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• CRS Issue Statement on Organized Crime and Gangs in the U.S. [January 12, 2010]

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  From the Document: "Terrorists and other organized criminal groups pose a threat to the United States. Over the past year alone, two shootings and one attempted bombing of an airliner occurred that have been considered terrorist attacks. Individuals claiming allegiance to groups that wish to do harm to U.S. interests continue to be of concern to Congress. Also of concern to Congress are criminal activities of other organized groups and the potential nexus between them and terrorist organizations. [...] In recent years, there has been an increase in violence directed at Americans and American economic interests from other organized criminal elements--many with transnational connections--such as drug trafficking organizations, gangs, and criminal syndicates. Drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) are a domestic criminal threat and a significant concern to federal, state, and local law enforcement. [...] A number of street and prison gangs work closely with Mexican DTOs and drug cartels, including the Surenos 13, 18th Street, Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13), the Mexican Mafia in California, the Texas Mexican Mafia (Mexikanemi), Hermanos de Pistoleros Latinos, and the Texas Syndicate in the south Texas area. A number of regional and national gangs, including Asian gangs, are also reported to have transnational connections and be criminally active along the U.S.-Canada border. Growing gang involvement in smuggling operations has long been a concern as a potential domestic security threat."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Randol, Mark A.

  2010-01-12
• Mexico-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress [May 13, 2009]

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  "The United States and Mexico have a close and complex bilateral relationship, with extensive economic linkages as neighbors and partners under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Bilateral relations are close, and characterized by extensive commercial and cultural ties and cooperation on a range of bilateral and international issues. A current bilateral dispute involves the implementation of NAFTA trucking provisions. In March 2009, Congress terminated a pilot-project for Mexican-registered trucks to operate beyond the border commercial zone, and Mexico responded by imposing import tariffs on over 90 U.S. agricultural and industrial products. […].President Barack Obama traveled to Mexico on April 16-17, 2009 to discuss cooperation in the fight against drug-related violence, immigration reform, and clean energy and climate change. This had been preceded by visits in March by Secretary of State Clinton, who discussed a broad range of bilateral issues, including Mérida Initiative cooperation, and Secretary of Homeland Security Napolitano, and Attorney General Eric Holder who emphasized new anti-crime efforts. On April 24, 2009, Mexico's Health Ministry announced an outbreak of a new influenza strain, subsequently dubbed influenza A(H1N1). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention issued a travel health warning on April 27 advising U.S. citizens to avoid all nonessential travel to Mexico. The Calderón government took significant measures to combat the outbreak, which began to ease in early May 2009. The influenza outbreak will likely have a significant negative effect on the Mexican economy, which already has been experiencing a severe downturn because of the global financial crisis and U.S. recession."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Beittel, June S.

  2009-05-13
• Mexico's Drug-Related Violence [May 15, 2009]

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  "This report examines the causes for the escalation of the violence in Mexico. It provides a brief overview of Mexico's counterdrug efforts, a description of the major DTOs, the causes and trends in the violence, the Calderón government's efforts to crackdown on the DTOs, and the objectives and implementation of the Mérida Initiative and other measures the U.S. government has taken to support Mexico in its battle with the drug traffickers." According to the report, "drug-related violence in Mexico has spiked in recent years as drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) have competed for control of smuggling routes into the United States. Drug trafficking issues are prominent in Mexico because the country has for at least four decades been among the most important producers and suppliers of heroin, marijuana and (later) methamphetamine to the U.S. market. Today it is the leading source of all three drugs and is now the leading transit country for cocaine coming from South America to the United States. Although previous Mexican governments had accommodated some drug trafficking in the country, when President Felipe Calderón came into office in December 2006 he made battling the Mexican drug trafficking organizations a top priority. He has raised spending on security and sent thousands of troops and federal police to combat the DTOs in states along the U.S.-Mexico border and throughout the country. In response to the government's crackdown, the DTOs have responded with escalating violence."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Beittel, June S.

  2009-05-15
• Immigration Reform Issues in the 111th Congress [February 2, 2010]

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  "This report synthesizes the multi-tiered debate over immigration reform into key elements: legal immigration; legalization; immigration control; refugees, asylees, and humanitarian migrants; and, alien rights, benefits and responsibilities. It delineates the issues for the 111th Congress on permanent residence, temporary admissions, border security, worksite enforcement, employment eligibility verification, document fraud, criminal aliens, and the grounds for inadmissibility. Addressing these contentious policy reforms against the backdrop of economic crisis sharpens the social and business cleavages and narrows the range of options."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2010-02-02
• Merida Initiative for Mexico and Central America: Funding and Policy Issues [January 21, 2010]

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  "Increasing violence perpetrated by drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) and other criminal groups is threatening citizen security in Mexico and Central America. Drug-related violence claimed more than 6,500 lives in Mexico in 2009, and several Central American countries have among the highest homicide rates in the world. Mexican DTOs dominate the illicit drug market in the United States and are expanding their operations by forming partnerships with U.S. gangs. As a result, some of the drug-related violence in Mexico has spilled over into the United States. On October 22, 2007, the United States and Mexico announced the Mérida Initiative, a proposed package of U.S. counterdrug and anticrime assistance for Mexico and Central America that would begin in FY2008 and last through FY2010. Congress appropriated roughly $1.3 billion for Mexico and Central America, as well as Haiti and the Dominican Republic, in the FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 110-252), FY2009 Omnibus Appropriations Act (P.L. 111- 8), and the FY2009 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-32). Each of these Acts contained human rights conditions on 15% of certain law enforcement and military assistance provided. Throughout 2009, drug-related violence in Mexico and the potential threat of spillover along the Southwest border focused congressional concern on the pace of implementation of the Mérida Initiative. On December 3, 2009, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a preliminary report for Congress on the status of funding for the Mérida Initiative."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2010-01-21
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated January 24, 2006]

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  "The Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides over the past two decades in terms of political and economic development. While the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, by the end of 2004, it had rebounded with an estimated growth rate of nearly 6% for the year, surpassing even the most optimistic predictions. Nevertheless, several nations face considerable challenges that could threaten political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, and increasing crime. Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 109th Congress has focused on continued counter-narcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; trade issues, including consideration of several free trade agreements (FTAs); threats to democracy in such nations as Haiti and Venezuela; and efforts to foster political change in Cuba. Congress also has maintained an active interest in neighboring Mexico, focusing especially on border security and migration issues. Since 2000, the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) has been the primary U.S. program supporting the Colombian governments efforts to combat drug trafficking and terrorist activity perpetrated by guerrilla and paramilitary groups. The 109th Congress approved the Administrations request to continue ACI funding in FY2006 at approximately the same levels as in previous years."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-

  2005-11-16
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated March 29, 2006]

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  "The Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides over the past two decades in terms of political and economic development. While the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it rebounded in 2004, with a growth rate of 5.9%. Estimates for 2005 show a growth rate of 4.3%. Nevertheless, several nations face considerable challenges that could threaten political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of radical populism in several countries. Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the second session of the 109th Congress are focusing on continued counter-narcotics efforts in the region; trade issues, including the possible consideration of implementing legislation for one or more free trade agreements; potential challenges to democracy in Venezuela and Bolivia; ongoing efforts to bring political stability and ameliorate poverty in Haiti; efforts to foster change in Cuba; and cooperation on border security, migration, and anti-terrorism measures, especially with Mexico. Since 2000, the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) has been the primary U.S. program supporting the Colombian government's efforts to combat drug trafficking and terrorist activity perpetrated by guerrilla and paramilitary groups. In the first session, the 109th Congress approved the Administration's request to continue ACI funding in FY2006 at approximately the same levels as in previous years, and the second session will be considering the FY2007 request for ACI funding."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cook, Colleen W.

  2006-03-29
• Georgia [Republic]: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [May 18, 2011]

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  "The small Black Sea-bordering country of Georgia gained its independence at the end of 1991 with the dissolution of the former Soviet Union. The United States had an early interest in its fate, since the well-known former Soviet foreign minister, Eduard Shevardnadze, soon became its leader. Democratic and economic reforms faltered during his rule, however. New prospects for the country emerged after Shevardnadze was ousted in 2003 and the U.S.-educated Mikheil Saakashvili was elected president. Then-U.S. President George W. Bush visited Georgia in 2005, and praised the democratic and economic aims of the Saakashvili government while calling on it to deepen reforms. The August 2008 Russia-Georgia conflict caused much damage to Georgia's economy and military, as well as contributing to hundreds of casualties and tens of thousands of displaced persons in Georgia. The United States quickly pledged $1 billion in humanitarian and recovery assistance for Georgia. In early 2009, the United States and Georgia signed a Strategic Partnership Charter, which pledged U.S. support for democratization, economic development, and security reforms in Georgia. The Obama Administration has pledged continued U.S. support to uphold Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2011-05-18
• Visa Policy: Roles of the Departments of State and Homeland Security [March 4, 2004]

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  Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States on temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) each played key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOSs Consular Affairs remains responsible for issuing visas, DHSs Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHSs Bureau of Customs and Border Protection inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen

  2004-03-04
• Terrorist Identification, Screening, and Tracking under Homeland Security Presidential Directive 6 [Updated December 23, 2004]

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  "In Homeland Security Presidential Directive 6 (HSPD-6), the Administration announced plans to establish a Terrorist Screening Center (TSC), as a multi-agency effort to be administered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), where several watch lists are being consolidated into a single terrorist screening database (TSDB). The TSC is the latest of three multi-agency efforts undertaken by the Administration to better identify, screen, and track known terrorists and suspected terrorists. The other two are the Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force (FTTTF) and the Terrorist Threat Integration Center (TTIC). The TSC complements the FBI-led FTTTF's efforts to prevent terrorists from entering the United States and to track and remove them if they manage to enter the country. The TTIC serves as a single locale where terrorism-threat data from all sources are analyzed further. Under HSPD-6, certain terrorist watch list functions previously performed by the Department of State's Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR) were transferred to the TTIC and TSC. At the TTIC, intelligence analysts are building a Terrorist Identities Database (TID) based on TIPOFF, the U.S. government's principal terrorist watch list database prior to HSPD-6. From TID records, TSC analysts have built a consolidated Terrorist Screening Database. The Administration has increased access to, and use of, lookout records by making them available in a "sensitive but unclassified" format to authorized federal, state, local, territorial and tribal authorities; certain private sector entities; and certain foreign governments. From system to system, however, there remains no standardization of data elements, such as, name, date of birth, place of birth, nationality, or biometric identifiers. Moreover, additional work remains to upgrade and integrate consular and border management, intelligence, criminal history, and biometric systems."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Krouse, William J.

  2004-12-23
• Macedonia: Country Background and Recent Conflict [Updated November 7, 2001]

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  From the Document: "In 2001, ethnic Albanian rebels calling themselves the National Liberation Army (NLA) stepped up attacks on Macedonian security forces first in several villages near the city of Tetovo and by the western border with Kosovo, and later near the capital, Skopje. The NLA is thought to have ties to the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and rebel Albanian forces operating in southern Serbia. In March, the Macedonian government began a counter-insurgency campaign. It opened talks on political reforms with elected ethnic Albanian representatives, but refused to negotiate with the rebels themselves. Clashes between the rebels and government forces continued, notwithstanding intermittent cease-fire agreements and ongoing political talks. With U.S. and European diplomatic intervention, the parties signed a framework agreement on August 13, amidst the deadliest violence to date. Deadlock in the Macedonian parliament over aspects of the accord has delayed implementation of the agreement by several weeks. In early 2001, the international community, including the United States, condemned the violent actions of the Albanian extremists and expressed support for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Macedonia, while urging restraint on the part of the Macedonian forces. At the invitation of President Bush, Macedonian President Trajkovski came to Washington on May 2, where President Bush underscored U.S. support for Macedonia's efforts to resolve the conflict. While not leading NATO's Task Force Harvest mission, the United States supported the operation with medical, intelligence, and logistical assets provided by U.S. military forces and facilities already stationed in the Balkans. NATO allies have agreed to replace U.S. armed forces in the NATO Balkans missions if the United States needs to divert some of them to the anti-terrorist campaign in Afghanistan. U.S. officials have pressed the Macedonian and Albanian parties to implement the framework agreement.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kim, Julie

  2001-11-07
• Kosovo: International Reactions to NATO Air Strikes [Updated April 21, 1999]

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  From the Document: "In response to Serbian aggression in Kosovo, NATO began air operations against targets in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on March 24, 1999. This report reviews international reactions to that operation. Responses in eight NATO countries -- France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Turkey, and the United Kingdom which are key to the operation for either military and/or geopolitical reasons are discussed. The potential for the conflict in Kosovo to spill across international borders is considered to be high. Thus, this report considers the reaction to the NATO air strikes of the following non-NATO regional actors: Albania, Austria, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, and Slovenia. The strongest international opposition to the NATO operation has come from Russia and China. For this reason, U.N. Security Council approval has not been sought because both countries have veto power on the Council. Their reactions are discussed, together with a review of action in the United Nations on the crisis in Kosovo. Related CRS products include Kosovo and U.S. Policy, by Steven Woehrel and Julie Kim, CRS Issue Brief 98041; Kosovo-U.S. and Allied Military Operations, by Steve Bowman, CRS Issue Brief 10027; Kosovo: Issues and Options for U.S. Policy, by Steven Woehrel, CRS Short Report RS20125; Kosovo Conflict: Russian Responses and Implications for the United States, by James Nichol, CRS Long Report 30130; and Kosovo: Greek and Turkish Perspectives, by Carol Migdalovitz, CRS Short Report 20149. The report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Donfried, Karen

  1999-04-21
• Egypt in Transition [August 23, 2011]

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  "On February 11, 2011, President Hosni Mubarak resigned from the presidency after 29 years in power. For 18 days, a popular peaceful uprising spread across Egypt and ultimately forced Mubarak to cede power to the military. How Egypt transitions to a more democratic system in the months ahead will have major implications for U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East and for other countries in the region ruled by monarchs and dictators. This report provides a brief overview of the transition underway and information on U.S. foreign aid to Egypt. U.S. policy toward Egypt has long been framed as an investment in regional stability, built primarily on long-running military cooperation and sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. Successive U.S. Administrations have viewed Egypt's government as a moderating influence in the Middle East. U.S. policy makers are now grappling with complex questions about the future of U.S.-Egypt relations, and these debates are likely to influence consideration of appropriations and authorization legislation in the 112th Congress. The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. For FY2012, the Obama Administration has requested $1.551 billion in total aid to Egypt. On July 27, 2011, the House Appropriations Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs marked up its FY2012 State-Foreign Operations appropriation, proposing that Egypt receive the full FY2012 request ($1.551 billion), including $1.3 billion in military aid, and that military aid should also be used for 'border security programs and activities in the Sinai, with the expectation that the Egyptian military will continue to adhere to and implement its international obligations, particularly the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2011-08-23
• COVIDcast: Wolf Warriors in the Age of Covid, with Shivshankar Menon and Richard McGregor [audio]

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  From the Webpage Description: "In this episode of COVIDcast, Richard McGregor, Lowy Institute Senior Fellow, sat down with Shivshankar Menon to discuss the latest currents in Chinese foreign policy, particularly its tense border stand-off with India. Shivshankar Menon is an Indian diplomat who served as National Security Adviser and Foreign Secretary, and also as Ambassador to Pakistan, China and Israel. COVIDcast is a Lowy Institute pop-up podcast for anyone interested in understanding the effect of the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic on global politics. In each episode, Lowy Institute experts and invited guests discuss the implications of this crisis for the world." The duration of the audio is 22 minutes 1 second.

  Lowy Institute for International Policy

  McGregor, Richard; Menon, Shivshankar, 1949-

  2020-09-30
• Central Asia: Regional Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests [September 7, 2006]

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  "After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States recognized the independence of all the former Central Asian republics, supported their admission into Western organizations, and elicited Turkish support to counter Iranian influence in the region. Congress was at the forefront in urging the formation of coherent U.S. policies for aiding these and other Eurasian states of the former Soviet Union. […] Some observers call for different emphases or levels of U.S. involvement in the region. There are differing views on whether to strengthen or weaken conditions linking aid to progress in improving human rights and making adequate progress in democratization and the creation of free markets. There is debate regarding the importance of energy resources in the region to U.S. national security and about whether the risks posed by civil and ethnic tensions in the region outweigh the benefits of U.S. involvement. There are questions about whether U.S. military access will be needed after Afghanistan becomes more stable. Heightened congressional interest in Central Asian (and South Caucasian) states was reflected in passage of 'Silk Road' language in 1999 (P.L. 106-113) authorizing enhanced U.S. policy attention and aid to support conflict amelioration, humanitarian needs, economic development, transport (including energy pipelines) and communications, border controls, democracy, and the creation of civil societies in these countries. This CRS report replaces CRS Issue Brief IB93108, 'Central Asia: Regional Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests', by Jim Nichol."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2006-09-07
• Department of Justice (DOJ) Appropriations for FY2008 and FY2009

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  "Congress established the Department of Justice (DOJ) in 1870 (28 U.S.C. 501), with the Attorney General at its head. DOJ provides counsel for citizens in federal cases and protects them through law enforcement; represents the federal government in all proceedings, civil and criminal, before the Supreme Court; and provides legal advice and opinions, upon request, to the President and executive branch department heads. This report provides coverage of the FY2009 appropriations cycle for DOJ, including FY2008 supplemental appropriations. […] For FY2009, the Administration's budget request for DOJ was $23,088.9 million. This amount is $503 million less than the FY2008 enacted budget. In light of the House and Senate action on FY2008 supplemental funding, the FY2009 DOJ budget request may well be between $910.3 million and $1,633.6 million below the total level of funding that Congress might provide for FY2008. Several issues with funding implications that have arisen during FY2009 appropriations hearings include (1) continued oversight of the FBI's greater emphasis on national security investigations as opposed to traditional crime, (2) reported spikes in violent crime in medium-sized and small cities, (3) the Administration's proposal to further cut funding for state and local law enforcement assistance and consolidate related grant programs, (4) reported increases in drug trafficking and related violent crime on the Southwest border, (5) funding shortfalls for the Federal Prison System, and (6) the reentry of several waves of offenders whose prison sentences will soon end. This report will be updated as necessary."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  James, Nathan; Franco, Celinda; Krouse, William J.

  2008-06-10
• Serbia: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [July 30, 2012]

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  "Serbia faces an important crossroads in its development. It is seeking to integrate into the European Union (EU), but its progress has been hindered by tensions with the United States and many EU countries over the independence of Serbia's former Kosovo province. The global economic crisis poses serious challenges for Serbia. Painful austerity measures have been required for Serbia to receive loans from the IMF and other international financial institutions. Serbia held parliamentary and presidential elections in May 2012. One party in the former government, the Socialist Party, did much better than anticipated in the parliamentary vote. In another surprise, in the presidential vote the incumbent president Boris Tadic was defeated by Tomislav Nikolic of the nationalist Progressive Party. After protracted negotiations, in July 2012 the Progressives formed a new government with the Socialists and another group, the United Regions of Serbia. Socialist leader Ivica Dacic was elected as Prime Minister. […] He said the countries could 'agree to disagree' on Kosovo's independence. He called on Serbia to transfer the remaining war criminals to the ICTY, promote reform in neighboring Bosnia, and cooperate with international bodies in Kosovo. The United States has strongly supported the EU-led talks between Kosovo and Serbia, while making clear that it plays no direct role in them. The United States has applauded the agreements reached by the two sides, as well as the EU's decision to grant Serbia EU membership candidacy status in March 2012. The United States has called upon Serbia to come to terms with Kosovo within its current borders and to dismantle its security institutions in northern Kosovo."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woehrel, Steven J.

  2012-07-30
• Horn of Africa: The Humanitarian Crisis and International Response [September 30, 2011]

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  "As a result of the worst drought in 60 years, regional conflicts, and conflict within states, a humanitarian emergency of massive proportion is unfolding in the Horn of Africa region with more than 13.3 million people affected, 750,000 of whom need food assistance in the near term to avoid death. Somalia has been hardest hit so far, creating population displacement within its borders and a refugee crisis of nearly 1 million people in the region, primarily in Kenya and Ethiopia. The international community is responding, and the humanitarian needs are expected to rise in the coming months and will likely demand sustained attention well into 2012. While life-saving assistance is the current priority, long-term responses may be needed to break the disaster cycle in the Horn. Though triggered by drought, the humanitarian emergency is further complicated by political and security pressures within, between, and among the various countries in the region. This report provides an overview of the current status of the crisis, a summary of the background on the region, a framework for the international and humanitarian response, and an analysis of some of the operational challenges."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Margesson, Rhoda; Dagne, Theodore S.; Hanrahan, Charles

  2011-09-30
• Berne Union: An Overview [February 5, 2008]

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  "The Berne Union, or the International Union of Credit and Investment Insurers, is an international organization comprised of more than 70 public and private sector members that represent both public and private segments of the export credit and investment insurance industry. Members range from highly developed economies to emerging markets, from diverse geographical locations, and from a spectrum of viewpoints about approaches to export credit financing and investment insurance. Within the Berne Union, the United States is represented by the U.S. Export-Import Bank (Eximbank) and the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) and four private-sector firms and by one observer. The main role of the Berne Union and its affiliated group, the Prague Club, is to: work to facilitate cross-border trade by helping exporters mitigate risks through promoting internationally acceptable principles of export credit financing, strengthen the global financial structure, and facilitate foreign investments. Over the past decade, the growth and increased importance of global trade and financing have altered the agenda of the Berne Union from focusing primarily on concerns over country-specific political risk to concerns about global trade, international finance, global and regional security, and questions of business organization, civil society, transparency, and corporate responsibility. Congress, through its oversight of Eximbank and OPIC, as well as international trade and finance, has interests in the functioning of the Berne Union. This report will updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2008-02-05
• Tajikistan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [August 31, 2012]

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  "Tajikistan is a significant country in Central Asia by virtue of its geographic location bordering China and Afghanistan and its ample water and other resources, but it faces ethnic and clan schisms, deep poverty, poor governance, and other severe challenges. […] The United States has been Tajikistan's largest bilateral donor, budgeting $988.57 million of aid for Tajikistan (FREEDOM Support Act and agency budgets) over the period from fiscal year 1992 through fiscal year 2010, mainly for food and other humanitarian needs. Budgeted assistance for FY2011 was $44.48 million, and estimated assistance for FY2012 was $45.02 million. The Administration requested $37.41 million in foreign assistance for Tajikistan in FY2013 (these FY2011-FY2013 figures exclude most Defense and Energy Department programs). After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States, Tajikistan seemed to be willing to cooperate with the United States. [...] Tajikistan soon offered use of Tajik airspace to U.S. forces, and some coalition forces began to transit through Tajik airspace and airfields. U.S., French, and British personnel have used the Dushanbe airport for refueling, and there are some French troops and some aircraft based at Dushanbe. During a January 2009 visit, the then- Commander of the U.S. Central Command reached agreement with President Rahmon on the land transit of goods such as construction materials to support military operations of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. […] In March 2012, the land transit of ISAF material out of Afghanistan through Tajikistan began."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2012-08-31
• Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the Caribbean [September 9, 2011]

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  "Trafficking in persons (TIP) for the purpose of exploitation is a lucrative criminal activity that is of major concern to the United States and the international community. According to the most recent U.S. State Department estimates, roughly 800,000 people are trafficked across borders each year. If trafficking within countries is included in the total world figures, official U.S. estimates are that some 2 million to 4 million people are trafficked annually. While most trafficking victims still appear to originate from South and Southeast Asia or the former Soviet Union, human trafficking is also a growing problem in Latin America. […] Activity on combating TIP has continued into the 112th Congress, particularly related to efforts to reauthorize the TVPA and oversee TIP programs and operations, including U.S.-funded programs in Latin America. Congress may also consider increasing funding for anti-TIP programs in the region, possibly through the Mérida Initiative for Mexico, the Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI) or through other assistance programs. Congress is likely to monitor new trends in human trafficking in the region, such as the increasing involvement of Mexican drug trafficking organizations in TIP and the problem of child trafficking in Haiti, which has worsened since that country experienced a devastating earthquake on January 12, 2010. For more general information on human trafficking and a discussion of TIP-related legislation in the 112th Congress, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL34317, 'Trafficking in Persons: U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress', by Alison Siskin and Liana Sun Wyler."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2011-09-09
• Georgia [Republic]: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [July 13, 2012]

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  "The small Black Sea-bordering country of Georgia gained its independence at the end of 1991 with the dissolution of the former Soviet Union. The United States had an early interest in its fate, since the well-known former Soviet foreign minister, Eduard Shevardnadze, soon became its leader. Democratic and economic reforms faltered during his rule, however. New prospects for the country emerged after Shevardnadze was ousted in 2003 and the U.S.-educated Mikheil Saakashvili was elected president. Then-U.S. President George W. Bush visited Georgia in 2005, and praised the democratic and economic aims of the Saakashvili government while calling on it to deepen reforms. The August 2008 Russia-Georgia conflict caused much damage to Georgia's economy and military, as well as contributing to hundreds of casualties and tens of thousands of displaced persons in Georgia. The United States quickly pledged $1 billion in humanitarian and recovery assistance for Georgia. In early 2009, the United States and Georgia signed a Strategic Partnership Charter, which pledged U.S. support for democratization, economic development, and security reforms in Georgia. The Obama Administration has provided ongoing support for Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2012-07-13
• Palestinian Initiatives for 2011 at the United Nations [September 23, 2011]

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  "Many Members of Congress are actively interested in the question of possible U.N. action on Palestinian statehood. Congress could try to influence U.S. policy and the choices of other actors through the authorization and appropriation of foreign assistance to the Palestinians, the United Nations, and Israel and through oversight of the Obama Administration's diplomatic efforts. Changes to aid levels may depend on congressional views of how maintaining or changing aid levels could affect U.S. leverage and credibility in future regional and global contexts. Officials from the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Palestinian Authority (PA) are taking action in the United Nations aimed at solidifying international support for Palestinian statehood. On September 23, 2011, at the opening of the annual session of the General Assembly, PLO Chairman and PA President Mahmoud Abbas submitted an application for Palestinian state membership to the U.N. Secretary-General--on the basis of the armistice lines that prevailed before the Arab-Israeli War of 1967 (the '1967 borders')--in order to bring about a Security Council vote on whether to recommend membership. […] Although Abbas maintains that he seeks an eventual return to U.S.-backed Israel-PLO negotiations on a more equal basis, an upgrade of the Palestinians' status at the U.N. also could facilitate subsequent efforts to apply greater pressure on Israel, especially if the PLO gains greater ability to present grievances in international courts--such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ) or International Criminal Court (ICC). Whether U.N. action or its aftermath would make Israel more or less willing to offer concessions in a negotiating process remains unclear, especially in light of ongoing regional political change and the volatility and possible deterioration of Israel's political and military relationships with Egypt and Turkey."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Zanotti, Jim; Browne, Marjorie Ann

  2011-09-23
• Kosovo: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [January 23, 2013]

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  "On February 17, 2008, Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia. The United States and 22 of the 27 EU countries (including key countries such as Germany, France, Britain, and Italy) have recognized Kosovo's independence. The Kosovo government claims that 98 countries in all have extended diplomatic recognition to it. When it declared independence, Kosovo pledged to implement the Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement, drafted by U.N. envoy Martti Ahtisaari. The document contains provisions aimed at safeguarding the rights of ethnic Serbs and other minorities. EULEX [European Union Rule of Law Mission], a European Union-led law-and-order mission, is tasked with improving the rule of law in Kosovo. KFOR, a NATO-led peacekeeping force that includes hundreds of U.S. soldiers, has the mission of providing a secure environment. Serbia strongly objects to Kosovo's declaration of independence. It has used diplomatic means to try to persuade countries to not recognize Kosovo. It has retained parallel governing institutions in Serb-majority areas in Kosovo. Since March 2011, the EU has mediated negotiations between Serbia and Kosovo. The agreements reached include ones on free movement of persons, customs stamps, recognition of university diplomas, cadastre (real estate) records, civil registries (which record births, deaths, marriages, etc. for legal purposes), integrated border/boundary management (IBM), and on regional cooperation. However, the accords have not been implemented or only partly implemented. […] Since U.S. recognition of Kosovo's independence in 2008, congressional action on Kosovo has focused largely on foreign aid appropriations legislation. Aid to Kosovo has declined significantly in recent years. In FY2012, Kosovo received an estimated $67.45 million. For FY2013, the Administration requested a total of $57.669 million for Kosovo. Of this amount, $42.544 million is aid for political and economic reforms from the Economic Support Fund, $10.674 million from the International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement account, $0.7 million in IMET [International Military Education and Training] military training aid, $3 million in Foreign Military Financing, and $0.75 million in NADR [Nonproliferation, Anti-terrorism, Demining and Related Programs] aid to assist non-proliferation and anti-terrorism efforts."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woehrel, Steven J.

  2013-01-23
• Keystone XL Pipeline Project: Key Issues [November 5, 2012]

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  "In May 2012, Canadian pipeline company TransCanada reapplied to the U.S. Department of State for a Presidential Permit to build the Keystone XL pipeline. The pipeline would transport crude oil from the oil sands region of Alberta, Canada, to the existing Keystone Pipeline System in Nebraska. It also could accept U.S. crude from the Bakken oil fields in Montana and North Dakota. A second segment of the Keystone XL pipeline system, the Gulf Coast Project, is proceeding separately to connect existing pipeline facilities in Oklahoma to refineries in Texas. When completed, the entire Keystone XL pipeline system would ultimately have capacity to transport 830,000 barrels of crude oil per day to U.S. market hubs. TransCanada submitted the May 2012 permit application after its 2008 Keystone XL permit application was denied. The State Department has jurisdiction over the Keystone XL pipeline's approval because it would cross the U.S. border. Before it can approve such a permit, the department must determine that the project is in the 'national interest,' accounting for potential effects on the environment, economy, energy security, and foreign policy, among other factors. Environmental impacts are considered under the National Environmental Policy Act, as documented in an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). For the 2008 permit application, a final EIS was issued in August 2011, followed by a public review period. Largely in response to public comments and efforts by the state of Nebraska, the State Department determined that it needed to examine alternative pipeline routes that would avoid the environmentally sensitive Sand Hills region of Nebraska, a sand dune formation with highly porous soil and shallow groundwater that recharges the Ogallala aquifer."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parfomak, Paul W.; Pirog, Robert L.; Luther, Linda G.

  2012-11-05
• Keystone XL Pipeline Project: Key Issues [January 24, 2013]

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  "In May 2012, Canadian pipeline company TransCanada reapplied to the U.S. Department of State for a Presidential Permit to build the Keystone XL pipeline. The pipeline would transport crude oil from the oil sands region of Alberta, Canada, to the existing Keystone Pipeline System in Nebraska. It also could accept U.S. crude from the Bakken oil fields in Montana and North Dakota. A second segment of the Keystone XL pipeline system, the Gulf Coast Project, is proceeding separately to connect existing pipeline facilities in Oklahoma to refineries in Texas. When completed, the entire Keystone XL pipeline system would ultimately have capacity to transport 830,000 barrels of crude oil per day to U.S. market hubs. TransCanada submitted the May 2012 permit application after its 2008 Keystone XL permit application was denied. The State Department has jurisdiction over the Keystone XL pipeline's approval because it would cross the U.S. border. Before it can approve such a permit, the department must determine that the project is in the 'national interest,' accounting for potential effects on the environment, economy, energy security, and foreign policy, among other factors. Environmental impacts are considered under the National Environmental Policy Act, as documented in an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). For the 2008 permit application, a final EIS was issued in August 2011, followed by a public review period. Largely in response to public comments and efforts by the state of Nebraska, the State Department determined that it needed to examine alternative pipeline routes that would avoid the environmentally sensitive Sand Hills region of Nebraska, a sand dune formation with highly porous soil and shallow groundwater that recharges the Ogallala aquifer."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parfomak, Paul W.; Pirog, Robert L.; Luther, Linda G. . . .

  2013-01-24
• Azerbaijan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [February 22, 2013]

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  "Azerbaijan is an important power in the South Caucasus by reason of its geographic location and ample energy resources, but it faces challenges to its stability, including the unresolved separatist conflict involving Nagorno Karabakh (NK). Azerbaijan enjoyed a brief period of independence in 1918-1920, after the collapse of the Tsarist Russian Empire. However, it was re-conquered by Red Army forces and thereafter incorporated into the Soviet Union. It re-gained independence when the Soviet Union collapsed at the end of 1991. Upon independence, Azerbaijan continued to be ruled for a while by its Soviet-era leader, but in May 1992 he was overthrown and Popular Front head Abulfaz Elchibey was soon elected president. Military setbacks in suppressing separatism in the breakaway NK region contributed to Elchibey's rise to power, and in turn to his downfall just over a year later, when he was replaced by Heydar Aliyev, the leader of Azerbaijan's Nakhichevan region and a former communist party head of Azerbaijan. In July 1994, a ceasefire agreement was signed in the NK conflict. Heydar Aliyev served until October 2003, when under worsening health he stepped down. His son Ilkham Aliyev was elected president a few days later. According to the Obama Administration, U.S. assistance for Azerbaijan aims to develop democratic institutions and civil society, support the growth of the non-oil sectors of the economy, strengthen the interoperability of the armed forces with NATO, increase maritime border security, and bolster the country's ability to combat terrorism, corruption, narcotics trafficking, and other transnational crime."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2013-02-22
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated December 21, 2006]

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  "Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. In 2006, elections for head of government were held in 12 countries in the region, including the close election in Mexico in July, the re-election of presidents in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, and Venezuela, and the election of former heads of government in Costa Rica, Haiti, Nicaragua, Peru, and St. Lucia. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it has rebounded since 2004. Nevertheless, several nations faced considerable challenges that threatened political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of a new form of populism in several countries. Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 109th Congress focused on continued counternarcotics efforts; trade issues; challenges to democracy, especially in Venezuela; efforts to bring political stability and ameliorate poverty in Haiti; efforts to foster political change in Cuba; and cooperation on migration and border security, especially with Mexico. Since 2000, the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) has been the primary U.S. program supporting the Colombian government's efforts to combat drug trafficking and terrorist activity perpetrated by guerrilla and paramilitary groups."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cook, Colleen W.

  2006-12-21
• North Korean Refugees in China and Human Rights Issues: International Response and U.S. Policy Options [Updated January 18, 2008]

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  "The increased international attention given to the situation of North Koreans seeking refuge, primarily in China, has led Congress to take a greater interest in the refugee situation and the underlying causes within North Korea and across its borders. Food shortages, persecution, and human rights abuses have prompted thousands and perhaps hundreds of thousands of North Koreans to go to China where they often become victims of further abuse, neglect, and lack of protection. Those who remain in North Korea […] also continue to suffer from a lack of food and other basic humanitarian provisions. […] North Korea has been viewed as a threat to U.S. interests for a number of important security reasons that go well beyond refugee concerns and human rights issues. These include the pursuit of nuclear weapons and missile programs; a history of proliferating missiles; reported threats to export parts of its self-declared nuclear arsenal; and possible possession of chemical and biological weapons programs. North Korea is also on the U.S. list of states that sponsor terrorism. Amid an atmosphere of continuing tensions over North Korea's nuclear program, the potential remains for worsening humanitarian conditions and a possible increase in North Koreans fleeing the country. The situation raises the questions of what more, if anything, can and should be done -- by the United States and the international community -- not only to focus attention on the abuses of the DPRK regime, but to alleviate the suffering of North Koreans."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Margesson, Rhoda; Bruno, Andorra; Chanlett-Avery, Emma

  2008-01-18
• MS-13 and 18th Street Gangs: Emerging Transnational Gang Threats? [Updated January 30, 2008]

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  This report discusses the MS-13 and M-18 Gangs providing a brief history of the gangs as well as how they differ from other U.S. street gangs. Included in this report are descriptions of the government's response to the gangs, including the agencies involved in solving the problem: FBI National Gang Intelligence Center, ATF, Gang Targeting Enforcement Coordination Center as well as joint efforts between the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the government of El Salvador. From the report: "Two predominantly Latino gangs, Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and the 18th Street gang (M-18), have raised concern among policy makers for several reasons: (1) membership in these gangs has spread from the Los Angeles area to other communities across the United States; (2) these gangs are becoming 'transnational,' primarily because MS-13 and M-18 cliques are being established in Central America and Mexico; (3) evidence suggests that these gangs are engaged in criminal enterprises normally associated with better organized and more sophisticated crime syndicates; and (4) MS-13 and M-18 gang members may be involved in smuggling operations and, by extension, could potentially use their skills and criminal networks to smuggle terrorists into the United States. To date, however, no evidence exists establishing a link between MS-13 and M-18 members and terrorists. Nevertheless, some observers maintain that these two gangs may develop the capacity to become organized criminal enterprises capable of coordinating illegal activities across national borders. Yet, others find them to be no more criminally organized or sophisticated than other street gangs. At issue for Congress is whether the MS-13 and M-18 gangs constitute an emerging transnational criminal threat."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Franco, Celinda

  2008-01-30