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• Kosovo: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [January 23, 2013]

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  "On February 17, 2008, Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia. The United States and 22 of the 27 EU countries (including key countries such as Germany, France, Britain, and Italy) have recognized Kosovo's independence. The Kosovo government claims that 98 countries in all have extended diplomatic recognition to it. When it declared independence, Kosovo pledged to implement the Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement, drafted by U.N. envoy Martti Ahtisaari. The document contains provisions aimed at safeguarding the rights of ethnic Serbs and other minorities. EULEX [European Union Rule of Law Mission], a European Union-led law-and-order mission, is tasked with improving the rule of law in Kosovo. KFOR, a NATO-led peacekeeping force that includes hundreds of U.S. soldiers, has the mission of providing a secure environment. Serbia strongly objects to Kosovo's declaration of independence. It has used diplomatic means to try to persuade countries to not recognize Kosovo. It has retained parallel governing institutions in Serb-majority areas in Kosovo. Since March 2011, the EU has mediated negotiations between Serbia and Kosovo. The agreements reached include ones on free movement of persons, customs stamps, recognition of university diplomas, cadastre (real estate) records, civil registries (which record births, deaths, marriages, etc. for legal purposes), integrated border/boundary management (IBM), and on regional cooperation. However, the accords have not been implemented or only partly implemented. […] Since U.S. recognition of Kosovo's independence in 2008, congressional action on Kosovo has focused largely on foreign aid appropriations legislation. Aid to Kosovo has declined significantly in recent years. In FY2012, Kosovo received an estimated $67.45 million. For FY2013, the Administration requested a total of $57.669 million for Kosovo. Of this amount, $42.544 million is aid for political and economic reforms from the Economic Support Fund, $10.674 million from the International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement account, $0.7 million in IMET [International Military Education and Training] military training aid, $3 million in Foreign Military Financing, and $0.75 million in NADR [Nonproliferation, Anti-terrorism, Demining and Related Programs] aid to assist non-proliferation and anti-terrorism efforts."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woehrel, Steven J.

  2013-01-23
• Keystone XL Pipeline Project: Key Issues [November 5, 2012]

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  "In May 2012, Canadian pipeline company TransCanada reapplied to the U.S. Department of State for a Presidential Permit to build the Keystone XL pipeline. The pipeline would transport crude oil from the oil sands region of Alberta, Canada, to the existing Keystone Pipeline System in Nebraska. It also could accept U.S. crude from the Bakken oil fields in Montana and North Dakota. A second segment of the Keystone XL pipeline system, the Gulf Coast Project, is proceeding separately to connect existing pipeline facilities in Oklahoma to refineries in Texas. When completed, the entire Keystone XL pipeline system would ultimately have capacity to transport 830,000 barrels of crude oil per day to U.S. market hubs. TransCanada submitted the May 2012 permit application after its 2008 Keystone XL permit application was denied. The State Department has jurisdiction over the Keystone XL pipeline's approval because it would cross the U.S. border. Before it can approve such a permit, the department must determine that the project is in the 'national interest,' accounting for potential effects on the environment, economy, energy security, and foreign policy, among other factors. Environmental impacts are considered under the National Environmental Policy Act, as documented in an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). For the 2008 permit application, a final EIS was issued in August 2011, followed by a public review period. Largely in response to public comments and efforts by the state of Nebraska, the State Department determined that it needed to examine alternative pipeline routes that would avoid the environmentally sensitive Sand Hills region of Nebraska, a sand dune formation with highly porous soil and shallow groundwater that recharges the Ogallala aquifer."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parfomak, Paul W.; Pirog, Robert L.; Luther, Linda G.

  2012-11-05
• Keystone XL Pipeline Project: Key Issues [January 24, 2013]

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  "In May 2012, Canadian pipeline company TransCanada reapplied to the U.S. Department of State for a Presidential Permit to build the Keystone XL pipeline. The pipeline would transport crude oil from the oil sands region of Alberta, Canada, to the existing Keystone Pipeline System in Nebraska. It also could accept U.S. crude from the Bakken oil fields in Montana and North Dakota. A second segment of the Keystone XL pipeline system, the Gulf Coast Project, is proceeding separately to connect existing pipeline facilities in Oklahoma to refineries in Texas. When completed, the entire Keystone XL pipeline system would ultimately have capacity to transport 830,000 barrels of crude oil per day to U.S. market hubs. TransCanada submitted the May 2012 permit application after its 2008 Keystone XL permit application was denied. The State Department has jurisdiction over the Keystone XL pipeline's approval because it would cross the U.S. border. Before it can approve such a permit, the department must determine that the project is in the 'national interest,' accounting for potential effects on the environment, economy, energy security, and foreign policy, among other factors. Environmental impacts are considered under the National Environmental Policy Act, as documented in an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). For the 2008 permit application, a final EIS was issued in August 2011, followed by a public review period. Largely in response to public comments and efforts by the state of Nebraska, the State Department determined that it needed to examine alternative pipeline routes that would avoid the environmentally sensitive Sand Hills region of Nebraska, a sand dune formation with highly porous soil and shallow groundwater that recharges the Ogallala aquifer."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parfomak, Paul W.; Pirog, Robert L.; Luther, Linda G. . . .

  2013-01-24
• Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [February 22, 2013]

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  "Azerbaijan is an important power in the South Caucasus by reason of its geographic location and ample energy resources, but it faces challenges to its stability, including the unresolved separatist conflict involving Nagorno Karabakh (NK). Azerbaijan enjoyed a brief period of independence in 1918-1920, after the collapse of the Tsarist Russian Empire. However, it was re-conquered by Red Army forces and thereafter incorporated into the Soviet Union. It re-gained independence when the Soviet Union collapsed at the end of 1991. Upon independence, Azerbaijan continued to be ruled for a while by its Soviet-era leader, but in May 1992 he was overthrown and Popular Front head Abulfaz Elchibey was soon elected president. Military setbacks in suppressing separatism in the breakaway NK region contributed to Elchibey's rise to power, and in turn to his downfall just over a year later, when he was replaced by Heydar Aliyev, the leader of Azerbaijan's Nakhichevan region and a former communist party head of Azerbaijan. In July 1994, a ceasefire agreement was signed in the NK conflict. Heydar Aliyev served until October 2003, when under worsening health he stepped down. His son Ilkham Aliyev was elected president a few days later. According to the Obama Administration, U.S. assistance for Azerbaijan aims to develop democratic institutions and civil society, support the growth of the non-oil sectors of the economy, strengthen the interoperability of the armed forces with NATO, increase maritime border security, and bolster the country's ability to combat terrorism, corruption, narcotics trafficking, and other transnational crime."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2013-02-22
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated December 21, 2006]

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  "Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. In 2006, elections for head of government were held in 12 countries in the region, including the close election in Mexico in July, the re-election of presidents in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, and Venezuela, and the election of former heads of government in Costa Rica, Haiti, Nicaragua, Peru, and St. Lucia. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it has rebounded since 2004. Nevertheless, several nations faced considerable challenges that threatened political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of a new form of populism in several countries. Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 109th Congress focused on continued counternarcotics efforts; trade issues; challenges to democracy, especially in Venezuela; efforts to bring political stability and ameliorate poverty in Haiti; efforts to foster political change in Cuba; and cooperation on migration and border security, especially with Mexico. Since 2000, the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) has been the primary U.S. program supporting the Colombian government's efforts to combat drug trafficking and terrorist activity perpetrated by guerrilla and paramilitary groups."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cook, Colleen W.

  2006-12-21
• North Korean Refugees in China and Human Rights Issues: International Response and U.S. Policy Options [Updated January 18, 2008]

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  "The increased international attention given to the situation of North Koreans seeking refuge, primarily in China, has led Congress to take a greater interest in the refugee situation and the underlying causes within North Korea and across its borders. Food shortages, persecution, and human rights abuses have prompted thousands and perhaps hundreds of thousands of North Koreans to go to China where they often become victims of further abuse, neglect, and lack of protection. Those who remain in North Korea […] also continue to suffer from a lack of food and other basic humanitarian provisions. […] North Korea has been viewed as a threat to U.S. interests for a number of important security reasons that go well beyond refugee concerns and human rights issues. These include the pursuit of nuclear weapons and missile programs; a history of proliferating missiles; reported threats to export parts of its self-declared nuclear arsenal; and possible possession of chemical and biological weapons programs. North Korea is also on the U.S. list of states that sponsor terrorism. Amid an atmosphere of continuing tensions over North Korea's nuclear program, the potential remains for worsening humanitarian conditions and a possible increase in North Koreans fleeing the country. The situation raises the questions of what more, if anything, can and should be done -- by the United States and the international community -- not only to focus attention on the abuses of the DPRK regime, but to alleviate the suffering of North Koreans."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Margesson, Rhoda; Bruno, Andorra; Chanlett-Avery, Emma

  2008-01-18
• MS-13 and 18th Street Gangs: Emerging Transnational Gang Threats? [Updated January 30, 2008]

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  This report discusses the MS-13 and M-18 Gangs providing a brief history of the gangs as well as how they differ from other U.S. street gangs. Included in this report are descriptions of the government's response to the gangs, including the agencies involved in solving the problem: FBI National Gang Intelligence Center, ATF, Gang Targeting Enforcement Coordination Center as well as joint efforts between the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the government of El Salvador. From the report: "Two predominantly Latino gangs, Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and the 18th Street gang (M-18), have raised concern among policy makers for several reasons: (1) membership in these gangs has spread from the Los Angeles area to other communities across the United States; (2) these gangs are becoming 'transnational,' primarily because MS-13 and M-18 cliques are being established in Central America and Mexico; (3) evidence suggests that these gangs are engaged in criminal enterprises normally associated with better organized and more sophisticated crime syndicates; and (4) MS-13 and M-18 gang members may be involved in smuggling operations and, by extension, could potentially use their skills and criminal networks to smuggle terrorists into the United States. To date, however, no evidence exists establishing a link between MS-13 and M-18 members and terrorists. Nevertheless, some observers maintain that these two gangs may develop the capacity to become organized criminal enterprises capable of coordinating illegal activities across national borders. Yet, others find them to be no more criminally organized or sophisticated than other street gangs. At issue for Congress is whether the MS-13 and M-18 gangs constitute an emerging transnational criminal threat."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Franco, Celinda

  2008-01-30
• Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA): Congressional Interest and Executive Enforcement [February 7, 2012]

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  "The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977 (FCPA) was enacted principally to prevent corporate bribery of foreign officials. This act had three major parts: (1) it required the keeping by corporations of accurate books, records, and accounts; (2) it required issuers registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission to maintain a responsible internal accounting control system; and (3) it prohibited bribery by American corporations of foreign officials. For a number of years after passage of the act, Congress debated amending it in response to numerous criticisms. On August 23, 1988, the President signed into law the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988, of which Title V is known as the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Amendments of 1988. […] In 1998 the act was further amended in order to implement the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions. These amendments expanded the scope of coverage to include some foreign persons and extended jurisdiction beyond the borders of the United States. […] Especially prominent recently have been suggestions that businesses convicted of violating the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act should be debarred from receiving federal government contracts. Bills were introduced in the 111th Congress to address this issue. In addition to congressional scrutiny of the act, the executive branch appears to have increased oversight of suspected American businesses for alleged violations. There have been a number of settlements and indictments concerning violations of the act. In early 2012 the federal government had both successes and losses resulting from its FCPA charges."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seitzinger, Michael V.

  2012-02-07
• Proposed Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement: Background and Key Issues [March 1, 2012]

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  "The proposed Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) is a new agreement for combating intellectual property rights (IPR) infringement. The ACTA negotiation concluded in October 2010, nearly three years after it began, and negotiating parties released a final text of the agreement in May 2011. Negotiated by the United States, Australia, Canada, the European Union and its 27 member states, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Morocco, New Zealand, Singapore, and Switzerland, the ACTA is intended to build on the IPR protection and enforcement obligations set forth in the 1995 World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement). […] The ACTA, which was negotiated outside of the WTO, focuses primarily on trademark and copyright enforcement. It establishes a legal framework for IPR enforcement, which contains provisions on civil enforcement, border measures, criminal enforcement in cases of willful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale, and enforcement in the digital environment for infringement of copyrights or related rights. It also provides for enhanced enforcement best practices and increased international cooperation. […] The U.S. government has made the enforcement of IPR a top priority in its trade policy, due to the importance of IPR to the U.S. economy and the potentially negative commercial, health and safety, and security consequences associated with counterfeiting and piracy. Policymakers face a challenge of finding an appropriate balance between protecting private rights and promoting broader economic and social welfare. The ACTA negotiation has spurred various policy debates. While governments involved in the negotiation and IPR-based industries have voiced strong support for the ACTA, other groups have expressed concern about the ACTA's potential impact on trade in legitimate goods, consumer privacy, the free flow of information, and public health."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias

  2012-03-01
• Georgia [Republic]: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [June 15, 2011]

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  "The small Black Sea-bordering country of Georgia gained its independence at the end of 1991 with the dissolution of the former Soviet Union. The United States had an early interest in its fate, since the well-known former Soviet foreign minister, Eduard Shevardnadze, soon became its leader. Democratic and economic reforms faltered during his rule, however. New prospects for the country emerged after Shevardnadze was ousted in 2003 and the U.S.-educated Mikheil Saakashvili was elected president. Then-U.S. President George W. Bush visited Georgia in 2005, and praised the democratic and economic aims of the Saakashvili government while calling on it to deepen reforms. The August 2008 Russia-Georgia conflict caused much damage to Georgia's economy and military, as well as contributing to hundreds of casualties and tens of thousands of displaced persons in Georgia. The United States quickly pledged $1 billion in humanitarian and recovery assistance for Georgia. In early 2009, the United States and Georgia signed a Strategic Partnership Charter, which pledged U.S. support for democratization, economic development, and security reforms in Georgia. The Obama Administration has pledged continued U.S. support to uphold Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2011-06-15
• Delegation of the Federal Power of Eminent Domain to Nonfederal Entities [May 20, 2008]

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  This CRS report discusses the process by which Congress delegates power of eminent domain. "Among executive branch agencies engaged in condemnation most frequently in recent times are the Department of Homeland Security, in connection with construction of the U.S.-Mexico border fence, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and General Services Administration." "Congress has on several occasions delegated its power of eminent domain to entities outside the federal government -- public and private corporations, interstate compact agencies, state and local governments, and even individuals. The constitutionality of such delegation, and of the exercise of such power by even private delegatees, is today beyond dispute. However, among delegatees with both federal and private characteristics, there is some subjectivity to deciding which to list in a report limited to 'nonfederal entities.' For delegatees of federal eminent domain power listed here, delegations since 1920 have primarily been to Amtrak, hydroelectric facilities (for dams and reservoirs), and entities engaged in the movement of electricity, gas, and petroleum (the last one expired), and for interstate bridges."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Meltz, Robert

  2008-05-20
• Immigration: Terrorist Grounds for Exclusion of Aliens [Updated May 26, 2005]

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  "The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) spells out a strict set of admissions criteria and exclusion rules for all foreign nationals, whether coming permanently as immigrants (i.e., legal permanent residents) or temporarily as nonimmigrants. Notably, any alien who has engaged in or incited terrorist activity, is reasonably believed to be carrying out a terrorist activity, or is a representative or member of a designated foreign terrorist organization is inadmissible. After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the INA was broadened to deny entry to representatives of groups that endorse terrorism, prominent individuals who endorse terrorism, and spouses and children of aliens who are removable on terrorism grounds (on the basis of activities occurring within the previous five years). The INA also contains grounds for inadmissibility based on foreign policy concerns. Provisions of the REAL ID Act (P.L. 109-13, Division B), enacted on May 11, 2005, further expand the terror-related grounds for inadmissiblity and deportation. The report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission) concluded that the key officials responsible for determining alien admissions (consular officers abroad and immigration inspectors in the United States) were not considered full partners in counterterrorism efforts prior to September 11, 2001, and as a result, opportunities to intercept the September 11 terrorists were missed. The 9/11 Commission's monograph, 9/11 and Terrorist Travel, underscored the importance of the border security functions of immigration law and policy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Garcia, Michael John

  2005-05-26
• North Korean Provocative Actions, 1950-2007 [Updated April 20, 2007]

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  " This selective list of events provides information on instances of North Korean provocative actions between June 1950 and 2007. The purpose of this report is to place current provocations in the context of past actions to better judge their significance and to determine changes in trends. The term "provocation" is defined to include armed invasion; border violations; infiltration of armed saboteurs and spies; hijacking; kidnapping; terrorism (including assassination and bombing); threats/intimidation against political leaders, media personnel, and institutions; incitement aimed at the overthrow of the South Korean government; actions undertaken to impede progress in major negotiations; and tests of ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons. Information in this report was taken from South Korean and Western sources, but typically is denied by the North Korean government. The most intense phase of the provocations was in the latter half of the 1960s, when North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea, or DPRK) staged a series of limited armed actions against South Korean and U.S. security interests. Infiltration of armed agents into South Korea was the most frequently mentioned type of provocation, followed by kidnapping and terrorism (actual and threatened)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fischer, Hannah

  2007-04-20
• North Korean Provocative Actions, 1950-2007 [Updated April 6, 2007]

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  "This selective list of events provides information on instances of North Korean provocative actions between June 1950 and 2007. The purpose of this report is to place current provocations in the context of past actions to better judge their significance and to determine changes in trends. The term "provocation" is defined to include armed invasion; border violations; infiltration of armed saboteurs and spies; hijacking; kidnapping; terrorism (including assassination and bombing); threats/intimidation against political leaders, media personnel, and institutions; incitement aimed at the overthrow of the South Korean government; actions undertaken to impede progress in major negotiations; and tests of ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons. Information in this report was taken from South Korean and Western sources, but typically is denied by the North Korean government. The most intense phase of the provocations was in the latter half of the 1960s, when North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea, or DPRK) staged a series of limited armed actions against South Korean and U.S. security interests. Infiltration of armed agents into South Korea was the most frequently mentioned type of provocation, followed by kidnapping and terrorism (actual and threatened)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fischer, Hannah

  2007-04-06
• Point Systems for Immigrant Selection: Options and Issues [June 5, 2007]

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  "Replacing or supplementing the current preference system for admitting legal permanent residents (LPRs) with a point system is garnering considerable interest for the first time in over a decade. Briefly, point systems such as those of Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and New Zealand assign prospective immigrants with credits if they have specified attributes, most often based on educational attainment, skill sets used in shortage occupations, extent of work experience, language proficiency, and desirable age range. President George W. Bush has stated that comprehensive immigration reform is a top priority of his second term, and his principles of reform include increased border security and enforcement of immigration laws within the interior of the United States, as well as a major overhaul of temporary worker visas, expansion of permanent legal immigration, and revisions to the process of determining whether foreign workers are needed. The Bush Administration is reportedly among those advocating to replace or supplement the current legal immigration preference system with a point system that would assign prospective immigrants with credits if they have specified attributes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Haddal, Chad C.

  2007-06-05
• Treasury's Terrorist Finance Program's Access to Information Held by the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) [July 7, 2006]

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  "Recent press reports have raised questions about the Department of the Treasury's Terrorist Finance Tracking Program's access to information on international financial transactions held by the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT), a Brussels-based organization owned by banks in many countries, which serves as a hub for international funds transfers. Its records contain names, addresses, and account numbers of senders and receivers of international wire transfers between banks and between securities firms, thus providing a useful source for federal officials responsible for following money trails across international borders. On June 29, 2006, the House of Representatives passed H.Res. 895 voicing support for the Treasury program as fully compliant with all applicable laws; condemning the unauthorized disclosure of classified information; and calling upon news media organizations not to disclose classified intelligence programs. H.Res. 904 was introduced to discourage government censorship of the press."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Elsea, Jennifer; Murphy, M. Maureen

  2006-07-07
• Defense: FY2007 Authorization and Appropriations [Updated August 7, 2006]

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  "The Senate began floor debate on the FY2007 defense appropriations bill, H.R. 5631 on August 1, but it did not complete the bill before adjourning for the August recess. The Senate plans to resume action on September 5. As reported by the appropriations committee, the bill provided $453.5 billion for defense, including $50 billion in appropriations for overseas operations. The total is $9.1 billion less than the Administration requested. In floor action, the Senate added substantial amounts to the $50 billion in emergency spending, including $13.1 billion to reequip units returning from abroad and $1.8 billion for border security."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Daggett, Stephen

  2006-08-07
• Tuberculosis: International Efforts and Issues for Congress [October 26, 2007]

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  "Infectious diseases are estimated to cause more than 25% of all deaths around the world. A number of infectious disease outbreaks over the past decade, such as H5Nl avian influenza and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), have heightened concerns about how infectious diseases might threaten global security. International air travel and trade have complicated efforts to detect and contain infectious diseases. People could cross borders carrying a highly contagious disease before an infectious agent causes symptoms… The House Foreign Affairs and Senate Foreign Relations Committees passed companion TB bills, Stop TB Now Act (S. 968 and H.R. 1567) to support global TB efforts and authorize $330 million in FY2008 and $450 million in FY2009. They also authorized $70 million and $100 million for anti-TB programs at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in FY2008 and FY2009, respectively. Although Congress voted to increase support for global TB efforts, some Members expressed concern that the additional funds might be provided at the expense of other global health programs. This report discusses some key issues Congress might consider as debate ensues about the proper level and use of global TB funds."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji

  2007-10-26
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 110th Congress [Updated August 31, 2007]

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  "Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. Twelve countries held successful elections for head of government in 2006, including a close election in Mexico. To date in 2007, the Bahamas held elections in May; elections are scheduled for Jamaica and Guatemala in September, Argentina in October, and are due to be called in Trinidad and Tobago by October. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it has rebounded since 2004, most recently experiencing a growth rate over 5% in 2006. Despite this progress, several nations face considerable challenges that affect U.S. interests and policy in the region. These include persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of a new form of populism in several countries. In the 110th Congress, legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean has focused on continued counternarcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; immigration reform (which stalled in June 2007) and increased border security, which have been key issues in relations with Mexico; efforts to deal with threats to democracy and the rise of populism in such nations as Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador; debate over the best means to foster political change in Communist Cuba; trade issues, including the extension of Andean trade preferences and potential consideration of implementing legislation for free trade agreements (FTAs); and continued efforts to support stability and poverty alleviation in Haiti."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Cook, Colleen W.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)

  2007-08-31
• India-U.S. Relations [Updated January 22, 2008]

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  "India, the region's dominant actor with more than one billion citizens, is now recognized as a nascent major power and 'natural partner' of the United States, one that many analysts view as a potential counterweight to China's growing clout. Washington and New Delhi have since 2004 been pursuing a 'strategic partnership' based on shared values such as democracy, pluralism, and rule of law. Numerous economic, security, and global initiatives, including plans for 'full civilian nuclear energy cooperation,' are underway. […]. Further U.S. interest in South Asia focuses on ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan rooted in unfinished business from the 1947 Partition, competing claims to the Kashmir region, and, in more recent years, 'cross-border terrorism' in both Kashmir and major Indian cities. In the interests of regional stability, the United States strongly encourages an ongoing India-Pakistan peace initiative and remains concerned about the potential for conflict over Kashmiri sovereignty to cause open hostilities between these two nuclear-armed countries. […]. The United States supports India's efforts to transform its once quasi-socialist economy through fiscal reform and market opening. Since 1991, India has taken major steps in this direction and coalition governments have kept the country on a general path of reform, yet there is U.S. concern that such movement is slow and inconsistent. Congress also continues to have concerns about abuses of human rights, including caste- and gender-based discrimination, and religious freedoms in India. Moreover, the spread of HIV/AIDS in India has been identified as a serious development."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kronstadt, K. Alan

  2008-01-22
• Immigration: Terrorist Grounds for Exclusion and Removal of Aliens [Updated January 22, 2008]

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  "The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) spells out a strict set of admissions criteria and exclusion rules for all foreign nationals who come permanently to the United States as immigrants (i.e., legal permanent residents) or temporarily as nonimmigrants. Notably, any alien who engages in terrorist activity, or is a representative or member of a designated foreign terrorist organization, is generally inadmissible. After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the INA was broadened to deny entry to representatives of groups that endorse terrorism, prominent individuals who endorse terrorism, and (in certain circumstances) spouses and children of aliens who are removable on terrorism grounds. The INA also contains grounds for inadmissibility based on foreign policy concerns. The report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission) concluded that the key officials responsible for determining alien admissions (consular officers abroad and immigration inspectors in the United States) were not considered full partners in counterterrorism efforts prior to September 11, 2001, and as a result, opportunities to intercept the September 11 terrorists were missed. The 9/11 Commission's monograph, 9/11 and Terrorist Travel, underscored the importance of the border security functions of immigration law and policy. This report opens with an overview of the grounds for inadmissibility and summarizes key legislation enacted in recent years. The section on current law explains the legal definitions of 'terrorist activity,' 'engage in terrorist activity,' and 'terrorist organization,' and describes the terrorism-related grounds for inadmissibility and removal."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Garcia, Michael John

  2008-01-22
• Latin American and the Caribbean: Issues for the 110th Congress [January 23, 2007]

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  From the Document: "In the 110th Congress, legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean will likely focus on continued counternarcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; potential immigration reform and increased border security, which have been key issues in relations with Mexico; efforts to deal with potential threats to democracy and the rise of populism in such nations as Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador; debate over the best means to foster political change in Communist Cuba; and trade issues, including the potential consideration of implementing legislation for free trade agreements (FTAs). Curbing the flow of illicit drugs from Mexico and South America into the United States has been a key component of U.S. relations with Latin America for almost two decades. Since 2000, the centerpiece of this policy has been the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) aimed at supporting Colombia and its neighbors in eradicating the production of illicit drugs. From FY2000-FY2006, the United States provided around $5 billion for the ACI. This report, an overview of U.S. relations with Latin America and the Caribbean, focuses on the role of Congress and congressional concerns, and will be updated periodically."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cook, Colleen W.

  2007-01-23
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated September 13, 2006]

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  "Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 109th Congress has focused on continued counternarcotics efforts; trade issues; challenges to democracy, especially in Venezuela; efforts to bring political stability and ameliorate poverty in Haiti; efforts to foster political change in Cuba; and cooperation on migration and border security, especially with Mexico. [...] This report, updated bimonthly, provides an overview of U.S. relations with Latin America and the Caribbean, focusing on the role of Congress and congressional concerns."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cook, Colleen W.

  2006-09-13
• Agroterrorism: Threats and Preparedness [Updated March 12, 2007]

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  "The potential for terrorist attacks against agricultural targets (agroterrorism) is increasingly recognized as a national security threat, especially after the events of September 11, 2001. Agroterrorism is a subset of bioterrorism, and is defined as the deliberate introduction of an animal or plant disease with the goal of generating fear, causing economic losses, and/or undermining social stability. Increasing the level of agroterrorism preparedness remains a concern, as do interagency coordination and adequate border inspections. The 110th Congress may consider bills or oversight hearings to address funding and the level of preparedness or coordination to respond to an agroterrorist attack."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Monke, James

  2007-03-12
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 110th Congress [Updated February 26, 2007]

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  "Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. Twelve countries held successful elections for head of government in 2006, including a close election in Mexico, and in 2007, five other countries have elections scheduled. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it has rebounded since 2004, and most recently experienced an average growth rate over 5% in 2006. Despite this progress, several nations face considerable challenges that threaten political stability or pose challenges for U.S. interests and policy in the region. These include persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of a new form of populism in several countries. In the 110th Congress, legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean will likely focus on continued counternarcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; potential immigration reform and increased border security, which have been key issues in relations with Mexico; efforts to deal with potential threats to democracy and the rise of populism in such nations as Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador; debate over the best means to foster political change in Communist Cuba; trade issues, including the potential consideration of implementing legislation for free trade agreements (FTAs); and continued efforts to support stability and poverty alleviation in Haiti."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cook, Colleen W.

  2007-02-26
• Keystone XL Pipeline Project: Key Issues [May 9, 2012]

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  "In 2008, Canadian pipeline company TransCanada filed an application with the U.S. Department of State to build the Keystone XL pipeline, which would transport crude oil from the oil sands region of Alberta, Canada, to refineries on the U.S. Gulf Coast. Keystone XL would ultimately have the capacity to transport 830,000 barrels per day, delivering crude oil to the market hub at Cushing, OK, and further to points in Texas. TransCanada plans to build a pipeline spur so that oil from the Bakken formation in Montana and North Dakota can also be carried on Keystone XL. [...] In the wake of the State Department's denial of the Presidential Permit, Congress has debated legislative options addressing the Keystone XL pipeline. The Surface Transportation Extension Act of 2012, Part II (H.R. 4348) and the North American Energy Access Act (H.R. 3548) would transfer the permitting authority for the Keystone XL pipeline project to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, requiring FERC to issue a permit within 30 days of enactment. The Keystone For a Secure Tomorrow Act (H.R. 3811), the Grow America Act of 2012 (S. 2199), S.2041 (a bill to approve the Keystone XL pipeline), the EXPAND Act (H.R. 4301), and the Energizing America through Employment Act (H.R. 4000) would immediately approve the original permit application filed by TransCanada. All seven bills include provisions allowing for later alteration of the pipeline route in Nebraska. S. 2100 and H.R. 4211 would suspend sales of petroleum products from the Strategic Petroleum Reserve until issuance of a Presidential Permit for the Keystone XL project. Changing or eliminating the State Department's role in issuing cross-border infrastructure permits may raise questions about the President's executive authority, however. H.R. 3900 would seek to ensure that crude oil transported by the Keystone XL pipeline, or resulting refined petroleum products, would be sold only into U.S. markets, but this bill could raise issues related to international trade agreements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parfomak, Paul W.; Nerurkar, Neelesh; Luther, Linda G. . . .

  2012-05-09
• Gangs in Central America [January 11, 2010]

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  "During its second session, the 111th Congress is likely to maintain an interest in the effects of crime and gang violence in Central America, and on the expanding activities of transnational gangs with ties to that region operating in the United States. The violent Mara Salvatrucha (MS- 13) and its main rival, the '18th Street' gang (also known as M-18) continue to threaten citizen security and challenge government authority in Central America. Gang-related violence has been particularly acute in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, which have among the highest homicide rates in the world. Governments in those countries appear to have moved away, at least on a rhetorical level, from repressive anti-gang strategies. However, they have yet to implement effective anti-gang policies that include an emphasis on prevention and rehabilitation of former gang members. [...]. Between February 2005 and September 2009, U.S. officials arrested some 2,572 alleged MS-13 members in cities across the United States, many of whom were subsequently deported. Evidence suggests, however, that previously deported members of both the MS-13 and the M-18 often reenter the United States illegally across the U.S.-Mexico border. Several U.S. agencies have been actively engaged on both the law enforcement and preventive side of dealing with Central American gangs. [...]. This report describes the gang problem in Central America, discusses country and regional approaches to deal with the gangs, and analyzes U.S. policy with respect to gangs in Central America."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2010-01-11
• Keystone XL Pipeline Project: Key Issues [May 7, 2013]

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  "TransCanada's proposed Keystone XL Pipeline would transport oil sands crude from Canada and shale oil produced in North Dakota and Montana to a market hub in Nebraska for further delivery to Gulf Coast refineries. The pipeline would consist of 875 miles of 36-inch pipe with the capacity to transport 830,000 barrels per day. Because it would cross the Canadian-U.S. border, construction of Keystone XL requires a Presidential Permit from the State Department. A decision to issue or deny a Presidential Permit is based on a determination that a project would serve the national interest, considering potential impacts on the environment, the economy, energy security, foreign policy, and other factors. Environmental impacts are evaluated and documented in an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). TransCanada originally applied for a Presidential Permit for the Keystone XL Pipeline in 2008. The initial proposal included a southern segment from Oklahoma to the Gulf Coast. After a final EIS for the original project was released in August 2011, the State Department began a 90-day public review period to make its national interest determination. A key issue that arose during this review was concern over environmental impacts in the Sand Hills region of Nebraska. This concern led the Nebraska legislature to enact new state pipeline siting requirements that would alter the pipeline route through Nebraska. In January 2012, the State Department concluded that it would not have sufficient information to evaluate an altered pipeline route before a deadline imposed by Congress and denied the permit. The southern segment of the original Keystone XL proposal, now called the Gulf Coast Project, was subsequently separated from the original proposal because it did not require a Presidential Permit. It has been approved by the relevant states and is currently under construction."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parfomak, Paul W.; Pirog, Robert L.; Luther, Linda G. . . .

  2013-05-07
• Israel and the Palestinians: Prospects for a Two-State Solution [December 10, 2008]

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  "One year after the formal renewal of direct talks at the November 2007 Annapolis Conference, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) have been unable to come to terms on a final-status peace agreement, despite possible signs of progress. Differences between the two sides continue over core issues such as borders, security, settlements, the status of Jerusalem, refugees, and water rights, despite their mutual acceptance of the concept of a negotiated 'two-state solution' that would establish a Palestinian state alongside Israel in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip pursuant to the principle of 'land for peace.' Previously when talks have faltered, the parties eventually returned to the negotiating table. Yet, there are a growing number of key actors and observers expressing doubts that the very concept of a negotiated two-state solution can survive a process in which talks are put on hold and resumed an indefinite number of times without finality. Some observers dismiss these doubts as mere tactics meant to prod either or both parties to action. Prospects for a two-state solution appear more tenuous given uncertainties that a consensus supporting the peace process will hold in the face of upcoming leadership transitions in the United States and Israel and conflicting claims to Palestinian leadership."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Zanotti, Jim

  2008-12-10
• Berne Union: An Overview [April 5, 2013]

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  "The Berne Union, or the International Union of Credit and Investment Insurers, is an international organization comprised of more than 70 public and private sector members that represent both public and private segments of the export credit and investment insurance industry. Members range from highly developed economies to emerging markets, from diverse geographical locations, and from a spectrum of viewpoints about approaches to export credit financing and investment insurance. Within the Berne Union, the United States is represented by the U.S. Export-Import Bank (Eximbank) and the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) and four private-sector firms and by one observer. The main role of the Berne Union and its affiliated group, the Prague Club, is to work to facilitate cross-border trade by helping exporters mitigate risks through promoting internationally acceptable principles of export credit financing, strengthen the global financial structure, and facilitate foreign investments. Over the past decade, the growth and increased importance of global trade and financing have altered the agenda of the Berne Union from focusing primarily on concerns over country-specific political risk to concerns about global trade, international finance, global and regional security, and questions of business organization, civil society, transparency, and corporate responsibility. The 2008-2009 financial crisis and the economic recession that followed has altered export financing by making credit conditions tighter and by raising concerns over risks in the advanced economies. As a result, demands on official export credits have grown sharply. Congress, through its oversight of Eximbank and OPIC, as well as international trade and finance, has interests in the functioning of the Berne Union."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2013-04-05