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• Voluntary Carbon Offsets: Overview and Assessment [November 7, 2007]

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  "Businesses and individuals are buying carbon offsets to reduce their 'carbon footprint' or to categorize an activity as 'carbon neutral.' A carbon offset is a measurable avoidance, reduction, or sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) or other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Offsets generally fall within the following four categories: biological sequestration, renewable energy, energy efficiency, and reduction of non-CO2 emissions. In terms of the carbon concentration in the atmosphere, an emission reduction, avoidance, or sequestration is beneficial regardless of where or how it occurs. A credible offset equates to an emission reduction from a direct emission source, such as a smokestack or exhaust pipe. The core issue for carbon offset projects is: do they actually offset emissions generated elsewhere? If the credibility of the voluntary offsets is uncertain, claims of carbon neutrality may be challenged. […] The viability of the voluntary offset market may influence future policy decisions regarding climate change mitigation. For example, credible offsets could play an important role, particularly in terms of cost-effectiveness, in an emissions control regime. There is some concern that the range in the quality of voluntary market offsets may damage the overall credibility of carbon offsets. If this occurs, it may affect policy decisions concerning whether or not to include offsets as an option in a mandatory reduction program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2007-11-07
• Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Legislation in the 109th Congress [April 12, 2005]

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  "This report reviews the status of energy efficiency and renewable energy legislation introduced during the 109th Congress. It summarizes action on more than 50 energy efficiency and renewable energy bills. These bills cover a wide range of policy and issue areas that include appropriations, authorizations, research and development, grants, loans, financing, regulation (including a renewable portfolio standard), tax credits, goals, plans, impacts, and the environment/climate change. So far, most of these bills have focused on tax credits and incentives. The bills also cover a range of sectors that include buildings, defense, education, federal lands/ energy management, farms, American Indians, and international activities. Thus far, the sector of federal lands/energy management has generated the greatest number of bills."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sissine, Fred J.

  2005-04-12
• Science and Technology Policy: Issues for the 109th Congress [March 28, 2005]

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  "Science and technology have a pervasive influence over a wide range of issues confronting the nation. Decisions on how much federal funding to invest in research and development (R&D), and determining what programs have the highest priority, for example, may have implications for homeland security, new high technology industries, government/private sector cooperation in R&D, and myriad other areas. This report indicates the sweep of science and technology in many public policy issues, although it cannot provide a comprehensive examination of every science or technology issue which may be of interest to Congress. In some areas, such as global climate change and stem cell research, the importance of science and technology is explicit and in the forefront of the policy debate. In others, such as patent protection and telecommunications reform, science and technology may not be as explicit, but are important drivers affecting how policy makers may make decisions. This report also addresses key issues that directly affect, or are affected by, science and technology."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Smith, Marcia S.

  2005-03-28
• Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [July 21, 2010]

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  "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened concerns about the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. On January 12, 2009, the George W. Bush Administration released a presidential directive, called National Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD 66/HSPD 25), establishing a new U.S. policy for the Arctic region. Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, and to the implications of projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. The Arctic has been projected by several scientists to be perennially ice-free in the late summer by the late 2030s. The five Arctic coastal states--the United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (of which Greenland is a territory)--are in the process of preparing Arctic territorial claims for submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. The Russian claim to the enormous underwater Lomonosov Ridge, if accepted, would reportedly grant Russia nearly onehalf of the Arctic area. There are also four other unresolved Arctic territorial disputes. The diminishment of Arctic ice could lead in the coming years to increased commercial shipping on two trans-Arctic sea routes. Current international guidelines for ships operating in Arctic waters are being updated, with a targeted completion date of 2010."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2010-07-21
• Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [March 30, 2010]

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  "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened concerns about the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. On January 12, 2009, the George W. Bush Administration released a presidential directive, called National Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD 66/HSPD 25), establishing a new U.S. policy for the Arctic region. Record low extent of Arctic sea ice in 2007 focused scientific and policy attention on its linkage to global climate change, and to the implications of projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. The Arctic has been projected by several scientists to be perennially ice-free in the late summer by the late 2030s. The five Arctic coastal states--the United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (of which Greenland is a territory)--are in the process of preparing Arctic territorial claims for submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. The Russian claim to the enormous underwater Lomonosov Ridge, if accepted, would reportedly grant Russia nearly onehalf of the Arctic area. There are also four other unresolved Arctic territorial disputes. The diminishment of Arctic ice could lead in the coming years to increased commercial shipping on two trans-Arctic sea routes. Current international guidelines for ships operating in Arctic waters are being updated, with a targeted completion date of 2010."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2010-03-30
• Federal Budget: Current and Upcoming Issues [December 31, 2009]

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  "The federal budget helps implement Congress's 'power of the purse' by expressing Congress's spending priorities among competing aims. The Obama Administration's FY2010 budget described several important changes, including increased funding for certain domestic priorities, major programmatic reforms, and proposed spending cuts in some programs. The current economic climate continues to pose major challenges to policymakers. Federal spending tied to means-tested social programs rose due to rising unemployment, while federal revenues are projected to fall as individuals' incomes have dropped and corporate profits have sunk. Federal deficits, according to OMB and CBO projections, will likely be high relative to historic norms over the next few years, as spending rises and revenues fall relative to previously anticipated levels. FY2009 outlays rose to $3,522 billion (24.9% of GDP) and revenues fell to $2,105 billion (14.7% of GDP), yielding a total federal deficit of $1,417 billion (10.0% of GDP)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Austin, D. Andrew; Levit, Mindy R.

  2009-12-31
• Environmental Protection Issues in the 108th Congress [Updated January 28, 2004]

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  "This issue brief provides an overview of some of the key environmental protection issues that have been and are likely to continue to be the focus of public and congressional attention. The individual sections below on specific issues reference more detailed CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports. Initially, the 108th Congress finalized FY2003 funding not completed by the 107th Congress. A consolidated appropriations act, H.J.Res. 2 (P.L. 108-7), included $8.0 billion for EPA. Budgetary attention next turned to the FY2004 appropriations, for which the EPA request was $7.6 billion. The House approved $8.0 billion in H.R. 2861, amended, on July 25 (H.Rept. 108-235). The Senate approved $8.1 billion in H.R. 2861, amended (S. 1584, S.Rept. 108-143), on November 18, 2003. Since October 1, continuing resolutions have funded EPA at the FY2003 level of $8.08 billion. A conference-approved omnibus appropriation bill, H.R. 2673 (H.Rept. 108- 401), funding EPA at $8.4 billion for FY2004 was signed into law on January 23, 2004 (P.L. 108-199). A number of other key issues have seen, or are likely to see, action in the 108th Congress, including leaking underground storage tanks that may contaminate water supplies, wastewater treatment utility and chemical facility security, expanding authority for an EPA ombudsman, environmental concerns in surface transportation reauthorization legislation, brownfields grants, environmental issues in comprehensive energy legislation, and defense cleanup and military/environment issues. These issues are discussed in this report, along with other issues likely to be on the environmental agenda: Clean Air Act issues; Clean Water Act; Safe Drinking Water Act; climate change; and alternative fuels and vehicles. (The major emphasis in this issue brief is on pollution-related issues; environmental issues focused on natural resource management are not included here.)"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.; Isler, Margaret

  2004-01-28
• Wildfire Fuels and Fuel Reduction [May 13, 2013]

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  "Recent fire seasons have been getting more severe, with more acres burned and more damage to property and resources. More acres burned in 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2011, and 2012 than in any other years since record-keeping began in 1960. Many assert that the threat of severe wildfires and the cost of suppressing fires have grown because many forests have unnaturally high amounts of biomass to fuel the fires, as well as because of climate change and the increasing numbers of homes in and near forests (the 'wildland-urban interface'). Further, many believe that federal efforts to reduce biomass accumulations to historically natural levels have been hindered by public concerns about the impacts; others contend that some proposed activities will lead to commercial timber harvests with little or no fire protection benefits. Congress is considering proposals to authorize and/or fund various activities to reduce biomass fuels and to alter the public review processes for some of those actions (e.g., H.R. 1345). This report examines wildfire biomass fuels. It begins with a discussion of fuel characteristics and their relation to wildfire intensity and spread. This is followed with a description of actions proposed to reduce biomass fuel levels, their effectiveness for protecting property and resources from wildfires, and their impacts on other resource values. It concludes with an examination of the federal authorities for fuel reduction activities on federal and nonfederal lands, together with data on the funding provided under each of these authorities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bracmort, Kelsi

  2013-05-13
• Advanced Research Projects Agency - Energy (ARPA-E): Background, Status, and Selected Issues for Congress [Updated August 12, 2008]

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  "In August 2007, Congress authorized the establishment of the Advanced Research Projects Agency - Energy (ARPA-E) within the Department of Energy (DOE) as part of the America COMPETES Act (P.L. 110-69). Modeled on the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), ARPA-E would support transformational energy technology research projects with the goal of enhancing the nation's economic and energy security. […] Some have proposed funding ARPA-E through a mechanism that differs from the usual single-year appropriations process to enhance its ability to conduct risky research without being subject to the annual appropriations cycle, political and financial pressures, and resource fluctuations that might stifle innovation. One option is for Congress to provide a multi-year advance appropriation. Another is for Congress to identify a revenue source. Some of the funding sources that have been proposed are repeal of oil industry tax and other incentives; gasoline tax; oil company profit tax; federal oil and gas royalties; climate change cap-and-trade program; and Strategic Petroleum Reserve funds. On the basis of past experience, however, each of these proposals would face challenges in Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Stine, Deborah D.

  2008-08-12
• Alternative Fuels and Advanced Technology Vehicles: Issues in Congress [April 4, 2013]

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  "High levels of oil imports and high crude oil and gasoline prices in recent years have led to increased interest in the U.S. fuel supply. Recent congressional interest has focused on alternatives to petroleum, ways to improve the efficiency of the U.S. transportation sector, and ways to improve the stability and security of the petroleum supply and refining sectors. From spring 2006 to summer 2008, high global oil prices (spurred by high demand) and refinery constraints in the domestic gasoline supply pushed U.S. gasoline pump prices to historic highs. In spring 2011, exports of oil from Libya caused a similar spike in oil prices. Historically, a problem in maintaining interest in alternative fuels and vehicles has been the volatility in oil and gasoline prices. Interest tends to rise as prices rise, and decline as prices dip. Arguably, statutory policies can counterbalance dips in public interest in periods of mixed market signals as seen recently. In fall 2006 and winter 2007, gasoline prices eased somewhat before rising significantly through summer 2008; and after summer 2008, petroleum and gasoline prices fell dramatically. They rose steadily through 2009 and 2010, peaking in spring 2011 before tempering somewhat and remaining relatively stable through 2012. Along with fuel prices and supply, environmental concerns, especially poor air quality and concerns over the potential effects of climate change, have further raised interest in the development of alternatives to petroleum, as well as ways to use petroleum more efficiently. Key components of federal policies to reduce petroleum consumption include the promotion of alternatives to petroleum fuels and the promotion of more efficient vehicles. This report provides an overview of current issues surrounding alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles-- issues discussed in further detail in other CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports referred to in each section."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2013-04-04
• State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2013 Budget and Appropriations [April 2, 2013]

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  "International affairs expenditures typically amount to about 1.5% of the total federal budget. While some foreign policy and defense experts view that share as a small price to pay for a robust foreign affairs budget that they believe is essential to meeting national security and foreign policy objectives, others see international affairs spending, particularly foreign aid, as an attractive target for significant spending cuts in order to reduce deficit spending. On February 13, 2012, the Obama Administration submitted its FY2013 budget proposal. The FY2013 request totaled $54.87 billion for the State-Foreign Operations appropriations, including a core budget proposal of $46.63 billion plus $8.24 billion for extraordinary and temporary war-related Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) in frontline states. The total request represented an increase of 2.6% over the estimated FY2012 funding level for the foreign affairs accounts, including $18.8 billion (a 4.5% increase) for State Department and Related Agencies and $36.1 billion (a 0.1% increase) for Foreign Operations. Within the regular budget process, the Administration requested authority in addition to appropriations ($770 million) for a new account--the Middle East and North Africa Incentive Fund (MENA IF)--to provide flexible and transparent support for Arab Spring countries in transition toward democracy. The foreign affairs request included $8.2 billion for the frontline states of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. For other key accounts, the Administration sought $7.9 billion for the Global Health Programs (GHP) account, $770 million for global climate change activities, and $643 million for family planning and reproductive health activities, including $39 million for the controversial U.N. Population Fund (UNFPA)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo; Tiersky, Alex L.

  2013-04-02
• Role of Federal Gasoline Excise Taxes in Public Policy [September 11, 2009]

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  "American drivers, compared to those in other industrialized nations in Europe, pay relatively low federal, state, and local gasoline and diesel excise taxes. The Federal taxes are used specifically to fund annual highway construction, maintenance, and mass transit. Over the years, proposals have come forth to raise the federal tax as a way to address long-standing national policy concerns, including U.S. dependence on imported oil and various environmental problems related to large volumes of gasoline consumption. Policy attention on the role of the gasoline tax has also increased recently due to three major developments. First, the 2008 oil and gasoline price run-up and subsequent economic downturn have led to a decline in gasoline tax revenues available for needed highway construction and maintenance. Second, the possibility of enacting some form of binding climate change legislation in the next several years will eventually mean an increase in the relative price of fossil fuels, including oil and gasoline. Third, the volatility of gasoline prices has affected investment planning (e.g. for alternative fuels) and arguably contributed to the troubles facing domestic automobile manufacturers. In the above context, this report outlines some of the macroeconomic and microeconomic pros and cons of using the federal gasoline excise tax for policy purposes in addition to the funding of highway infrastructure."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Pirog, Robert L.

  2009-09-11
• United States and Europe: Current Issues [March 16, 2009]

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  "Many observers stress that in terms of security and prosperity the United States and Europe have grown increasingly interdependent. Both sides of the Atlantic face a common set of challenges, including terrorism and transnational crime, weapons proliferation, energy security, climate change and environmental degradation, the destabilizing effects of failing and rogue states, and instability in global financial markets. Both sides are proponents of democracy, open societies, human rights, and free markets. Supporters of close U.S.-European cooperation argue that neither the United States nor Europe can adequately address such an agenda alone, and that the track record shows that the two sides can accomplish much more when they work together. […] This report discusses nine broad topics selected as key issues in U.S.-European interests and relations. It does not represent a full survey of what would be a very long list of global issues that relate to important U.S. and European interests. For example, the United States and Europe share concerns about democratization in countries like Belarus and others around the world. Both sides share concerns about stability in the Balkans, Ukraine, Georgia, the Caucasus region and central Asia. Relations with countries such as China, India, and Turkey, as well as the countries of Africa, are of great importance to both. While not every such important topic is covered in this report, the nine issues that are presented are intended to capture a broad overview of some of the highest priority items on the transatlantic agenda."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mix, Derek E.

  2009-03-16
• Agriculture-Based Biofuels: Overview and Emerging Issues [May 1, 2013]

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  "Increasing dependence on foreign sources of crude oil, concerns over global climate change, and the desire to promote domestic rural economies have raised interest in renewable biofuels as an alternative to petroleum in the U.S. transportation sector. However, energy from renewable sources has historically been more expensive to produce and use than fossil-fuel-based energy. U.S. policymakers have attempted to overcome this economic impediment by enacting an increasing number of policies since the late 1970s, at both the state and federal levels, to directly support U.S. biofuels production and use. Policy measures have included blending and production tax credits to lower the cost of biofuels to end users, an import tariff to protect domestic ethanol from cheaper foreign-produced ethanol, research grants to stimulate the development of new technologies, loans and loan guarantees to facilitate the development of biofuels production and distribution infrastructure, and, perhaps most importantly, minimum usage requirements to guarantee a market for biofuels irrespective of their cost. This report describes agriculture-based biofuels and the evolution of the U.S. biofuels sector with a focus on the role that federal policy has played in shaping its development. In addition, it highlights emerging issues that are critical to the biofuels sector and of relevance to Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schnepf, Randall Dean, 1954-

  2013-05-01
• Ethanol and Other Biofuels: Potential for U.S.-Brazil Energy Cooperation [September 27, 2007]

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  "Recent high oil and gas prices and concerns about global climate change have heightened interest in ethanol and other biofuels as alternatives to petroleum products. The Western Hemisphere produces more than 80% of the world's biofuels, led by Brazil (producing sugar-based ethanol) and the United States (producing cornbased ethanol). Some have argued that increasing biofuels production in Latin America could bolster energy security, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote rural development in the region. Others are concerned about the huge investment outlays and government subsidies needed to build up nascent biofuels industries. Skeptics also worry about the potential negative effects that increased biofuels production may have on the environment, labor conditions, and food prices in the region. The United States and Brazil, the world's largest ethanol producers, have recently agreed to work together to promote the use and production of ethanol and other biofuels throughout the Western hemisphere. Increasing U.S.-Brazil energy cooperation was a top agenda issue when President Bush visited Brazil and when President Lula visited Camp David earlier this year. On March 9, 2007, the two countries signed an agreement to (1) advance research and development bilaterally, (2) help build domestic biofuels industries in third countries, and (3) work multilaterally to advance the global development of biofuels. […] This report examines the opportunities and barriers related to increasing U.S. cooperation with other countries in the hemisphere on biofuels development, focusing on the U.S.-Brazil agreement. It provides background information on Western hemisphere energy challenges, the ethanol industries in Brazil and the United States, and the biofuels potential in the region. It then raises a number of policy issues that Congress may choose to consider related to bolstering the development of ethanol and other biofuels in Latin America."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando; Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2007-09-27
• International Environmental Financing: The Global Environment Facility (GEF) [June 3, 2013]

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  "The United States contributes funding to various international financial institutions to assist developing countries to address global climate change and other environmental concerns. Congress is responsible for several activities in this regard, including (1) authorizing periodic appropriations for U.S. financial contributions to the institutions, and (2) overseeing U.S. involvement in the programs. Issues of congressional interest include the overall development assistance strategy of the United States, U.S. leadership in global environmental and economic affairs, and U.S. commercial interests in trade and investment. This report provides an overview of one of the oldest international financial institutions for the environment--the Global Environment Facility (GEF)--and analyzes its structure, funding, and objectives in light of the many challenges within the contemporary landscape of global environmental finance. […] The future of GEF remains in the hands of the donor countries, including the United States, which can choose to broaden the mandate and/or strengthen its institutional arrangements or reduce and replace it by other bilateral or multilateral funding mechanisms."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lattanzio, Richard K.

  2013-06-03
• Energy Policy: 113th Congress Issues [May 30, 2013]

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  "Energy policy in the United States has focused on three major goals: assuring a secure supply of energy, keeping energy costs low, and protecting the environment. In pursuit of those goals, government programs have been developed to improve the efficiency with which energy is utilized, to promote the domestic production of conventional energy sources, and to develop new energy sources, particularly renewable sources. Implementing these programs has been controversial because of varying importance given to different aspects of energy policy. For some, dependence on imports of foreign oil, particularly from the Persian Gulf, is the primary concern; for others, the indiscriminate use of fossil fuels, whatever their origin, is most important. The contribution of burning fossil fuels to global climate change is particularly controversial. Another dichotomy is between those who see government intervention as a positive force and those who view it as a necessary evil at best."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Behrens, Carl E.

  2013-05-30
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS): A Primer [July 16, 2013]

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  "Carbon capture and sequestration (or storage)--known as CCS--is a physical process that involves capturing manmade carbon dioxide (CO2) at its source and storing it before its release to the atmosphere. CCS could reduce the amount of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere despite the continued use of fossil fuels. An integrated CCS system would include three main steps: (1) capturing CO2 and separating it from other gases; (2) purifying, compressing, and transporting the captured CO2 to the sequestration site; and (3) injecting the CO2 in subsurface geological reservoirs or storing it in the oceans. As a measure for mitigating global climate change, CCS has attracted congressional interest and support because several projects in the United States and abroad--typically associated with oil and gas production--are successfully capturing, injecting, and storing CO2 underground, albeit at relatively small scales. The oil and gas industry in the United States injects nearly 50 million metric tons of CO2 underground each year to help recover oil and gas resources (a process known as enhanced oil recovery, or EOR). Potentially, much larger amounts of CO2 produced from electricity generation--approximately 2.1 billion metric tons per year, about 40% of the total CO2 emitted in the United States from fossil fuels (see Table 1)--could be targeted for large-scale CCS."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2013-07-16
• Energy Policy: 113th Congress Issues [July 25, 2013]

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  "U.S. energy policy since the Arab oil embargo in the 1970s has been aimed at a long-term goal with three major dimensions: to assure a secure supply of energy, to keep energy costs low enough to meet the needs of a growing economy, and to protect the environment while producing and consuming that energy. A continuing theme during this period has been that dependence on imported oil for a large share of the U.S. energy mix, particularly in the transportation sector, impedes that aim in all three dimensions, but the importance given to import dependence varies. For some, import dependence is the primary concern; for others, particularly those focused on environmental issues, it is a symptom of a general crisis that arises from indiscriminate consumption of fossil fuels. A particularly controversial aspect of the debate is the issue of global climate change, because burning fossil fuels produces large amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Like the goals of energy policy, the means of achieving them have three dimensions: reducing consumption by increased energy efficiency; increasing domestic production of conventional energy sources, particularly oil; and developing new sources of energy, particularly renewable energy and renewable fuels, that can replace oil and other fossil fuels."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Behrens, Carl E.

  2013-07-25
• Alternative Fuels and Advanced Technology Vehicles: Issues in Congress [February 13, 2009]

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  "Alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles are seen by proponents as integral to improving urban air quality, decreasing dependence on foreign oil, and reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. However, major barriers--especially economics--currently prevent the widespread use of these fuels and technologies. Because of these barriers, and the potential benefits, there is continued congressional interest in providing incentives and other support for their development and commercialization. Alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles have been addressed early in the 111th Congress, as both the House and Senate versions of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (H.R. 1) contained provisions supporting their development and deployment. While some of these provisions were removed in conference, the final version still contains provisions for tax incentives, federal grants and loans, and other federal support for alternative fuels and advanced vehicles. The 111th Congress is likely to further discuss alternative fuels and advanced technology vehicles as it addresses other key topics. These include their role in any federal policy to address climate change, and their role in federal energy policy. The 111th Congress may also play an oversight role in the development of major regulations: the Environmental Protection Agency's implementation of the renewable fuel standard enacted in 2005, and expanded in 2007; the Department of Transportation's implementation of new fuel economy standards enacted in 2007; and the Department of Agriculture's implementation of a new Farm Bill enacted in 2008."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2009-02-13
• Selected Issues Related to an Expansion of the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) [January 23, 2009]

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  "High petroleum and gasoline prices, concerns over global climate change, and the desire to promote domestic rural economies have greatly increased interest in biofuels as an alternative to petroleum in the U.S. transportation sector. Biofuels, most notably corn ethanol, have grown significantly in the past few years as a component of U.S. motor fuel supply. Ethanol, the most commonly used biofuel, is blended in more than half of all U.S. gasoline (at the 10% level or lower in most cases). However, current biofuels supply of 6.8 billion gallons only represents about 4% of total vehicle fuel demand. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA, P.L. 110-140) requires ever-larger amounts of biofuels produced from feedstocks other than corn starch, including sugarcane, oil crops, and cellulose, and promotes the development of these fuels. EISA requires the use of 36 billion gallons of renewable fuels annually in 2022, of which only 15 billion gallons can be ethanol from corn starch. The remaining 21 billion gallons are to be so-called 'advanced biofuels.' The previous RFS [Renewable Fuel Standard] in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58) required the use of only 7.5 billion gallons in 2012, increasing to an expected 8.6 billion gallons in 2022, of which only 250 million gallons of cellulosic biofuels would be required. Although EISA has set the goal of significantly expanding biofuels supply and use in the coming decades, questions remain about the ability of the U.S. biofuels industry to meet the rapidly increasing mandate. Current U.S. biofuels supply relies almost exclusively on ethanol produced from Midwest corn. During the 2008 crop year, 31% of the U.S. corn crop is projected to be used for ethanol production. Due to the concerns with significant expansion in corn-based ethanol supply, interest has grown in expanding the market for biodiesel produced from soybeans and other oil crops. However, a significant increase in U.S. biofuels would likely require a movement away from food and grain crops as feedstocks. Other biofuels feedstock sources, including cellulosic biomass, are promising, but technological barriers make their future uncertain."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.; Capehart, Tom

  2009-01-23
• Energy Policy: 113th Congress Issues [July 17, 2013]

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  "Energy policy in the United States has focused on three major goals: assuring a secure supply of energy, keeping energy costs low, and protecting the environment. In pursuit of those goals, government programs have been developed to improve the efficiency with which energy is utilized, to promote the domestic production of conventional energy sources, and to develop new energy sources, particularly renewable sources. Implementing these programs has been controversial because of varying importance given to different aspects of energy policy. For some, dependence on imports of foreign oil, particularly from the Persian Gulf, is the primary concern; for others, the indiscriminate use of fossil fuels, whatever their origin, is most important. The contribution of burning fossil fuels to global climate change is particularly controversial. Another dichotomy is between those who see government intervention as a positive force and those who view it as a necessary evil at best."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Behrens, Carl E.

  2013-07-17
• Clean Air Issues in the 113th Congress: An Overview [March 10, 2014]

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  "Air quality has improved substantially in the United States in the 40 years of EPA's Clean Air Act (CAA) regulation. According to the agency's science advisers and others, however, more needs to be done to protect public health and the environment from the effects of air pollution. Thus, the agency continues to promulgate regulations using authority given it by Congress in CAA amendments more than 20 years ago. Members of Congress from both parties have raised questions about the cost-effectiveness of some of these regulations and/or whether the agency has exceeded statutory authority in promulgating them. Others in Congress have supported EPA, noting that the Clean Air Act, often affirmed in court decisions, has authorized or required the agency's actions. EPA's regulatory actions on GHG [Greenhouse Gas] emissions are the main focus of congressional CAA interest. Although the Obama Administration has consistently said it would prefer that Congress pass new legislation to address climate change, such legislation now appears unlikely. Instead, over the last four years, EPA has developed GHG emission standards using its existing CAA authority. Relying on a finding that GHGs endanger public health and welfare, the agency promulgated GHG emission standards for cars and light trucks on May 7, 2010, and again on October 15, 2012, and for larger trucks on September 15, 2011. The agency subsequently turned its attention to major stationary sources of GHGs (power plants, manufacturing facilities, etc.) and a second round of standards for medium- and heavy-duty trucks."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.

  2014-03-10
• Oil Sands and the Keystone XL Pipeline: Background and Selected Environmental Issues [April 14, 2014]

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  "If constructed, the Keystone XL pipeline would transport crude oil (e.g., synthetic crude oil or diluted bitumen) derived from oil sands in Alberta, Canada to destinations in the United States. Because the pipeline crosses an international border, it requires a Presidential Permit that is issued by the Department of State (DOS). The permit decision rests on a 'national interest' determination, a term not defined in the authorizing Executive Orders. DOS states that it has 'significant discretion' in the factors it examines in this determination. [...] Although some groups have opposed previous oil pipeline permits, opposition to the Keystone XL proposal has generated substantially more interest among environmental stakeholders. Pipeline opponents are not a monolithic group: some raise concerns about potential local impacts, such as oil spills or extraction impacts in Canada; some argue the pipeline would have national energy and climate change policy implications."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Lattanzio, Richard K.; Luther, Linda G. . . .

  2014-04-14
• Air Quality Issues and Animal Agriculture: A Primer [March 11, 2014]

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  "From an environmental quality standpoint, much of the public and policy interest in animal agriculture has focused on impacts on water resources, because animal waste, if not properly managed, can harm water quality through surface runoff, direct discharges, spills, and leaching into soil and groundwater. A more recent issue is the contribution of air emissions from animal feeding operations (AFOs), enterprises where animals are raised in confinement. This report provides background on the latter issue. AFOs can affect air quality through emissions of gases such as ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, hazardous air pollutants, and odor. These pollutants and compounds have a number of environmental and human health effects. Agricultural operations have been treated differently from other businesses under numerous federal and state laws. Some environmental laws specifically exempt agriculture from regulatory provisions, and some are designed so that farms are not subject to most, if not all, of the regulatory impact. The primary regulatory focus on environmental impacts has occurred under the Clean Water Act. In addition, AFOs that emit large quantities of air pollutants may be subject to Clean Air Act regulation. Some livestock operations also may be regulated under the release reporting requirements of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA). Questions about the applicability of these laws to livestock and poultry operations have been controversial and have drawn congressional attention. Agriculture's role as both a source of and a 'sink' for greenhouse gases also has been of interest in connection with addressing the global challenge of climate change."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copeland, Claudia

  2014-03-11
• Energy Policy: 113th Congress Issues [September 18, 2014]

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  "Energy policy in the United States has focused on three major goals: assuring a secure supply of energy, keeping energy costs low, and protecting the environment. In pursuit of those goals, government programs have been developed to improve the efficiency with which energy is utilized, to promote the domestic production of conventional energy sources, and to develop new energy sources, particularly renewable sources. Implementing these programs has been controversial because of varying importance given to different aspects of energy policy. For some, dependence on imports of foreign oil, particularly from the Persian Gulf, is the primary concern; for others, the indiscriminate use of fossil fuels, whatever their origin, is most important. The contribution of burning fossil fuels to global climate change is particularly controversial. Another dichotomy is between those who see government intervention as a positive force and those who view it as a necessary evil at best. In the 113th Congress, energy legislation has generally been focused on specific topics, as opposed to broad legislation like that enacted in 1992, 2005, and 2007. Congress has enacted statutes on generally less controversial topics including hydroelectric licensing and permitting and pipeline safety documentation (P.L. 113-30). The 113th Congress also enacted the Water Resources Reform and Development Act of 2014 (WRRDA, P.L. 113-121), omnibus reauthorization of water resource activities. A number of issues, some of which drew attention in previous Congresses, have been taken up in proposed legislation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.

  2014-09-18
• Clean Air Issues in the 113th Congress: An Overview [October 21, 2014]

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  "As the 113th Congress has considered air quality issues, oversight of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulatory actions has been the main focus. Of particular interest has been EPA's Clean Air Act regulations on emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Reducing GHG emissions to address climate change is a major goal of President Obama, but Congress has been less enthusiastic about it. In the absence of congressional action, the President has directed EPA to promulgate GHG standards using existing authority under the Clean Air Act. This authority has been upheld on at least three occasions by the Supreme Court, but it remains controversial in Congress. EPA's most recent GHG actions have involved power plants. On June 2, 2014, the agency proposed GHG emission standards for existing fossil-fueled (coal, oil, and natural gas) power plants. These plants are the source of one-third of the nation's GHG emissions, so it is difficult to envision a regulatory scheme that reduces the nation's GHG emissions without addressing their contribution. At the same time, affordable and reliable electric power is central to the nation's economy and to the health and well-being of the population."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.

  2014-10-21
• President Obama's November 2014 Visit to China: The Bilateral Announcements [November 13, 2014]

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  "At times in 2014, China has appeared to challenge U.S. leadership in Asia. It has employed what the United States has called 'coercive' tactics against U.S. allies Japan and the Philippines over disputed maritime territory; proposed a new Asian security concept defined by the idea, as expressed by Chinese President Xi Jinping, that, 'it is for the people of Asia to run the affairs of Asia, solve the problems of Asia, and uphold the security of Asia'; and launched a $50 billion Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank outside of the post-World War II U.S.-led Bretton Woods economic system. When President Obama visited China November 10-12 for the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) leaders meeting and a state visit, however, the United States and China rolled out a series of major announcements that highlighted another side of their relationship. That side is focused on increasing cooperation on global and regional challenges such as climate change, global economic governance, non-proliferation, and pandemic diseases like Ebola; improving the military-to-military relationship; and expanding business and people-to-people ties. Explaining the Obama Administration's pursuit of such cooperation, a senior Administration official stated, 'Disagreements, areas of competition, are normal and natural, but we want to build a relationship that is not defined by them.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lawrence, Susan V.; Leggett, Jane A.; Morrison, Wayne M.

  2014-11-13
• EPA's Clean Power Plan Proposal: Are the Emission Rate Targets Front-Loaded? [November 3, 2014]

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  "On June 18, 2014, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed regulations (the 'Clean Power Plan') addressing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from existing fossil fuel-fired electric generating units. Carbon dioxide is the primary human-related greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change, and these electric generating units, as a group, account for the largest source of CO2 emissions in the United States. […] The proposal would establish state-specific CO2 emission rate targets measured in pounds of CO2 emissions per megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity generation. […] Some industry stakeholders and state agencies have characterized EPA's proposed CO2 emission rate targets for existing power plants as 'front-loaded,' with a disproportionate percentage of emission rate reductions required in the early years of the program (2020-2024). The following analysis provides data consistent with this observation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2014-11-03
• G-20 Summit: Brisbane, November 15-16, 2014 [November 5, 2014]

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  "The Group of Twenty (G-20) is a multilateral forum for advancing international cooperation and coordination among 20 major advanced and emerging-market economies. […]Australia has focused the 2014 agenda on global economic growth. In February 2014, the G-20 finance ministers and central bank governors pledged to develop policies that would boost the G-20's collective GDP by more than two percentage points over the coming five years. [..]The G-20 summit will also continue previous work on issues including financial regulatory reforms; reforming the international tax system; increasing the representation of emerging-markets at the International Monetary Fund (IMF); and building energy market resilience. Climate change will also likely be added to the agenda, despite initial opposition by Australian officials. Some NGOs are calling for a G-20 commitment of resources for the international response to the Ebola outbreak."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nelson, Rebecca M.

  2014-11-05