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Federal Permitting and Oversight of Export of Fossil Fuels [August 4, 2014]
From the Summary: "Recent technological developments have led to an increase in domestic production of natural gas and crude oil. As a result, there is interest among some parties in exporting liquefied natural gas (LNG) and crude oil to take advantage of international markets. This has placed new attention on the laws and regulations governing, and in many cases restricting, the export of fossil fuels. In most cases, export of fossil fuels requires federal authorization of both the act of exporting the fuel and the facility that will be employed to export the fuel. For example, the export of natural gas is permitted by the Department of Energy's Office of Fossil Energy, while the construction and operation of the export facility must be authorized by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). Oil exports are restricted, but an export that falls under one of several exemptions can be authorized by the Department of Commerce's Bureau of Industry and Security. Oil pipelines that cross international borders must be permitted by the State Department. Coal exports do not require special authorization specific to the commodity; however, as with natural gas and crude oil, other generally applicable federal statutes and regulations may apply to the export of coal."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Vann, Adam; Shedd, Daniel T.; Murrill, Brandon J.
2014-08-04
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Obama Administration's November 2014 Immigration Initiatives: Questions and Answers [November 24, 2014]
"On November 20, 2014, President Obama delivered a televised address wherein he broadly described the steps that his administration is taking to 'fix' what he has repeatedly described as a 'broken immigration system.' Following the President's address, executive agencies made available intra-agency memoranda and fact sheets detailing specific actions that have already been taken, or will be taken in the future. These actions generally involve either border security, the current unlawfully present population, or future legal immigration. […] The most notable of these actions, for many commentators, are the initiatives to grant 'deferred action'--one type of relief from removal--to some unlawfully present aliens who were brought to the United States as children and raised here, or who have children who are U.S. citizens or lawfully permanent resident (LPR) aliens."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manuel, Kate
2014-11-24
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Latin America: Terrorism Issues [August 15, 2014]
"U.S. attention to terrorism in Latin America intensified in the aftermath of the September 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, with an increase in bilateral and regional
cooperation. In its 2013 'Country Reports on Terrorism' (issued in April 2014), the State
Department maintained that the majority of terrorist attacks in the Western Hemisphere were
committed by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). The State Department
asserted in that Latin American governments made modest improvements in their
counterterrorism capabilities and border security, but that for some countries, corruption, weak government institutions, insufficient interagency cooperation, weak or nonexistent legislation, and a lack of resources impeded progress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Beittel, June S.
2014-08-15
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U.S.-EU Cooperation Against Terrorism [September 4, 2013]
"The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent revelation of Al Qaeda cells in Europe gave new momentum to European Union (EU) initiatives to combat terrorism and improve police, judicial, and intelligence cooperation among its member states. Other deadly incidents in Europe, such as the Madrid and London bombings in 2004 and 2005 respectively, injected further urgency into strengthening EU counterterrorism capabilities and reducing barriers among national law enforcement authorities so that information could be meaningfully shared and suspects apprehended expeditiously. Among other steps, the EU has established a common definition of terrorism and a common list of terrorist groups, an EU arrest warrant, enhanced tools to stem terrorist financing, and new measures to strengthen external EU border controls and improve aviation security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2013-09-04
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EU-U.S. Safe Harbor Agreement on Personal Data Privacy: In Brief [October 29, 2015]
"On October 6, 2015, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) delivered a judgment that invalidates the Safe Harbor Agreement between the United States and the 28-member European Union (EU). Safe Harbor is a 15-year-old accord, under which personal data could legally be transferred between EU member countries and the United States. The negotiation of Safe Harbor was largely driven by the EU's 1995 Data Protection Directive (DPD) and European concerns that the U.S. approach to data privacy did not guarantee a sufficient level of protection for European citizens' personal data. The Safe Harbor Agreement applies to a wide range of businesses and organizations that collect and hold personal data. When the parties concluded the Safe Harbor Agreement in 2000, however, the Internet was still in its infancy, and the range of public and private actors engaged in the mass processing of personal data, including across borders, was much more limited than today. The CJEU case stems from a 2013 complaint brought by an Austrian citizen and Facebook user, Maximillian Schrems, who claimed that the United States, and ultimately the Safe Harbor Agreement, failed to meet EU data protection standards in light of the unauthorized disclosures of classified U.S. surveillance programs by former U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) contractor Edward Snowden. In its decision, the CJEU determined that U.S. data protection measures do not provide an 'adequate level of protection' for personal data as required by the EU DPD, and thus Safe Harbor, as currently agreed, is invalid."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.; Archick, Kristin
2015-10-29
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Obama Administration's November 20, 2014, Actions as to Immigration: Pending Legal Challenges One Year Later [November 20, 2015]
"On November 20, 2014, the Obama Administration announced that it was taking a number of actions to 'fix' what the President has repeatedly described as a 'broken' immigration system. These actions addressed various issues, from border security to legal immigration to enforcement priorities and policies, as well as providing certain relief from removal to some of the approximately 11 million aliens who are present in the United States without a legal immigration status. One year later, many of these actions have been implemented, or are being implemented, without any legal challenge to the Executive's authority to take such actions. However, several legal challenges are currently pending to actions directly or indirectly called for on November 20, 2014. This Sidebar provides a brief overview of the status of these challenges."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2015-11-20
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Crisis in the Central African Republic [August 17, 2015]
"This report provides background on the evolving political, security, and humanitarian crisis in the Central African Republic (CAR), a landlocked, sparsely inhabited, and extremely under-developed country. Violence in CAR since 2013 has displaced hundreds of thousands of people and placed strains on global humanitarian and peacekeeping resources. U.S. responses include: [1] humanitarian assistance; [2]diplomatic and financial support for a U.N. peacekeeping operation, MINUSCA; [3] additional bilateral support for African peacekeepers and French troops that have deployed to CAR; [4] foreign aid for conflict mitigation and peacebuilding activities; [5] public diplomacy initiatives; and [6] an Executive Order authorizing targeted sanctions. Possible issues for Congress include the authorization, appropriation, and oversight of U.S. humanitarian assistance and contributions to international stabilization efforts. The crisis in CAR also has implications for several broader issues of potential interest to Congress, including: [1] stability in the surrounding region; [2] the prevention of 'mass atrocities'; [3] U.S. efforts to counter the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), a small but brutal militia active in CAR and neighboring states; and [4] the impact of the conflict in CAR on wildlife poaching and other cross-border criminal activity in the region. Congress has monitored the crisis in CAR and the U.S. response, including related fiscal implications. The 113th Congress held hearings on CAR before the Africa subcommittees of the House Foreign Affairs Committee (November 2013 and April 2014) and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (December 2013). The FY2015 Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act (P.L. 113-235) states that 'funds made available by this Act for [CAR] shall be made available for reconciliation and peacebuilding programs.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Arieff, Alexis; Husted, Tomas F.
2015-08-17
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Libya: Transition and U.S. Policy [March 4, 2016]
"Libya's political transition has been disrupted by armed non-state groups and threatened by the indecision and infighting of interim leaders. After an armed uprising ended the 40-plus year rule of Muammar al Qadhafi in late 2011, interim authorities proved unable to form a stable government, address pressing security issues, reshape the country's public finances, or create a viable framework for post-conflict justice and reconciliation. Elections for legislative bodies and a constitutional drafting assembly were held and transparently administered from 2012 through 2014, but were marred by declining rates of participation, threats to candidates and voters, and zero-sum political competition. Insecurity was prevalent in Libya in the immediate wake of the 2011 conflict and deepened in 2014, driven by overlapping ideological, personal, financial, and transnational rivalries. Resulting conflicts involving Libyans in different parts of the country drove the political transition off course. At present, armed militia groups and locally organized political leaders remain the most powerful arbiters of public affairs. Criminals and violent Islamist extremist organizations have exploited these conditions, and the latter have strengthened their military capabilities and advanced their ideological agendas inside Libya and beyond its borders."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2016-03-04
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Taliban Leadership Succession [May 26, 2016]
From the CRS (Congressional Research Service) Insight: "On May 23, President Obama confirmed that a U.S. unmanned aerial vehicle strike on a remote village just over the Pakistan border had killed the leader of the Afghan Taliban, Mullah Akhtar Mohammad Mansour. The strike was conducted after U.S. intelligence reportedly tracked Mansour crossing back into Pakistan from Iran. U.S. officials asserted that Mansour posed an imminent threat to the approximately 9,800 U.S. forces in Afghanistan, who are training and advising the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF) and conducting counter-terrorism missions against Al Qaeda and the local branch of the Islamic State, called the Islamic State--Khorasan Province (ISKP). On May 25, following several days of meetings among senior commanders and members of the movement, the Taliban confirmed Mansour's death and selected one of Mansour's deputies as its new leader, Mawlawi (honorific term for a level of religious scholarship) Haibatullah Akhunzadeh. Prior to his selection, Akhunzadeh, who is in his late 50s, had generally confined himself to religious issues and was not directly involved in the movement's command structure. [...] A major question is how the new Taliban leadership will approach the issue of peace talks between the Taliban and the Afghan government, if at all. On May 25, Akhunzadeh reportedly stated in an audio recording that the Taliban would not resume talks with the Afghan government. Many Taliban commanders continue to argue that victory over the Afghan government is attainable and that there is no need to negotiate a political settlement to the conflict. This view within the Taliban has been strengthened since the capture of the northern city of Konduz in September 2015 and the significant gains in Helmand Province and elsewhere in 2015-16."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2016-05-26
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Saudi Military Campaign in Yemen Draws Congressional Attention to U.S. Arms Sales [August 30, 2016]
"Some lawmakers have introduced legislation seeking to condition or prohibit the sale or transfer of certain munitions and the provision of some U.S. foreign assistance to Saudi Arabia. These proposals have come amid reports of Yemeni civilian casualties resulting from Saudi-led coalition military operations in Yemen, which resumed in August 2016. Some lawmakers suggest that U.S. arms sales and military support to Saudi Arabia are enabling alleged Saudi violations of international humanitarian law. Human rights organizations seek further investigations into the alleged Saudi violations, and some observers are calling for the suspension of U.S. arms sales and Yemen-related military support to Saudi Arabia. Proponents of proposed sales and continued U.S.-Saudi military cooperation have argued that the United States should provide more advanced U.S. technology and expanded training and intelligence sharing to improve Saudi operations. Some of these proponents point to Saudi actions to mitigate civilian casualties and investigate alleged violations, arguing that disrupting U.S. support could threaten Saudi security and jeopardize broader, long-standing defense and intelligence ties. Saudi officials acknowledge that their operations have caused undesired civilian casualties, while also alleging that their adversaries in Yemen intentionally use civilian facilities for military purposes. The Saudi government maintains that its military campaign is an act of legitimate self-defense, citing its Yemeni adversaries' repeated, deadly cross-border attacks, including ballistic missile attacks."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.; Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2016-08-30
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U.S. Immigration Policy: Chart Book of Key Trends [March 14, 2016]
"This report is a chart book of selected immigration trends. Key immigration issues that Congress has considered in recent years include increased border security and immigration enforcement, expanded employment eligibility verification, reforms to the system for legal temporary and permanent immigration, and options to address the millions of unauthorized aliens residing in the country. The report offers snapshots of time series data, 'using the most complete and consistent time series currently available for each statistic.' The key findings and elements germane to the data depicted are summarized with the figures. The summary offers the highlights of key immigration trends.
The United States has a history of receiving immigrants, and these foreign-born residents of the United States have come from all over the world."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kandel, William; Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2016-03-14
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 110th Congress [Updated June 22, 2007]
"Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. Twelve countries held successful elections for head of government in 2006, including a close election in Mexico. To date in 2007, the Bahamas held elections in May, while presidential elections are scheduled in Guatemala (September) and Argentina (October), and parliamentary elections are due by October in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it has rebounded since 2004, most recently experiencing a growth rate over 5% in 2006. Despite this progress, several nations face considerable challenges that affect U.S. interests and policy in the region. These include persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of a new form of populism in several countries. In the 110th Congress, legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean is focusing on continued counternarcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; immigration reform and increased border security, which have been key issues in relations with Mexico; efforts to deal with threats to democracy and the rise of populism in such nations as Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador; debate over the best means to foster political change in Communist Cuba; trade issues, including the potential consideration of implementing legislation for free trade agreements (FTAs); and continued efforts to support stability and poverty alleviation in Haiti."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Cook, Colleen W.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.) . . .
2007-06-22
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 110th Congress [January 23, 2007]
"Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. Twelve countries held successful elections for head of government in 2006, including a close election in Mexico, and in 2007, five other countries have elections scheduled. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it has rebounded since 2004, and most recently experienced an average growth rate over 5% in 2006. Despite this progress, several nations face considerable challenges that threaten political stability or pose challenges for U.S. interests and policy in the region. These include persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of a new form of populism in several countries. In the 110th Congress, legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean will likely focus on continued counternarcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; potential immigration reform and increased border security, which have been key issues in relations with Mexico; efforts to deal with potential threats to democracy and the rise of populism in such nations as Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador; debate over the best means to foster political change in Communist Cuba; and trade issues, including the potential consideration of implementing legislation for free trade agreements (FTAs). Curbing the flow of illicit drugs from Mexico and South America into the United States has been a key component of U.S. relations with Latin America for almost two decades."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Cook, Colleen W.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.) . . .
2007-01-23
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Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security [Updated October 31, 2007]
"Operation Iraqi Freedom overthrew Saddam Hussein's regime, but much of Iraq remains violent because of Sunni Arab resentment and a related insurgency, compounded by Sunni-Shiite sectarian violence and increased violent competition among Shiite groups as well. Compounding the internal violence is growing tension on Iraq's northern border with Turkey; the north has been the one area of Iraq to experience peace and relative prosperity since the U.S. intervention in 2004. Mounting U.S. casualties and financial costs -- without clear movement toward national political reconciliation among Iraq's major communities -- have intensified a debate within the United States over whether to reduce U.S. involvement without completely accomplishing initial U.S. goals. In order to halt the apparent deterioration in conditions in Iraq in 2006 and to try to facilitate more unity and reconciliation in the central government, President Bush announced a new strategy on January 10, 2007 ('New Way Forward') consisting of deployment of an additional 28,500 U.S. forces ('troop surge') to help stabilize Baghdad and to take advantage of growing tribal support in Anbar Province for U.S. policy. The strategy was to create security conditions conducive to Iraqi government action on a series of key reconciliation initiatives that are viewed as 'benchmarks' of political progress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2007-10-31
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Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security [Updated November 30, 2007]
"Operation Iraqi Freedom overthrew Saddam Hussein's regime, but much of Iraq became violent because of Sunni Arab resentment and a related insurgency, compounded by Sunni-Shiite sectarian violence, violent competition among Shiite groups as well, and the failure of Iraq's government to equitably deliver services. Compounding the internal violence has been growing tension on Iraq's northern border with Turkey, and Iranian assistance to armed Shiite groups operating in southern Iraq and in Baghdad. Mounting U.S. casualties and financial costs -- without clear movement toward national political reconciliation among Iraq's major communities -- have intensified a debate within the United States over whether to reduce U.S. involvement without completely accomplishing initial U.S. goals. In late 2007, the Administration is claiming relative success in reversing the deterioration in security in 2006, attributing the gains to the strategy announced by President Bush on January 10, 2007 ('New Way Forward'). The centerpiece of the strategy was the deployment of an additional 28,500 U.S. forces ('troop surge') to help stabilize Baghdad and to take advantage of growing tribal support for U.S. policy in Anbar Province. However, critics say that the strategy was primarily intended to promote Iraqi government action on a series of key reconciliation initiatives that are viewed as 'benchmarks' of political progress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2007-11-30
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Foreign Outsourcing: Economic Implications and Policy Responses [Updated June 21, 2005]
"Foreign outsourcing--the importing of some intermediate product […] that was once produced domestically--is not a new phenomenon, nor is it one that is economically distinct from other types of imports in terms of its basic economic consequences. A steadily rising level of trade in intermediate products is one of the salient characteristics of U.S. trade and world trade for the last 30 years. It has been estimated that as much as a third of the growth of world trade since 1970 has been the result of such outsourcing worldwide. While foreign outsourcing may seem different from traditional notions of trade in that it involves exchange of a productive resource (capital or labor) rather than an exchange of a final good and service, the ultimate economic outcome is exactly the same: a net increase in economic efficiency through the elimination of economic inefficiencies that occur when countries use only the productive resources found within their borders. […] The destructive aspects of foreign outsourcing are costly and distressing to those whose jobs are lost to increased imports. Therefore, matters of efficiency and equity are intertwined and one of the principal challenges for policymakers in the face of foreign outsourcing (and trade in general) is to find ways to ameliorate the associated harm, without sacrificing the economy-wide gains that such trade generates. Compensation for loss and adjustment assistance is thought by economists to offer the best chance for securing higher economic efficiency along with distributional equity. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elwell, Craig Kent, 1947-
2005-06-21
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U.S. Immigration Policy: Chart Book of Key Trends [March 7, 2013]
"This report is a chart book of selected immigration trends that touch on the main elements of comprehensive immigration reform (CIR). The main issues in the immigration debate typically include increases to border security and enforcement of immigration laws within the U.S. interior, expansion of employment eligibility verification, and reforms to the system for legal temporary and permanent immigration. The thorniest issues concern policy options to address the millions of unauthorized aliens residing in the country. This report offers snapshots of time series data, 'using the most complete and consistent time series currently available for each statistic.' Some of the time series span decades, others capture only a few years. The key findings and elements germane to the data depicted are summarized with the figures. For those who seek more complete analyses of the issues, the report cites Congressional Research Service (CRS) products that discuss the policies underlying the data presented in each of the figures."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2013-03-07
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Latin America: Terrorism Issues [April 5, 2013]
"U.S. attention to terrorism in Latin America intensified in the aftermath of the September 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, with an increase in bilateral and regional cooperation. In its 2011 'Country Reports on Terrorism' (issued in July 2012), the State Department maintained that the threat of a transnational terrorist attack remained low for most countries in the hemisphere. It reported that the majority of terrorist attacks in the hemisphere were committed by two Colombian terrorist groups--the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the National Liberation Army (ELN)--and other radical groups in the Andean region. With regard to Mexico, the report asserted that there was no evidence of ties between Mexican drug trafficking organizations and terrorist groups, and no evidence 'that these criminal organizations had aims of political or territorial control, aside from seeking to protect and expand the impunity with which they conduct their criminal activity.' Cuba has remained on the State Department's list of state sponsors of terrorism since 1982 pursuant to Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act. Both Cuba and Venezuela are on the State Department's annual list of countries determined to be not cooperating fully with U.S. antiterrorism efforts pursuant to Section 40A of the Arms Export Control Act. U.S. officials have expressed concerns over the past several years about Venezuela's lack of cooperation on antiterrorism efforts, its relations with Iran, and potential support for Colombian terrorist groups, although improved Venezuelan-Colombian relations have resulted in closer cooperation on antiterrorism and counter-narcotics efforts and border security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Beittel, June S.
2013-04-05
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Keystone XL Pipeline: Overview and Recent Developments [April 1, 2015]
"TransCanada's proposed Keystone XL Pipeline would transport oil sands crude from Canada and shale oil produced in North Dakota and Montana to a market hub in Nebraska for further delivery to Gulf Coast refineries. The pipeline would consist of 875 miles of 36-inch pipe with the capacity to transport 830,000 barrels per day. Because it would cross the Canadian-U.S. border, Keystone XL requires a Presidential Permit from the State Department based on a determination that the pipeline would 'serve the national interest.' To make its national interest determination (NID), the department considers potential effects on energy security; environmental and cultural resources; the economy; foreign policy, and other factors. Effects on environmental and cultural resources are determined by preparing an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). The NID process also provides for public comment and requires the State Department to consult with specific federal agencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Parfomak, Paul W.; Luther, Linda G.; Lattanzio, Richard K. . . .
2015-04-01
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U.S. Immigration Policy: Chart Book of Key Trends [December 17, 2014]
"This report is a chart book of selected immigration trends that touch on the main elements of comprehensive immigration reform (CIR). Most policymakers agree that the main issues in CIR include increased border security and immigration enforcement, improved employment eligibility verification, revision of legal immigration, and options to address the millions of unauthorized aliens residing in the country. The report offers snapshots of time series data, using the most complete and consistent time series currently available for each statistic. The key findings and elements germane to the data depicted are summarized with the figures. The summary offers the highlights of key immigration trends."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kandel, William
2014-12-17
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Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and International Trade: Legal Issues [November 5, 2013]
"Most consumer products within the jurisdiction of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) are imported into the United States. The CPSC is the central, federal authority for the promotion and enforcement of consumer product safety. In 2008, following several well-publicized national recalls of toys and children's products, many of which contained lead, Congress passed the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA), which included provisions addressing the CPSC's role in ensuring the safety of imported and exported consumer products. With regard to import safety, the CPSC acts in coordination with U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), Department of Homeland Security, to evaluate the safety of consumer products offered for import into U.S. customs territory. Working together with CBP, the CPSC attempts to identify shipments that are likely to contain consumer products which violate import provisions that the agency enforces. The CPSC also determines whether to admit certain consumer products offered for import into U.S. customs territory. Importers of products manufactured outside of the United States must certify that finished products comply with all rules, bans, standards, or regulations applicable to the product under any act enforced by the CPSC."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Murrill, Brandon J.
2013-11-05
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Federal Permitting and Oversight of Export of Fossil Fuels [January 7, 2014]
From the Summary: "Recent technological developments have led to an increase in the domestic supply of natural gas. As a result, there is interest among some parties in exporting liquefied natural gas (LNG) to take advantage of international markets. This has placed new attention on the laws and regulations governing the export of natural gas as well as other fossil fuels. In most cases, export of fossil fuels requires federal authorization of both the act of exporting the fuel and the facility that will be employed to export the fuel. For example, the export of natural gas is permitted by the Department of Energy's Office of Fossil Energy, while the construction and operation of the export facility must be authorized by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). Oil exports are generally forbidden, but an export that falls under one of several exemptions to the ban can be authorized by the Department of Commerce's Bureau of Industry and Security, while oil pipelines that cross international borders must be permitted by the State Department. […] Article XX of the GATT [General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade] provides additional exceptions that a member country may invoke if it is found to be in violation of any GATT obligations. For example, WTO [World Trade Organization] Members may maintain an otherwise GATT inconsistent measure if it is necessary to protect an exhaustible natural resource or necessary to protect human health or the environment. Article XIII requires that if an otherwise GATT inconsistent measure is permitted to remain in force due to an Article XX exception, the measure must be administered in a non-discriminatory manner. Export restrictions that treat WTO Members differently would appear not to satisfy the non-discriminatory requirements of Article XIII."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Vann, Adam; Shedd, Daniel T.; Murrill, Brandon J.
2014-01-07
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U.S.-Kenya Relations: Current Political and Security Issues [September 23, 2013]
"The U.S. government views Kenya as a strategic partner and anchor state in East Africa, and as critical to counterterrorism efforts in the region. Kenya has repeatedly been a target of terrorist attacks, and, as the September 2013 attack on an upscale Nairobi shopping mall underscores, terrorist threats against international and domestic targets in Kenya remain a serious concern. Kenya's military plays a key role in regional operations against Al Shabaab in Somalia. The Al Qaeda-affiliated Somali insurgent group has claimed responsibility for the Westgate Mall attack ostensibly in response to Kenya's military offensive against the group across the Somali border. The incident is the deadliest terrorist attack in Kenya since the 1998 U.S. Embassy bombing and the group's first successful large-scale operation in the Kenyan capital. Kenya ranks among the top U.S. foreign aid recipients in the world, receiving significant development, humanitarian, and security assistance in recent years. The country, which is a top recipient of police and military counterterrorism assistance on the continent, hosts the largest U.S. diplomatic mission in Africa. Nairobi is home to one of four major United Nations offices worldwide."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Lauren Ploch
2013-09-23
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Digital Trade and U.S. Trade Policy [January 13, 2017]
"As the rules of global Internet develop and evolve, digital trade has risen in prominence on the global trade and economic agenda, but multilateral trade agreements have not kept pace with the complexities of the digital economy. The economic impact of the Internet was estimated to be $4.2 trillion in 2016, making it the equivalent of the fifth-largest national economy. According to one source, the volume of global data flows grew 45-fold from 2005 to 2014, faster than international trade or financial flows. Congress has an important role to play in shaping global digital trade policy, from oversight of agencies charged with regulating cross-border data flows to shaping and considering legislation to implement new trade rules and disciplines through ongoing trade negotiations, and also working with the executive branch to identify the right balance between digital trade and other policy objectives, including privacy and national security. Digital trade includes end-products like movies and video games and services such as email. Digital trade also enhances the productivity and overall competitiveness of an economy. According to the U.S. International Trade Commission, U.S. domestic and international digital trade added 3.4 -4.8% ($517.1-$710.7 billion) to the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) in 2011. The Department of Commerce found that in 2014, digitally delivered services accounted for more than half of U.S. services trade."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fefer, Rachel F.; Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Morrison, Wayne M.
2017-01-13
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Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data [March 3, 2017]
"Today the federal government owns and manages roughly 640 million acres of land in the United States. Four major federal land management agencies manage 610.1 million acres of this land, or about 95% of all federal land in the United States. These agencies are as follows: Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 248.3 million acres; Forest Service (FS), 192.9 million acres; Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 89.1 million acres; and National Park Service (NPS), 79.8 million acres. Most of these lands are in the West, including Alaska. In addition, the Department of Defense (DOD) administers 11.4 million acres in the United States, about 2% of all federal land. The remaining acreage, approximately 3% of all federal land, is managed by a variety of government agencies. Ownership and use of federal lands have stirred controversy for decades. Conflicting public values concerning federal lands raise many questions and issues, including the extent to which the federal government should own land; whether to focus resources on maintenance of existing infrastructure and lands or acquisition of new areas; how to balance use and protection; and how to ensure the security of international borders along the federal lands of multiple agencies. Congress continues to examine these questions through legislative proposals, program oversight, and annual appropriations for the federal land management agencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hardy Vincent, Carol; Hanson, Laura A.; Argueta, Carla N.
2017-03-03
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Iran and Israel:Tension Over Syria [October 24, 2018]
"Iranian military operations in support of the Syrian government since 2011 have exacerbated long standing tensions between Iran and Israel. These tensions have worsened considerably since late 2016 as Iran has helped Syria's government regain key territory, and in turn has sought a more permanent military presence in Syria.Israeli officials have described the deployment of Iran-backed forces in Syria--particularly in the southwest, near Israel's northern border--as a significant security threat compelling Israel to act.In September 2018, Israeli Intelligence Minister Israel Katz stated, 'in the last two years Israel has taken military action more than 200 times within Syria itself.' During 2018, Israeli and Iranian forces have repeatedly targeted one another in and over Syrian-and Israeli-controlled areas.While Israel has conducted numerous air strikes inside Syria since 2012--mostly on targets linked to weapons shipments to Lebanese Hezbollah--the 2018 strikes appear for the first time to have directly targeted Iranian facilities and personnel in Syria."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.; Katzman, Kenneth; Zanotti, Jim
2018-10-24
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated April 1, 2019]
From the Document: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the states that gained their independence after the USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] collapsed in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid to Europe and Eurasia."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-04-01
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Kazakhstan [Updated June 21, 2019]
From the Overview: "Kazakhstan, a U.S. partner in areas such as counterterrorism, regional security, and nuclear nonproliferation, is a strategically situated country endowed with significant hydrocarbon and mineral resources. It shares long borders with Russia to the north and China to the east. Although sparsely populated, Kazakhstan is the world's ninth largest country by area. Previously a republic of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became independent in 1991. Since then, the country's authoritarian government has introduced significant market reforms, developed the energy sector, and moved to diversify its economy. Kazakhstan pursues a 'multi-vector' foreign policy, seeking to balance relations with major powers while actively participating in international organizations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blackwood, Maria A.
2019-06-21
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COVID-19 Pandemic in Africa: Impact, Responses, and Lessons from Ghana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Rwanda
From the Document: "The outbreak of the novel coronavirus [2019] (COVID-19) has caused widespread disruption of lives the world over. In response, governments have elevated the pandemic to the level of national security and instituted measures to mitigate its spread and impact. In Africa, the spread of infections across the continent has pushed African governments to initiate extraordinary responses. These include mandatory quarantines, social distancing, border closures, travel restrictions, bans on social and religious gatherings, and curfews. While these measures have partially contributed to Africa's relatively low infection rate, they have adversely affected the socio-economic and political landscape of most states across the continent. According to the World Bank, as a result of the pandemic, economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2020 will decline from 2.4 percent, as initially projected, to between -2.1 percent and -5.1 percent. As a result, the region will likely experience its first recession in 25 years. Politically, preparations for scheduled elections in 2020 in several countries are under threat. Moreover, some African leaders are instrumentalizing COVID-19 to perpetuate their incumbency, including by shrinking the space for political participation and dissenting views. In light of the foregoing, this paper examines the impact of COVID-19 and response strategies in Africa with a specific focus on three countries--Ghana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Rwanda."
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars
Frimpong, Osei Baffour; Minani Bihuzo Bin Kakuru, Rigobert, 1960-; Commodore, Richmond
2020-09
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Passports: Current Regulations [August 4, 2009]
"Prior to 2007, little or no documentation was required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the Caribbean. In December 2004, with the 9/11 Commission recommending tighter borders to help prevent another terrorist attack, Congress passed the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which now requires passports for anyone entering the United States. As of mid-2009, approximately 30% of American citizens hold a passport. [...]. On January 31, 2008, another change occurred. Government-issued proof of identity and citizenship documents are required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, and the Caribbean, according to the Department of Homeland Security. People under the age of 18, however, are allowed to present only proof of citizenship, such as a birth certificate. Phase II, implemented on June 1, 2009, adds to the existing requirements that travelers have passports for all land and sea crossings. U.S. or Canadian children under the age of 16, however, are allowed to present an original or copy of their birth certificate or other proof of citizenship. Groups of U.S. or Canadian children under the age of 19, when traveling in church or school groups, social groups, or sports teams, and when entering under adult supervision, also can present birth certificates or other proof of citizenship, rather than a passport. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2009-08-04
