-23
• Intelligence Community and 9/11: Congressional Hearings and the Status of the Investigation [Updated January 16, 2003]

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  "The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 led many to inquire whether there had been a failure by United States intelligence agencies to collect all available information about the plots that led to the attacks, to analyze it properly, and disseminate it in time to protect the American public. Congressional intelligence committees responded by launching an unprecedented Joint Inquiry to investigate the Intelligence Community's record in regard to the 9/11 attacks and make recommendations for further legislative action. The Joint Inquiry began its investigation in February 2002 and held public hearings in September and October. Findings, conclusions, and recommendations were made public in December 2002; release of the final report is anticipated in 2003."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2003-01-16
• Veterans' Medical Care Appropriations and Funding Process [Updated December 27, 2004]

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  "The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides benefits to veterans who meet certain eligibility rules. Benefits to veterans range from disability compensation and pensions, to hospital and medical care. VA provides these benefits to veterans through three major operating units: the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), the Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA) and the National Cemetery Administration (NCA). VHA is primarily a direct service provider of primary care, specialized care, and related medical and social support services to veterans through an integrated health care system. Veterans are enrolled in priority groups that determine payments for service and non-service connected medical conditions. In FY2004, Congress appropriated $28.4 billion for VHA to be spent through an account structure comprised of four new accounts: medical services, medical administration, medical facilities, and medical and prosthetic research. In its budget submission to Congress, the Administration proposed several legislative and regulatory changes to increase certain co-payments and other cost-sharing charges for lower priority veterans and to reduce co-pays for certain veterans. The House and Senate Committees on Appropriations, and the final conference agreement did not accept any of the Administration's cost-sharing proposals for VHA. This report will be updated as legislative and budgetary activity occurs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Panangala, Sidath Viranga

  2004-12-27
• Security Threat Assessments for Hazmat Drivers [January 25, 2005]

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  "The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) is gradually implementing Section 1012 of the USA PATRIOT Act (P.L. 107-56). This provision seeks to reduce some of the security risks associated with hazardous materials (hazmat) transportation by requiring a security threat assessment of drivers with a hazmat endorsement on their commercial drivers license (CDL). This process, which includes immigration and database checks, may deter a terrorist from obtaining or keeping such an endorsement; nevertheless, the hazmat transportation system remains vulnerable to attack. Members of Congress are overseeing implementation of TSA's program, reviewing its financial impacts, and deciding whether to explicitly require in law a comparable review of Canadian- and Mexican-domiciled drivers transporting specified hazmats into the United States. Congress might consider whether to: help the states pay for their costs to implement TSA's program by specifying that any fee collected by TSA also must reflect state costs and must be shared with the states, conduct additional oversight on TSA's hazmat threat assessment process, evaluate whether TSA should be required to combine its hazmat security threat process with its Transportation Workers Identification Credential (TWIC) program, or delay the fingerprint-based portion of the check until the TWIC is deployed. Each of these options poses its own set of unique costs and benefits that would need to be evaluated. This report will not be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rothberg, Paul F.

  2005-01-25