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• Arctic Region Policy: Information Sharing Model Options

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  "Continued climate change and minimum ice conditions over the past several years is allowing for increased maritime activity in the Arctic, which may lead to potential homeland security/defense missions. In January 2009, the U.S. government acknowledged the probability of these missions with an updated Arctic Region Policy, which highlighted the need to develop capabilities to protect U.S. air, land and sea borders, military/civilian vessels and aircraft, maritime commerce, critical infrastructure and key resources. Successfully supporting these missions will depend on a coherent understanding of all the activities taking place in the Arctic region. Achieving this level of 'situational awareness' will only be possible when all equity partners and stakeholders are sharing relevant information. This thesis examined three popular information-sharing models, Alaska Information Analysis Center, Joint Interagency Coordination Group, and the Alaska Partnership for Infrastructure Protection to determine which would work best for a broad array of Arctic partners and stakeholders. The thesis' research and analysis shows that none of the models are sufficient or stand-alone; rather a megacommunity is necessary, consisting of all equity partners interfacing with the stakeholders, managed by leaders that will motivate the community to achieve a high degree of awareness for all Arctic activity."

  Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.). Center for Homeland Defense and Security; Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.)

  Marie, Claire

  2010-09
• H. Rept. 116-481: Safeguarding America's Future and Environment Act, Report Together with Dissenting Views, to Accompany H.R. 2748, Including Cost Estimate of the Congressional Budget Office, September 1, 2020

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  From the Purpose of the Bill: "The purpose of H.R. 2748 is to establish an integrated national approach to respond to ongoing and expected effects of extreme weather and climate change by protecting, managing, and conserving the fish, wildlife, and plants of the United States, and to maximize government efficiency and reduce costs, in cooperation with state, local, and tribal governments and other entities, and for other purposes."

  United States. Government Publishing Office

  2020-09-01
• Disaster Response: Agencies Should Assess Contracting Workforce Needs and Purchase Card Fraud Risk, Report to Congressional Requesters

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  From the Highlights: "The 2017 and 2018 hurricanes and California wildfires affected millions of people and caused billions of dollars in damages. Extreme weather events are expected to become more frequent and intense due to climate change. Federal contracts for goods and services play a key role in disaster response and recovery, and government purchase cards can be used by agency staff to buy needed items. GAO [Government Accountability Office] was asked to review federal response and recovery efforts related to recent disasters. This report examines the extent to which selected agencies planned for their disaster response contracting activities, assessed their contracting workforce needs, and assessed the fraud risk related to their use of purchase cards for disaster response."

  United States. Government Accountability Office

  2020-11
• Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [January 21, 2011]

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  "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened concerns about the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. On January 12, 2009, the George W. Bush Administration released a presidential directive, called National Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD 66/HSPD 25), establishing a new U.S. policy for the Arctic region. Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, and to the implications of projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. The Arctic has been projected by several scientists to be perennially ice-free in the late summer by the late 2030s. The five Arctic coastal states--the United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (of which Greenland is a territory)--are in the process of preparing Arctic territorial claims for submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. The Russian claim to the enormous underwater Lomonosov Ridge, if accepted, would reportedly grant Russia nearly onehalf of the Arctic area. There are also four other unresolved Arctic territorial disputes. [...]. The Arctic has increasingly become a subject of discussion among political leaders of the nations in the region. Although there is significant international cooperation on Arctic issues, the Arctic is also increasingly being viewed by some observers as a potential emerging security issue. In varying degrees, the Arctic coastal states have indicated a willingness to establish and maintain a military presence in the high north. U.S. military forces, particularly the Navy and Coast Guard, have begun to pay more attention to the region."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2011-01-21
• Neglected Tropical Diseases: Background, Responses, and Issues for Congress [January 21, 2011]

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  "Over the past decade, global health has become a priority in U.S. foreign policy, and U.S. funding for related efforts has more than tripled. Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), an important focus of U.S. global health assistance, may come under scrutiny as the 112th Congress debates spending levels for ongoing global health programs. NTDs are a group of 17 diseases that are found primarily among the poorest people in 149 countries and territories. Estimates indicate that some 2 billion people are at risk of contracting an NTD, of whom more than 1 billion people are afflicted with one or more. Roughly 534,000 people are believed to be killed by an NTD annually. Although these diseases are concentrated among the world's poor, population shifts and climate change increase the vulnerability of the United States to some of these diseases, particularly Chagas disease and dengue. While blood centers test for Chagas, some health experts believe that several cases remain undiagnosed in the United States and that Chagas stands as an undetected cause of heart disease and stroke. Some observers are concerned about scientists' expectations that mosquitoes capable of spreading dengue fever are gradually spreading across the United States, particularly because no vaccine or treatment exists for this disease. In addition, travelers from industrialized countries are increasingly contracting NTDs such as schistosomiasis while engaged in tourism. These cases are usually identified once tourists develop severe, acute infection or other unusual problems."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji

  2011-01-21
• Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [April 7, 2011]

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  "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. On January 12, 2009, the George W. Bush Administration released a presidential directive, called National Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD 66/HSPD 25), establishing a new U.S. policy for the Arctic region. Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, and to the implications of projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. The Arctic has been projected by several scientists to be perennially ice-free in the late summer by the late 2030s. The five Arctic coastal states--the United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (of which Greenland is a territory)--are in the process of preparing Arctic territorial claims for submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. The Russian claim to the enormous underwater Lomonosov Ridge, if accepted, would reportedly grant Russia nearly onehalf of the Arctic area. There are also four other unresolved Arctic territorial disputes. The diminishment of Arctic ice could lead in coming years to increased commercial shipping on two trans-Arctic sea routes. Current international guidelines for ships operating in Arctic waters are being updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2011-04-07
• Energy's Water Demand: Trends, Vulnerabilities, and Management [November 24, 2010]

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  "The nation's energy choices embody many tradeoffs. Water use is one of those tradeoffs. The energy choices before Congress represent vastly different demands on domestic freshwater. The energy sector is the fastest-growing water consumer in the United States, in part because of federal policies. Much of this growth is concentrated in regions that already have intense competition among water uses. Whether the energy sector may exacerbate or alleviate future water tensions is influenced by near-term policy and investment decisions. These decisions also may determine whether water will limit U.S. capacity to reliably meet the nation's energy demand. Part of the energy-water policy issue for Congress is identifying the extent of the federal role in responding to energy's growing water demand. Currently, the energy industry and states have the most responsibility for managing and meeting energy's water demand. The energy sector's water consumption is projected to rise 50% from 2005 to 2030. This rising water demand derives from both an increase in the amount of energy demanded and shifts to more water-intense energy sources and technologies. The more water used by the energy sector, the more vulnerable energy production and reliability is to competition with other water uses and water constraints. Climate change impacts that alter water patterns may exacerbate this vulnerability in some regions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  2010-11-24
• Alternative Fuels and Advanced Technology Vehicles: Issues in Congress [December 23, 2010]

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  "Alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles are seen by proponents as integral to improving urban air quality, decreasing dependence on foreign oil, and reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. However, major barriers--especially economics--currently prevent the widespread use of these fuels and technologies. Because of these barriers, and the potential benefits, there is continued congressional interest in providing incentives and other support for their development and commercialization. [...] The 112th Congress may debate alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles as it addresses other key topics. These include their role in any federal policy to address climate change, and their role in federal energy policy. The 112th Congress may also play an oversight role in the development of major regulations: EPA's [Environmental Protection Agency] implementation of the RFS [Renewable Fuel Standard] and greenhouse gas controls under the Clean Air Act; the Department of Transportation's implementation of fuel economy standards enacted in 2007; and the Department of Agriculture's implementation of the 2008 Farm Bill. Further, some key tax incentives for alternative fuels that had expired or were set to at the end of 2010 were extended through the end of 2011 by the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-312). The 112th Congress may revisit these incentives and discuss whether they should be extended beyond 2011."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2010-12-23
• Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [October 15, 2010]

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  "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened concerns about the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. On January 12, 2009, the George W. Bush Administration released a presidential directive, called National Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD 66/HSPD 25), establishing a new U.S. policy for the Arctic region. Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, and to the implications of projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. The Arctic has been projected by several scientists to be perennially ice-free in the late summer by the late 2030s. The five Arctic coastal states--the United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (of which Greenland is a territory)--are in the process of preparing Arctic territorial claims for submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. The Russian claim to the enormous underwater Lomonosov Ridge, if accepted, would reportedly grant Russia nearly onehalf of the Arctic area. There are also four other unresolved Arctic territorial disputes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2010-10-15
• Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [October 8, 2010]

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  "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened concerns about the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. On January 12, 2009, the George W. Bush Administration released a presidential directive, called National Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD 66/HSPD 25), establishing a new U.S. policy for the Arctic region. Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, and to the implications of projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. The Arctic has been projected by several scientists to be perennially ice-free in the late summer by the late 2030s. The five Arctic coastal states--the United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (of which Greenland is a territory)--are in the process of preparing Arctic territorial claims for submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. The Russian claim to the enormous underwater Lomonosov Ridge, if accepted, would reportedly grant Russia nearly onehalf of the Arctic area. There are also four other unresolved Arctic territorial disputes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2010-10-08
• Alternative Fuels and Advanced Technology Vehicles: Issues in Congress [September 22, 2010]

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  "Alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles are seen by proponents as integral to improving urban air quality, decreasing dependence on foreign oil, and reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. However, major barriers-- especially economics-- currently prevent the widespread use of these fuels and technologies. Because of these barriers, and the potential benefits, there is continued congressional interest in providing incentives and other support for their development and commercialization. [...] On February 3, 2010, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized new rules for the renewable fuel standard (RFS) that was expanded by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA, P.L. 110-140). In 2010, the RFS will require the use of 12.95 billion gallons of ethanol and other biofuels in transportation fuel. Within that mandate, the RFS will require the use of 0.95 billion gallons of advanced biofuels, including 6.5 million gallons of cellulosic biofuels. EISA also requires that advanced biofuels (as well as conventional biofuels from newly built refineries) meet certain lifecycle greenhouse gas reduction requirements. EPA's methodology and conclusions on various biofuels' lifecycle emissions have been controversial. [...] The 111th Congress is likely to further discuss alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles as it addresses other key topics. These include their role in any federal policy to address climate change, and their role in federal energy policy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2010-09-22
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Coastal Wetland and Wildlife Impacts and Response [October 15, 2010]

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  "The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010, and the resulting oil spill began a cascade of effects on the coastal areas of the Gulf and on the wealth of species that inhabit those areas, effects that continue even though oil stopped flowing in July and the well was sealed in September. Gulf coast wetlands, like those elsewhere, have value for water quality, flood control, shoreline protection, and recreation. They serve as nurseries for many species, including fish and shellfish of commercial significance, waterfowl, and a host of resident and migratory species. They also have cultural importance to the people of the Gulf. The effects of the spill come on top of historic wetland losses due to subsidence, drainage, and saltwater intrusion, along with rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and global climate change. Impacts of oil spills on wetland ecosystems depend on multiple factors, including the type of oil, exposure of the oil to weathering factors before it reaches the shore, the season in which the spill occurs, etc. Mitigation and cleanup of damage to wetlands is far from an exact science and involves many tradeoffs; there is no single, best solution. A number of options exist, ranging from mechanical recovery and use of dispersants to doing nothing. Estimating wildlife impacts is particularly difficult in this case because the spill occurred far offshore, and the initial wildlife mortality came far out in the Gulf, where animals sank without reaching the shore. When oil arrived at the shore, more animals began to be counted. Moreover, because the Gulf wetlands host many species of birds during seasonal migrations, impacts of the spill could be felt in areas well away from the Gulf."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Copeland, Claudia

  2010-10-15
• Agriculture-Based Biofuels: Overview and Emerging Issues [October 14, 2010]

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  "Since the late 1970s, U.S. policymakers at both the federal and state levels have enacted a variety of incentives, regulations, and programs to encourage the production and use of agriculture-based biofuels. Initially, federal biofuels policies were developed to help kick-start the biofuels industry during its early development, when neither production capacity nor a market for the finished product was widely available. Federal policy has played a key role in helping to close the price gap between biofuels and cheaper petroleum fuels. Now, as the industry has evolved, other policy goals (e.g., national energy security, climate change concerns, support for rural economies) are cited by proponents as justification for continuing policy support. The U.S. biofuels sector has responded to these government incentives by expanding output every year since 1996, with important implications for the domestic and international food and fuel sectors. The production of ethanol (the primary biofuel produced in the United States) has risen from about 175 million gallons in 1980 to 10.7 billion gallons per year in 2009. U.S. biodiesel production is much smaller than its ethanol counterpart, but has also shown strong growth, rising from 0.5 million gallons in 1999 to an estimated 776 million gallons in 2008 before being impeded by the nationwide financial crisis."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schnepf, Randall Dean, 1954-

  2010-10-14
• CRS Issue Statement on Oil and Natural Gas Markets [January 19, 2010]

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  This issue statement addresses energy security in the United States. From the text: "The sudden plunge of crude oil and gasoline prices in the second half of 2008 eased the urgency of legislative efforts to deal with high prices. In the 111th Congress, the energy focus shifted toward alternative energy sources and related policies regarding global climate change, but a number of oil and gas issues and questions remained to be resolved. Primary among them was the issue of increasing domestic production of conventional oil and gas resources, particularly the long-standing moratorium on oil and gas leasing on much of the Outer Continental Shelf, which the 110th Congress allowed to expire."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Behrens, Carl E.

  2010-01-19
• China and the United States - A Comparison of Green Energy Programs and Policies [June 14, 2010]

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  "Some argue that [unlike China] the United States does not have a comprehensive national policy in place for promotion of renewable energy technologies, with some observers saying that the higher costs of renewable electricity are not conducive to market adoption. However, the reasons for increasing the use of renewable energy are diverse, and include energy security, energy independence, cleaner air, and more recently anthropogenic climate change, sustainability concepts, and economic development [...] Pending legislation in the 111th Congress contains provisions which could serve to increase power generation from renewable energy by establishing market drivers (such as a national renewable electricity standard) which could catalyze U.S. renewable electricity development."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Campbell, Richard J.

  2010-06-14
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) [June 19, 2009]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (or storage)--known as CCS--has attracted interest as a measure for mitigating global climate change because large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted from fossil fuel use in the United States are potentially available to be captured and stored underground or prevented from reaching the atmosphere. Large, industrial sources of CO2, such as electricity-generating plants, are likely initial candidates for CCS because they are predominantly stationary, single-point sources. Electricity generation contributes over 40% of U.S. CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. [...]. The increase in funding for CCS provided for in ARRA [American Recovery and Reinvestment Act] and by other economic incentives may lead to less expensive and more effective technologies for capturing large quantities of CO2. Without a carbon price or a regulatory requirement to cap CO2 emissions, however, it will be difficult to predict or evaluate how the technology would be deployed throughout the U.S. energy sector. By comparison, transporting, injecting, and storing CO2 underground may be less daunting. A large pipeline infrastructure for transporting CO2 could be very costly, however, and considerable uncertainty remains over how large quantities of injected CO2 would be permanently stored underground. To help resolve these uncertainties, DOE has initiated large-scale CO2 injection tests in a variety of geologic reservoirs that are to take place over the next several years."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-06-19
• Mexico-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress [May 13, 2009]

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  "The United States and Mexico have a close and complex bilateral relationship, with extensive economic linkages as neighbors and partners under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Bilateral relations are close, and characterized by extensive commercial and cultural ties and cooperation on a range of bilateral and international issues. A current bilateral dispute involves the implementation of NAFTA trucking provisions. In March 2009, Congress terminated a pilot-project for Mexican-registered trucks to operate beyond the border commercial zone, and Mexico responded by imposing import tariffs on over 90 U.S. agricultural and industrial products. […].President Barack Obama traveled to Mexico on April 16-17, 2009 to discuss cooperation in the fight against drug-related violence, immigration reform, and clean energy and climate change. This had been preceded by visits in March by Secretary of State Clinton, who discussed a broad range of bilateral issues, including Mérida Initiative cooperation, and Secretary of Homeland Security Napolitano, and Attorney General Eric Holder who emphasized new anti-crime efforts. On April 24, 2009, Mexico's Health Ministry announced an outbreak of a new influenza strain, subsequently dubbed influenza A(H1N1). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention issued a travel health warning on April 27 advising U.S. citizens to avoid all nonessential travel to Mexico. The Calderón government took significant measures to combat the outbreak, which began to ease in early May 2009. The influenza outbreak will likely have a significant negative effect on the Mexican economy, which already has been experiencing a severe downturn because of the global financial crisis and U.S. recession."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Beittel, June S.

  2009-05-13
• Australia: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated August 8, 2008]

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  "The Commonwealth of Australia and the United States are very close allies. Australia shares similar cultural traditions and values with the United States and has been a treaty ally since the signing of the Australia-New Zealand-United States (ANZUS) Treaty in 1951. Australia made major contributions to the allied cause in both the first and second World Wars and has been a staunch ally of Britain and the United States in their conflicts. Under the former Liberal government of John Howard, Australia invoked the ANZUS treaty to offer assistance to the United States after the attacks of September 11, 2001, in which 22 Australians were among the dead. Australia was one of the first countries to commit troops to U.S. military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. […]. Kevin Rudd, of the Labor Party, was elected prime minister on November 24, 2007. While Rudd has expressed his desire to draw down Australian military forces in Iraq and has reversed Australia's position on climate change--by signing the Kyoto protocols--relations with the United States are expected to remain very close. Rudd has signaled that he does not plan to significantly alter Australia's defense policy and that he sees the United States as a key source of stability in the Asia-Pacific region."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

  2008-08-08
• Energy Efficiency: Budget, Oil Conservation, and Electricity Conservation Issues [Updated March 27, 2006]

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  "Energy security, a major driver of federal energy efficiency programs in the past, came back into play as oil and gas prices rose late in the year 2000. The terrorist attack in 2001 and the Iraq war have heightened concern for energy security and raised further concerns about the vulnerability of energy infrastructure and the need for alternative fuels. Further, the 2001 power shortages in California, the 2003 northeast-midwest power blackout, and continuing high natural gas and oil prices have renewed emphasis on energy efficiency and energy conservation to dampen oil, electricity, and natural gas demand. Also, worldwide emphasis on environmental problems of air and water pollution and global climate change, the related development of clean energy technologies in western Europe and Japan, and technology competitiveness may remain important influences on energy efficiency policymaking."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sissine, Fred J.

  2006-03-27
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 108th Congress [Updated October 25, 2004]

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  "This issue brief provides an overview of some of the key environmental protection issues that have been and are likely to continue to be the focus of public and congressional attention. The individual sections below on specific issues reference more detailed CRS reports. Initially, the 108th Congress finalized FY2003 funding not completed by the 107th Congress. A number of other key issues have seen, or are likely to see, action in the 108th Congress, including leaking underground storage tanks that may contaminate water supplies, wastewater treatment utility and chemical facility security, expanding authority for an EPA ombudsman, environmental concerns in surface transportation reauthorization legislation, brownfields grants, environmental issues in comprehensive energy legislation, and defense cleanup and military/environment issues. These issues are discussed in this report, along with other issues likely to be on the environmental agenda: Clean Air Act issues; Clean Water Act; Safe Drinking Water Act; climate change; and alternative fuels and vehicles. The major emphasis in this issue brief is on pollution-related issues; environmental issues focused on natural resource management are not included here."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Isler, Margaret

  2004-01-28
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Coastal Wetland and Wildlife Impacts and Response [July 7, 2010]

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  "The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010, and the resulting oil spill began a cascade of effects on the coastal areas of the Gulf and on the wealth of species that inhabit those areas. These wetlands, like those elsewhere, have value for water quality, flood control, shoreline protection, and recreation. They serve as nurseries for many species, including fish and shellfish of commercial significance, waterfowl, and a host of resident and migratory species. They also have cultural importance to the people of the Gulf. The effects of the spill come on top of historic wetland losses due to subsidence, drainage, and saltwater intrusion, along with rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and global climate change. [...] Oil has reached more than 10% of Gulf shoreline, but until oil from the well stops flowing, very little cleanup of wetlands is occurring, because of both the ongoing risk of greater harm from cleanup and the potential for re-oiling. As cleanup proceeds, a number of questions arise. To cite only two, what factors will determine cleanup strategies, and how are needs to improve scientific understanding of the spill's impacts being considered?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copeland, Claudia; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-

  2010-07-07
• Security and the Environment in Pakistan [August 3, 2010]

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  "This report focuses on the nexus between security and environmental concerns in Pakistan that have the potential to affect American security and foreign policy interests. Environmental concerns include, but are not limited to, water and food scarcity, natural disasters, and the effects of climate change. Environmental stresses, when combined with the other socio-economic and political stresses on Pakistan, have the potential to further weaken an already weak Pakistani state. Such a scenario would make it more difficult to achieve the U.S. goal of neutralizing anti- Western terrorists in Pakistan. Some analysts argue that disagreements over water could also exacerbate existing tensions between India and Pakistan. Given the importance of this region to U.S. interests for many reasons, the report identifies an issue that may be of increasing concern for Congress in the years ahead. The report examines the potentially destabilizing effect that, when combined with Pakistan's demographic trends and limited economic development, water scarcity, limited arable land, and food security may have on an already radicalized internal and destabilized international politicalsecurity environment. The report considers the especially important hypothesis that the combination of these factors could contribute to Pakistan's decline as a fully functioning state, creating new, or expanding existing, largely ungoverned areas."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-; Sheikh, Pervaze A.

  2010-08-03
• Advanced Research Projects Agency - Energy (ARPA-E): Background, Status, and Selected Issues for Congress [June 20, 2008]

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  "In August 2007, Congress authorized the establishment of the Advanced Research Projects Agency - Energy (ARPA-E) within the Department of Energy (DOE) as part of the America COMPETES Act (P.L. 110-69). Modeled on the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), ARPA-E would support transformational energy technology research projects with the goal of enhancing the nation's economic and energy security. […] Some have proposed funding ARPA-E through a mechanism that differs from the usual single-year appropriations process to enhance its ability to conduct risky research without being subject to the annual appropriations cycle, political and financial pressures, and resource fluctuations that might stifle innovation. One option is for Congress to provide a multi-year advance appropriation. Another is for Congress to identify a revenue source. Some of the funding sources that have been proposed are repeal of oil industry tax and other incentives; gasoline tax; oil company profit tax; federal oil and gas royalties; climate change cap-and-trade program; and Strategic Petroleum Reserve funds. On the basis of past experience, however, each of these proposals would face challenges in Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Stine, Deborah D.

  2008-06-20
• Federal Programs Related to Indoor Pollution by Chemicals [July 23, 2012]

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  "Because people spend a high percentage of their time indoors, and concentrations of pollutants often are higher in indoor air than outdoors, the human health risks indoors generally can be greater relative to risks from exposure to pollutants in the ambient (i.e., outdoor) air. In 1987, indoor air quality was identified by EPA [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency] scientists as one of the greatest sources of environmental risk to human health. EPA's Science Advisory Board, an independent body of experts, reviewed and endorsed this comparative risk ranking and in 1990 called upon the agency to give a higher priority to funding such high-risk environmental problems. In 1997, the Presidential and Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management again considered the relative risks presented by various environmental problems and concluded that indoor pollution could pose a substantial public health risk. In 2011, a report by the Institute of Medicine warned that many indoor air quality problems might get worse if adaptations to climate change are made without better information and programs aimed at pollution prevention. For example, methods to make homes better insulated and more energy efficient may result in less circulation with outdoor air, potentially increasing indoor concentrations of pollutants unless effective filtration or treatment technologies can be incorporated. This report describes common indoor pollutants, discusses federal statutes that have been used to address indoor pollution, and analyzes key issues surrounding some general policy options for federal policy makers. The focus is on indoor chemical contaminants, rather than on temperature, humidity, or pollution from animals, fungal or bacterial organisms, or plant pests."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schierow, Linda-Jo; Bearden, David M.

  2012-07-23
• Clean Air Issues in the 112th Congress [August 7, 2012]

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  "Air quality has improved substantially in the United States in the 40 years of EPA's [Environmental Protection Agency] Clean Air Act regulation, but more needs to be done, according to the agency's science advisers, to protect public health and the environment from the effects of air pollution. Thus, the agency continues to promulgate regulations addressing air pollution using authority given it by Congress more than 20 years ago. In the 112th Congress, Members from both parties have raised questions about the cost-effectiveness of some of these regulations and/or whether the agency has exceeded its regulatory authority in promulgating them. Others in Congress have supported EPA, noting that the Clean Air Act, often affirmed in court decisions, has authorized or required the agency's actions. EPA's regulatory actions on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have been one focus of congressional interest. Although the Obama Administration has consistently said that it would prefer that Congress pass new legislation to address climate change, such legislation now appears unlikely. Instead, over the last three years, EPA has developed GHG regulations using its existing Clean Air Act authority. EPA finalized GHG emission standards for cars and light trucks on April 1, 2010, and for larger trucks, August 9, 2011. The implementation of these standards, in turn, triggered permitting and Best Available Control Technology requirements for new major stationary sources of GHGs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.

  2012-08-07
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Appropriations for FY2013 [September 6, 2012]

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  "As reported July 10, 2012, by the House Committee on Appropriations, Title II of H.R [House Resolution] 6091, the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Act, 2013, included a total of $7.06 billion for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for FY2013, $1.28 billion (15.5%) below the President's FY2013 request of $8.34 billion, and $1.39 billion (16.5%) below the FY2012 enacted appropriation of $8.45 billion. Although the House committee-reported bill proposed an overall decrease for EPA, it included both decreases and increases in funding for many individual programs and activities in the eight appropriations accounts that fund the agency compared with the FY2013 requested and FY2012 enacted levels. Since FY2006, Congress has funded EPA accounts within the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies appropriations. [...] Other prominent issues that have received attention within the context of EPA appropriations include the level of funding for implementing certain air pollution control requirements including greenhouse gas emission regulations, climate change research and related activities, cleanup of hazardous waste sites under the Superfund program, cleanup of sites that tend to be less hazardous (referred to as brownfields), and cleanup of petroleum from leaking underground tanks. [...] In addition to funding priorities among the many pollution control programs and activities, several recent and pending EPA regulatory actions continue to be controversial in the FY2013 appropriations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Esworthy, Robert; Bearden, David M.; Tiemann, Mary

  2012-09-06
• Automobile and Truck Fuel Economy (CAFE) and Greenhouse Gas Standards [September 11, 2012]

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  "In recent years, as oil and gasoline prices have risen and concerns over greenhouse gas emissions and climate change have grown, there has been a resurgence of interest in the fuel economy and emissions of motor vehicles in the United States. Federal fuel economy and greenhouse gas standards have become a focal point for addressing these concerns. The debate over rising fuel efficiency and greenhouse gas standards for passenger vehicles and heavy trucks has been controversial. Proponents of higher fuel economy argue that new standards will create incentives for the development of new technologies that will help reduce oil consumption and limit greenhouse gas emissions. Critics argue that these standards will impose regulatory costs which will distort the market for new vehicles, and that other policy mechanisms would be more effective at reducing petroleum consumption and emissions (e.g., higher fuel taxes)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.; Canis, Bill; Lattanzio, Richard K.

  2012-09-11
• Energy Policy: Election Year Issues and Legislative Proposals [September 24, 2012]

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  "U.S. energy policy since the Arab oil embargo in the 1970s has been aimed at a long-term goal with three major dimensions: to assure a secure supply of energy, to keep energy costs low enough to meet the needs of a growing economy, and to protect the environment while producing and consuming that energy. A continuing theme during this period has been that dependence on imported oil for a large share of the U.S. energy mix, particularly in the transportation sector, impedes that aim in all three dimensions, but the importance given to import dependence varies. For some, import dependence is the primary concern; for others, particularly those focused on environmental issues, it is a symptom of a general crisis that arises from indiscriminate consumption of fossil fuels. A particularly controversial aspect of the debate is the issue of global climate change, because burning fossil fuels produces large amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Like the goals of energy policy, the means of achieving them have three dimensions: reducing consumption by increased energy efficiency; increasing domestic production of conventional energy sources, particularly oil; and developing new sources of energy, particularly renewable energy and renewable fuels, that can replace oil and other fossil fuels. Pursuing the goals of energy policy has been complicated by the diversity of energy consumption and supply in the United States. On the consumption side, there are three major sectors: residential/commercial, industrial, and transportation. On the supply side, the primary sources have traditionally been fossil energy: petroleum, natural gas (and 'natural gas liquids' such as propane and butane), and coal. Electricity, which is both an energy source and a consumer of energy, has replaced some fossil fuels: about 75% of the energy consumed by the residential/commercial sector is electricity, and industrial energy consumption is about 35% electricity. But in the transportation sector, petroleum has remained dominant. Only in the past few years has corn-derived ethanol become a significant transportation fuel, replacing close to 10% of gasoline consumption. A diverse spectrum of generating sources is used to produce electricity. Coal for many years supplied half the electricity generated nationally. In recent years its share has declined; it was about 42% in 2011."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Behrens, Carl E.

  2012-09-24
• Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [September 2, 2011]

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  "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. On January 12, 2009, the George W. Bush Administration released a presidential directive, called National Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD 66/HSPD 25), establishing a new U.S. policy for the Arctic region. Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, and to the implications of projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. The Arctic has been projected by several scientists to be perennially ice-free in the late summer by the late 2030s. The five Arctic coastal states--the United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (of which Greenland is a territory)--are in the process of preparing Arctic territorial claims for submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. […] The Arctic has increasingly become a subject of discussion among political leaders of the nations in the region. Although there is significant international cooperation on Arctic issues, the Arctic is also increasingly being viewed by some observers as a potential emerging security issue. In varying degrees, the Arctic coastal states have indicated a willingness to establish and maintain a military presence in the high north. U.S. military forces, particularly the Navy and Coast Guard, have begun to pay more attention to the region."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2011-09-02
• Energy Policy: 113th Congress Issues [January 3, 2013]

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  "Energy policy in the United States has focused on three major goals: assuring a secure supply of energy, keeping energy costs low, and protecting the environment. In pursuit of those goals, government programs have been developed to improve the efficiency with which energy is utilized, to promote the domestic production of conventional energy sources, and to develop new energy sources, particularly renewable sources. Implementing these programs has been controversial because of varying importance given to different aspects of energy policy. For some, dependence on imports of foreign oil, particularly from the Persian Gulf, is the primary concern; for others, the indiscriminate use of fossil fuels, whatever their origin, is most important. The contribution of burning fossil fuels to global climate change is particularly controversial. Another dichotomy is between those who see government intervention as a positive force and those who view it as a necessary evil at best."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Behrens, Carl E.

  2013-01-03