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• Global Climate Change [Updated September 26, 2001]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. A warmer climate would probably have far reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and un-managed ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question is: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decisionmakers?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2001-09-26
• Federal Prize Competitions [Updated April 6, 2020]

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  From the Summary: "Prize competitions are a tool for incentivizing the achievement of scientific and technological innovation by offering monetary and nonmonetary benefits (e.g., recognition) to competition participants. Prize competitions have a long history of use in both the public and private sectors, but have gained popularity in recent years. Experts view federal prize competitions as an alternative policy instrument for spurring innovation, not a substitute for more traditional methods of federal support for research and innovation such as competitive research grants and procurement contracts. The use of prize competitions by the federal government has increased significantly since the passage of the America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-358). P.L. 111-358 encouraged the use of prize competitions by providing the head of any federal agency with the authority to carry out prize competitions that have the potential to stimulate innovation and advance the agency's mission. Congress has also provided various federal agencies, including the Department of Defense, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, and the Department of Health and Human Services, with additional authority to conduct prize competitions. The United States General Services Administration estimates that since 2010 federal agencies have conducted nearly 1,000 prize competitions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gallo, Marcy E.

  2020-04-06
• Al Qaeda and Islamic State Affiliates in Afghanistan [Updated June 24, 2020]

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  From the Document: "Afghanistan's geography, complex ethnic composition, and recent history of conflict and instability have created space for numerous regional armed groups. This product outlines major terrorist groups affiliated and allied with Al Qaeda (AQ) and the Islamic State (IS, also known as ISIS, ISIL, or by the Arabic acronym 'Da'esh') and the convoluted, often shifting relations between them and various other state and non-state actors. These dynamics may inform assessments of U.S. policy in Afghanistan in light of the February 2020 U.S.-Taliban agreement, which commits the Taliban to undertake counterterrorism efforts and commits the United States to a full military withdrawal by April 2021. The Taliban is not a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO), but it relates to the groups below in varying ways that may have ramifications for that withdrawal, which U.S. officials describe as 'conditions-based.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs)

  2020-06-24
• Resource Allocation and Pandemic Response: An Evidence Synthesis to Inform Decision Making

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  From the Background and Purpose: "In a pandemic, such as COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019], the need for medical resources, including staff, stuff (e.g., supplies and equipment), and space or structure (e.g., physical location), can quickly outstrip the available resources. Policymakers need information and tested strategies to inform key decisions about how to respond and make the best use of scarce resources. Potential strategies seek to increase the overall quantity of resources, stretch existing resources, and when needed offer guidance about how to determine which patients receive those resources. These strategies focused on the healthcare delivery system are complemented by population-based strategies that seek to reduce the spread of the disease and therefore the demand for health care services. There is a wealth of guidance developed by the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response (ASPR) and the National Academy of Medicine (NAM) about the allocation of scarce resources. The degree to which these guidelines are implemented as policies or affect outcomes at the population level is harder to examine. A 2012 AHRQ [Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality] review identified the existing evidence on outcomes of strategies for allocating medical resources in mass casualty events. That review defined resource allocation broadly, and included pandemic response such as mitigation and community strategies that were useful to policymakers. In this rapid evidence review, we updated the search for studies about outcomes of strategies regarding allocations of scarce resources (including mitigation and community strategies) that would be of interest to a broad array of decision makers, and updated terminology to reflect the current scope."

  United States. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality

  2020-10-05
• Military Cyber Programs and Posture, Hearing Before the United States Senate Committee on Armed Services, Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities, One Hundred Fourteenth Congress, First Session, April 14, 2015

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  This testimony compilation is from the April 14, 2015 hearing, "Military Cyber Programs and Posture," before the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities. From the testimony of Eric Rosenbach: "Cybersecurity is an increasingly urgent and important topic in today's interconnected world, and I appreciate the opportunity to explain the Department's mission in this space and how we continue to improve America's cybersecurity posture. With respect to cyberspace, the Department of Defense continues to focus on its three vital missions: (1) defending DoD information networks to assure DoD missions, (2) defending the nation against cyberattacks of significant consequence, and (3) providing cyber support to contingency plans and operations. Today, we face diverse and persistent threats in cyberspace that cannot be defeated through the efforts of any single organization. Although DoD maintains robust and unique cyber capabilities that we use to defend our networks and the nation, we must continue to work closely with our partners in the federal government, the private sector, and in countries around the world to ensure we have the necessary strategies, policies, capabilities, and workforce in place to succeed." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Eric Rosenbach, James K. McLaughlin, Edward C. Cardon, Jan E. Tighe, Burke E. Wilson, and Daniel J. O'Donohue.

  United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Armed Services

  2015-04-14
• Cyber War: Definitions, Deterrence, and Foreign Policy, Hearing Before the Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Fourteenth Congress, First Session, September 30, 2015

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  This is the September 30, 2015 hearing "Cyber War: Definitions, Deterrence, and Foreign Policy" held before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. From the opening statement of presiding chair Matt Salmon: "This morning we will consider the growing threats to U.S. national security in cyberspace. It is no exaggeration to say that we are at the dawn of a new age of warfare. Computers and the Internet have connected people around the world. However, reliance on these technologies has also made us vulnerable to cyber attacks from other countries, terrorists, and criminals. So much so that the Pentagon now counts cyberspace as the fifth domain of warfare alongside land, air, sea, and space. Whether or not an all-out cyber war occurs, it is clear that we are in a state of ongoing cyber conflict. The White House, the State Department, and the Department of Defense have all been hacked, and, of course, the Office of Personnel Management had the sensitive information of more than 21 million Americans compromised. […] Our top intelligence officer told Congress earlier this month that the U.S. lacks both the substance and the mind-set to deterrence. Indeed, last spring the President issued an Executive order that would allow him to target individuals or organizations deemed responsible for computer attacks, but this new order, similar to the way in which terrorists of nuclear proliferators are targeted, has yet to be used. So the President's recent comment that offense is moving faster than defense is putting it mildly." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: James Andrew Lewis, Catherine Lotrionte, and Bob Butler.

  United States. Government Publishing Office

  2015
• Immigration-Related Detention: Current Legislative Issues [Updated January 25, 2007]

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  "The attacks of September 11, 2001, have increased interest in the authority under statute to detain noncitizens (aliens) in the United States. Under the law, there is broad authority to detain aliens while awaiting a determination of whether the noncitizen should be removed from the United States. The law also mandates that certain categories of aliens are subject to mandatory detention (i.e., the aliens must be detained). Aliens subject to mandatory detention include those arriving without documentation or with fraudulent documentation, those who are inadmissable or deportable on criminal grounds, those who are inadmissable or deportable on national security grounds, those certified as terrorist suspects, and those who have final orders of deportation. Aliens not subject to mandatory detention may be detained, paroled, or released on bond. The priorities for detention of these aliens are specified in statute and regulations. As of September 2006, for FY2006, on an average day, 19,409 noncitizens were in Department of Homeland Security (DHS) custody. There are many policy issues surrounding detention of aliens. The Illegal Immigrant Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA) increased the number of aliens subject to mandatory detention, and raised concerns about the justness of mandatory detention, especially as it is applied to asylum seekers arriving without proper documentation. Additionally, the increase in the number of mandatory detainees has raised concerns about the amount of detention space available to house DHS detainees."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Siskin, Alison

  2007-01-25
• China's Engagement with Africa: Foundations for an Alternative Governance Regime

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  From the Introduction: "China has made Africa a central focus of its foreign policy since the early days of the Cold War. Over the last two decades, this focus has grown more pronounced as Beijing has significantly expanded its political, technological, economic, and security engagement with nearly all African countries. China's deepening connections with Africa have helped the continent in many important ways, most notably through activities to address the severe infrastructure shortage many African countries face. At the same time, Beijing has sought to leverage its near-ubiquitous presence on the continent to promote an alternative political model that promotes state-led, illiberal governance. Amid the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, some African countries are pushing back against China, but it remains to be seen whether this will significantly erode Beijing's considerable influence across the continent. This report examines Beijing's political activities on the African continent, including China's party-to-party training with African partners, Chinese interference in domestic politics on the continent, and Beijing's growing dominance in Africa's technological space. It also assesses Beijing's penetration of African media and efforts to enlist African partners to support its priorities on the international stage. China has other important strategic and economic interests in Africa, particularly in resource acquisition, but this report focuses solely on Beijing's political activities on the continent."

  U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission

  Green, William; Nelson, Leyton P.; Washington, Brittney

  2020-05-01
• Western Rail Yard Infrastructure Project Environmental Impact Statement Scoping Document

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  From the Introduction: "WRY Tenant LLC [limited liability company] (an affiliate of The Related Companies, LP [limited partnership]) and the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak) are partnering in a joint venture (the Project Sponsor) to seek Federal financial assistance through the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) Program, which is a loan program administered by the Build America Bureau (Bureau) of the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT). The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) is conducting the environmental analysis to ensure compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), (42 USC [United States Code] 4321 et seq.) and other applicable environmental laws. The Project Sponsor has expressed an interest in seeking financial assistance provided by the Bureau. Financial assistance would fund the construction of a Platform and a Tunnel Encasement on the 13-acre Western Rail Yard site, located on the western half of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) John D. Caemmerer Yard (aka 'Hudson Yards') (Block 676, Lot 3) in New York County (Manhattan), New York. The Proposed Action would include: (1) a structural Platform (Platform); and (2) a railroad right-of-way preservation Tunnel Encasement (Tunnel Encasement) to allow for privately-funded mixed-use development and public open space above the Platform (the 'Proposed Action,' also referred to here as the 'Project')."

  United States. Federal Railroad Administration

  2020-07
• U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress [Updated January 24, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report discusses policy issues regarding military-to-military contacts with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and provides a record of contacts since 1993. […] Issues for the 110th Congress include whether the Administration has complied with legislation overseeing dealings with the PLA and has determined a program of contacts with the PLA that advances a prioritized list of U.S. security interests. Relevant legislation includes the Foreign Relations Authorization Act for FYs 1990- 1991 (P.L. 101-246); National Defense Authorization Act for FY2000 (P.L. 106-65); and National Defense Authorization Act for FY2006 (P.L. 109-163). Admiral Fallon raised the issue of whether to relax restrictions on contacts in P.L. 106-65. Skeptics and proponents of military exchanges with the PRC have debated whether the contacts have significant value for achieving U.S. objectives and whether the contacts have contributed to the PLA's warfighting capabilities that might harm U.S. security interests. U.S. interests in mil-to-mil contacts with China might include: communication, conflict-prevention, and crisis-management (e.g., hotline); transparency; tension-reduction over Taiwan; weapons nonproliferation and strategic nuclear and space talks; counterterrorism (e.g., 2008 Olympics security); and accounting for POW/MIAs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2007-01-24
• Bureau of Prisons: BOP Could Further Enhance Its COVID-19 Response by Capturing and Incorporating Lessons Learned, Report to Congressional Addressees

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  From the Highlights: "BOP [Federal Bureau of Prisons] was responsible for the custody and care of about 129,000 federal inmates in BOP-managed facilities, and employed more than 37,000 staff as of May 2021. Because of confined spaces, the prison population is particularly vulnerable during infectious disease outbreaks, such as COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019]. About $620 million has been appropriated to or designated by BOP for COVID-19- related efforts. GAO [Government Accountability Office] was asked to review BOP's approach to responding to COVID-19. This report addresses, among other objectives: (1) BOP's development and updates of COVID-19 guidance; (2) BOP's provision of PPE [personal protective equipment], COVID-19 tests and vaccines, and infection and fatality rates for inmates and staff; and (3) the impact of COVID-19 on inmates and staff, and the extent to which BOP has incorporated lessons learned into its response. GAO reviewed BOP policies, data, and other documentation related to the impact of COVID-19 and how BOP addressed it. GAO also conducted non-generalizable interviews of officials from five BOP facilities and one private facility operating under contract with BOP, selected based on inmate infection rates and other factors. GAO is making three recommendations that BOP evaluate communication of COVID-19 guidance, develop an approach to capture and share best practices and lessons learned; and develop an approach to ensure facilities apply these practices as appropriate. BOP concurred with all three recommendations."

  United States. Government Accountability Office

  2021-07-29
• Global Analysis of the Impact of COVID-19 Stay-At-Home Restrictions on Crime

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  From the Document: "The stay-at-home restrictions to control the spread of COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] led to unparalleled sudden change in daily life, but it is unclear how they affected urban crime globally. We collected data on daily counts of crime in 27 cities across 23 countries in the Americas, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. We conducted interrupted time series analyses to assess the impact of stay-at-home restrictions on different types of crime in each city. Our findings show that the stay-at-home policies were associated with a considerable drop in urban crime, but with substantial variation across cities and types of crime. Meta-regression results showed that more stringent restrictions over movement in public space were predictive of larger declines in crime."

  Nature Publishing Group

  Nivette, Amy; Zahnow, Renee; Aguilar, Raul . . .

  2021-06-02
• Department of Defense Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 2018 and the Future Years Defense Program, Hearings Before the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, One Hundred Fifteenth Congress, First Session, Part 7: Strategic Forces, May 17, 24; June 7, 2017

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  These are the May 17, May 24, and June 7, 2017 hearings on "Department of Defense Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 2018 and the Future Years Defense Program," held before the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services. The May 17 hearing was regarding "Military Space Organization, Policy, and Programs"; the May 24 hearing was on "The Department of Energy's Atomic Energy Defense Activities and Programs"; and the June 7 hearing covered "Nuclear Acquisition Programs and the Nuclear Doctrine." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Heather A. Wilson, David L. Goldfein, Frank G. Klotz, Susan M. Cange, James F. Caldwell, Jr., David C. Trimble, Robin Rand, James A. MacStravic, Robert M. Soofer, and Terry J. Benedict.

  United States. Government Publishing Office

  2019
• Privacy in Plain Sight: Fourth Amendment Considerations for the Collection, Retention, and Use of Data by Law Enforcement in Public Places

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  From the thesis abstract: "Cities around the globe are implementing technology that provides an interactive experience for their citizens in open spaces. Transportation, infrastructure, parking, and lighting are all part of a 'smart city.' Cameras, drones, facial recognition, kiosks, and geofencing are built into the platform as well; however, the latter brings up privacy concerns as they pertain to government surveillance. This thesis examines how data collected using the open-source methods of smart city technology can be used by law enforcement under the Fourth Amendment, which protects citizens from government intrusion. The Fourth Amendment has been the litmus test for what constitutes a search and seizure, and with a properly executed warrant or a subpoena, information can be used by law enforcement. This thesis explores whether the Fourth Amendment can withstand the test of technology, whereby data collected by a city can be used by law enforcement to solve crimes that occur in plain sight. This thesis follows the historical path of Fourth Amendment case law since the inception of technology and recognizes that legislation and policy should be enacted to identify the owner of the data collected and determine how long it should be maintained. Rather than easily accessing data, law enforcement may be required to show reasonable suspicion and obtain a warrant."

  Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.); Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.). Center for Homeland Defense and Security

  Ziman, Kristen

  2018-12
• Commercial Human Spaceflight [October 1, 2021]

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  From the Document: "Recent commercial flights to space by wealthy businesspeople and other private individuals have attracted interest both in Congress and among the general public. This In Focus summarizes current capabilities and plans for commercial human spaceflight, explains how it is regulated and licensed, defines some commonly used terminology, and discusses selected policy issues that may be of interest to Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morgan, Daniel (Daniel L.)

  2021-10-01
• Buy American Act: Proposed Rules [September 22, 2021]

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  From the Document: "On July 30, 2021, the Department of Defense, General Services Administration, and National Aeronautics and Space Administration--which, along with the Administrator of the Office of Federal Procurement Policy, make up the Federal Acquisition Regulatory Council (FAR Council)--published several proposed rules [hyperlink] regarding the Buy American Act (BAA) [hyperlink]. The proposed rules, which are contained within one rulemaking notice, address Section 8 of Executive Order 14005 [hyperlink], 'Ensuring the Future Is Made in All of America by All of America's Workers.' This Insight provides an overview of the four proposed rules, including one not mentioned specifically in the executive order, and briefly mentions the FAR Council's guidance regarding feedback on the proposed rules."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Halchin, L. Elaine

  2021-09-22
• Russian Ballistic Missile Defense: Rhetoric and Reality

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  "Russia has made air and space defense, including ballistic missile defense (BMD), a top priority, while at the same time protesting vehemently against the deployment of U.S. missile defense technology in Europe, which Moscow claims upsets strategic stability and increases the danger of war. Russian declaratory policy provides U.S. policymakers with significant material to develop an approach intended to mitigate Russian obstructionism over European Phased Adaptive Approach (EPAA) and U.S. plans for BMD more broadly. Put simply, Russian complaints at the dangerous irresponsibility of the United States introducing new anti-missile capabilities ring hollow, when Russia is forging ahead with its own program to do precisely the same. U.S. officials have repeatedly attempted to allay Russian concerns over the potential for EPAA and its predecessor systems to compromise Russian strategic deterrence. These attempts have foundered on Russian concerns, some of which appear disingenuous, but others of which are genuinely rooted in an entirely different Russian approach to the purpose and status of nuclear weapons. Despite the current hiatus in relations, opportunities for meaningful dialog with Russia on missile defense will arise again in the future. At that point, U.S. representatives should be fully informed on the scope and ambition of Russia's own missile defense programs. This will allow them not only to rebut some of the more facile Russian accusations, but also to counter some persistent Russian arguments relating to strategic balance. In brief, discussion of Russian capabilities should be an integral part of future conversations with Russia on the deployment of U.S. and allied BMD assets. This monograph provides the necessary overview of Russian plans for missile defenses, and the rhetoric surrounding them."

  Army War College (U.S.). Strategic Studies Institute

  Giles, Keir
• Implementation of the Provisions of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, Hearings before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, Second Session on Enhancing Oil and Gas Production; Geothermal Energy and other Renewables; and Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Research and Development, June 27, July 11, July 17, 2006

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  From the opening statement of Hon. Craig Thomas, U.S. Senator from Wyoming: "I'm a strong supporter of oil and gas development. It's brought a tremendous amount of good for the State of Wyoming, and, obviously, to the Nation, a challenge we have in keeping our energy program moving and using the public lands and so on to be able to use those resources. I do believe we have to do this in a responsible way. And, of course, I know all of you do that. And I think the energy policy tries to establish that proposal, that we can do it. One of the most significant parts of the energy bill is the creation of the pilot offices to improve Federal permit coordination. There are two of these in Wyoming-one in Buffalo and the other in Rawlins. These pilot offices are not just a way to get more permits out the door, but to do it in a way that is sensitive to the needs of the areas that are producing energy. And, of course, as you know, in a State like ours, half of the State belongs to the Federal Government. Much of it is BLM land, of course, which is open for all kinds of development, and should be. Some of it is national parks, and some of it is national forests. So, we want to be able to use that energy, to the extent that we can. At the same time, we have to preserve those things that are fundamental to the future, and be making decisions now so that we'll be where we want to be 30 years from now, in terms of our resources and so on. I believe BLM and other agencies are doing a good job at this. And it's not easy to balance our needs between energy and the desire to protect open space in the natural resources. So, that's really what we're asking about here today. And we look forward to these hearings and to talk a little bit about how we can best do that to achieve the kind of energy production we need; and at the same time, maintain the resources that we want and to look forward to the kind of country we want to have in the future." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Jeff Bingaman, Kathleen Clarke, Larry E. Craig, Pete V. Domenici, Jeffrey Eppink, Mary Flanderka, Mel Martinez, Tom Reed, Ken Salazar, Craig Thomas, Duane Zavadil, Sally Collins, Larry E. Craig, Bernie Karl, Robert B. Linden, Lisa Murkowski, Lynn Scarlett, Walter Snyder, Chris Taylor, Paul A. Thomsen, Jim Wells, John V. White, Lamar Alexander, James D. Balcom, Pete V. Domenici, Byron L. Dorgan, David Garman, Timothy Leuliette, J. Byron McCormick, Donald L. Paul.

  United States. Government Printing Office

  2006
• Global Climate Change [Updated May 12, 2006]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have contributed to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe significant global warming would occur through intensification of Earth' s natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative, depending on regional or national variations. [...] In March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol, and thus the United States is not party to it (and therefore is not subject to its requirements) as it enters into force. President Bush concluded a cabinet-level climate policy review with an announcement in 2002 of a 'new approach' for the United States based on reducing the greenhouse gas intensity (greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP) of the U.S. economy. This report briefly reviews the status of climate science, international negotiations, and congressional activity focused specifically on climate change."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Justus, John R.

  2006-05-12
• Global Climate Change [Updated March 21, 2006]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have contributed to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe significant global warming would occur through intensification of Earth' s natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative, depending on regional or national variations. [...] In March 2001, the Bush Administration rejected the Kyoto Protocol, and thus the United States is not party to it (and therefore is not subject to its requirements) as it enters into force. President Bush concluded a cabinet-level climate policy review with an announcement in 2002 of a 'new approach' for the United States based on reducing the greenhouse gas intensity (greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP) of the U.S. economy. This report briefly reviews the status of climate science, international negotiations, and congressional activity focused specifically on climate change."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2006-03-21
• Global Climate Change [Updated January 30, 2002]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. A warmer climate would probably have far reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and un-managed ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question remains: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decisionmakers? Fossil-fuel combustion is the primary source of CO2 emissions, and also emits other 'greenhouse' gases. Because the U.S. economy is so dependent upon energy, and so much of U.S. energy is derived from fossil fuels, reducing these emissions poses major challenges and controversy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Justus, John R.

  2002-01-30
• Global Climate Change [Updated October 29, 2004]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative, depending on regional or national variations. A warmer climate would probably have far-reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and unmanaged ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level, depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question remains: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decision makers? Fossil-fuel combustion is the primary source of CO2 emissions, and also emits other 'greenhouse' gases. Because the U.S. economy is so dependent upon energy, and so much of U.S. energy is derived from fossil fuels, reducing these emissions poses major challenges and controversy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Justus, John R.

  2004-10-29
• Global Climate Change [Updated March 27, 2002]

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  "There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. A warmer climate would probably have far reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and un-managed ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question remains: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decisionmakers? Fossil-fuel combustion is the primary source of CO2 emissions, and also emits other 'greenhouse' gases. Because the U.S. economy is so dependent upon energy, and so much of U.S. energy is derived from fossil fuels, reducing these emissions poses major challenges and controversy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.

  2002-03-27
• U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress [April 15, 2009]

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  From the Summary: "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report, updated as warranted, discusses policy issues regarding military-to-military (mil-to-mil) contacts with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and provides a record of major contacts and crises since 1993. The United States suspended military contacts with China and imposed sanctions on arms sales in response to the Tiananmen Crackdown in 1989. In 1993, the Clinton Administration re-engaged with the top PRC leadership, including China's military, the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Renewed military exchanges with the PLA have not regained the closeness reached in the 1980s, when U.S.-PRC strategic cooperation against the Soviet Union included U.S. arms sales to China. Improvements and deteriorations in overall bilateral relations have affected military contacts, which were close in 1997-1998 and 2000, but marred by the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait crisis, mistaken NATO bombing of a PRC embassy in 1999, the EP- 3 aircraft collision crisis in 2001, and aggressive naval confrontations (including in March 2009). […] Issues for the 111th Congress include whether the Obama Administration has complied with legislation overseeing dealings with the PLA and has pursued a program of contacts with the PLA that advances a prioritized list of U.S. security interests. […] U.S. interests in military contacts with China include communication, conflict prevention, and crisis management; transparency and reciprocity; tension reduction over Taiwan; weapons nonproliferation; strategic nuclear and space talks; counterterrorism; and accounting for POW/MIAs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2009-04-15
• Department of Defense's Use of Private Security Contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan: Background, Analysis, and Options for Congress [September 29, 2009]

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  "This report examines current private security contractor trends in Iraq and Afghanistan, steps DOD has taken to improve oversight and management, and the extent to which DOD has incorporated the role of security contractors into its doctrine and strategy. It also reviews steps Congress has taken to exercise oversight over the use of PSCs [Private Security Contractors ] and includes options for Congress." More Specifically, "while DOD has previously contracted for security in Bosnia and elsewhere, it appears that in Iraq and Afghanistan DOD is for the first time relying so heavily on armed contractors to provide security during combat or stability operations. [...] Many analysts and government officials believe that DOD would be unable to execute its mission without PSCs. Nonetheless, the use of armed contractors has raised a number of issues for Congress, including concerns over transparency and accountability. Much of the attention given to PSCs by Congress and the media is a result of numerous high-profile incidents where security contractors were accused of shooting civilians, using excessive force, being insensitive to local customs or beliefs, or otherwise behaving inappropriately. These actions may have undermined U.S. counterinsurgency efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan. [...]. These steps include tracking contracting data, coordinating the movements of PSCs throughout the battle space, issuing new policy on managing PSCs, and updating DOD doctrine to incorporate the role of contractors. However, these efforts are still in progress and could take three years or more to effectively implement."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schwartz, Moshe

  2009-09-29
• Imagery Intelligence: Issues for Congress [April 12, 2002]

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  "Intelligence derived from satellites has become an essential element of military operations and foreign policymaking. In particular, precise imagery from space-based collection systems makes possible the effective use of precision-guided munitions that is becoming the basis of U.S. defense planning. Imagery intelligence also provides the factual bases for addressing many foreign policy issues. Congress has been concerned with satellite imagery because of its critical importance and its high costs. Independent commissions established by Congress to assess the state of the imagery intelligence effort have concluded that significant changes need to be made in the way the Nation's imagery effort is conducted. There is a consensus that greater emphasis should be placed on better collection targeting and improving processing, exploitation, and dissemination (the processes collectively termed TPED); that greater attention should be given to acquiring commercial imagery; and that the management of the imagery effort may need to be changed. Even before the events of September 11, 2001, there appeared to be a fairly widespread view within congressional committees that at least some additional funding should be directed towards imagery collection and TPED. Subsequent military campaigns have underscored the use of imagery in military operations and other counterterrorist efforts."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2002-04-12
• Authorization and Appropriations for FY2005: Defense [Updated November 9, 2004]

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  From the Summary: "Early on the morning on October 7, 2004, a conference agreement on the FY2005 defense authorization bill (H.R. 4200) was announced. The House approved the conference agreement by a vote of 359-14 on October 8, and the Senate approved it by unanimous consent on October 9. The President signed the bill into law (P.L. [Public Law] 108-375) on October 23. On the key issues, conferees rejected a House provision to delay military base closures; authorized purchases, but not leasing, of Boeing KC- 767 or other refueling aircraft; increased statutory caps on Army and Marine Corps active duty end-strength in FY2005 by 23,000; rejected a House provision that would limit purchases of defense goods from nations that require offsets for purchases of U.S. weapons; and increased benefits for 62-and-older survivors of military retirees. […] The appropriations conference report also resolves a number of major weapons issues. It makes substantial cuts in a few high-profile weapons programs, including the Transformational Communications Satellite and the Space-Based Radar. It also provides funding to begin construction of the Navy DD(X) destroyer and Littoral Combat Ship. One other major defense policy issue remains to be resolved in action on the energy and water appropriations bill. In floor votes on the defense authorization bill, both the House and the Senate rejected amendments to eliminate funds for the Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator nuclear warhead and new low-yield nuclear weapons development. The House version of the energy and water appropriations bill (H.R. 4614), however, eliminates funds for the programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Daggett, Stephen; Belasco, Amy

  2004-11-09
• Spectrum Policy: Public Safety and Wireless Communications Interference [Updated June 30, 2004]

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  "Legislation has been introduced, and other legislation may be under consideration, for the 108th Congress regarding possible actions by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to relocate some public safety wireless users to new frequencies. There have been an increasing number of reported incidents of transmission interference with public safety communications, leading the FCC to consider proposals to mitigate certain types of interference. The interference usually takes the form of dropped calls or dead spaces with radio transmissions- primarily to or from first responders- in certain frequencies. Many of the impacted public safety frequency assignments are placed close to commercial frequencies. The predominate user of the frequencies that are interleaved with public safety radio operations is the wireless company Nextel Communications, Inc. The majority of documented incidents of interference have been attributed to Nextel's network. The FCC is considering a plan based on a proposal from Nextel, the objective of which is to reassign frequencies in what is referred to as the 800 MHz band so that public safety users would be grouped together and interference reduced or eliminated. There are a number of policy issues that this plan raises for Congress, including cost issues and spectrum management."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Moore, L. K. S. (Linda K. S.)

  2004-06-30
• U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress [Updated June 17, 2008]

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  From the Summary: "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report discusses policy issues regarding military-to-military (mil-to-mil) contacts with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and provides a record of major contacts since 1993. The United States suspended military contacts with China and imposed sanctions on arms sales in response to the Tiananmen Crackdown in 1989. In 1993, the Clinton Administration began to re-engage the PRC leadership up to the highest level and including China's military, the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Renewed military exchanges with the PLA have not regained the closeness reached in the 1980s, when U.S.-PRC strategic cooperation against the Soviet Union included U.S. arms sales to China. Improvements and deteriorations in overall bilateral relations have affected military contacts, which were close in 1997-1998 and 2000, but marred by the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait crisis, mistaken NATO bombing of a PRC embassy in 1999, and the EP-3 aircraft collision crisis in 2001. […] Skeptics and proponents of military exchanges with the PRC have debated whether the contacts have significant value for achieving U.S. objectives and whether the contacts have contributed to the PLA's warfighting capabilities that might harm U.S. security interests. U.S. interests in military contacts with China include: communication, conflict prevention, and crisis management; transparency and reciprocity; tension reduction over Taiwan; weapons nonproliferation; strategic nuclear and space talks; counterterrorism; and accounting for POW/MIAs [prisoners of war/missing in action]. U.S. defense officials report inadequate cooperation from the PLA, including denials of port visits at Hong Kong by U.S. Navy ships in November 2007. This CRS Report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2008-06-17
• Network Centric Warfare: Background and Oversight Issues for Congress [March 18, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "Network Centric Warfare (NCW) is a key component of DoD planning for transformation of the military. NCW relies on computer processing power and networked communications technology to provide a shared awareness of the battle space for U.S. forces. Proponents say that a shared awareness increases synergy for command and control, resulting in superior decision-making, and the ability to coordinate complex military operations over long distances for an overwhelming war-fighting advantage...The background section of this report describes technologies that support NCW, and includes (1) questions about possible vulnerabilities associated with NCW; (2) a description of directed energy weapons, and other technologies that could be used as asymmetric countermeasures against NCW systems; (3) descriptions of some key military programs for implementing NCW; (4) a list of other nations with NCW capabilities; and, (5) a description of experiences using NCW systems in recent operations involving joint and coalition forces. The final section raises policy issues for NCW that involve planning, budget, network, interoperability, acquisition strategies, offshore outsourcing, technology transfer, asymmetric threats, coalition operations, and U.S. military doctrine."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wilson, Clay

  2004-06-02