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Shaping the National Guard in a Post-War Environment

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From the thesis abstract: "The National Guard of the United States is the nation's oldest military service, tracing its roots to the Massachusetts Bay Colony of 1636. Since its inception, the Guard has enjoyed a unique dual-role responsibility of supporting state and federal missions, and while serving in every war since the American Revolution, Guardsmen and women have also supported domestic operations from the southwest border to Hurricane Katrina. Today, the Guard is a fully operational reserve, and a critical part of the national security framework. While fully engaged in the Global War On Terror, the Guard has also made great strides toward becoming the lead military agency in domestic missions, which has always been a key mission of the Guard, and which sets it apart from its Title X counterparts. Recently, the Guard has achieved increased relevance and political victories highlighted by the recent National Guard Empowerment Act that gave the Chief of National Guard Bureau membership on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. As defense spending and the size of the active force is cut in a post-war environment, this thesis reviews the best future use of the Army National Guard, and offers alternative solutions for increased effectiveness, particularly in a domestic capacity."

Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.). Center for Homeland Defense and Security; Naval Postgraduate School (U.S.)

Crofts, Shane C.

2012-09
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and Operations for FY2011 [June 6, 2011]

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"The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) is the lead federal law enforcement agency charged with administering and enforcing federal laws related to the manufacture, importation, and distribution of firearms and explosives. Congress transferred ATF's enforcement and regulatory functions for firearms and explosives from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of Justice (DOJ) as part of the Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296). ATF is also responsible for investigating arson cases with a federal nexus, as well as criminal violations of federal laws governing the manufacture, importation, and distribution of alcohol and tobacco. […] On April 14, 2011, Congress passed the Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (H.R. 1473; P.L. 112-10) and funded ATF for the rest of FY2011 at its FY2010 enacted level, reduced by two-tenths of a percent. Hence, ATF's FY2011 appropriation is $1.113 billion. Other emerging issues related to the ATF budget and operations include a proposal to require multiple rifle sales reports from Southwest border state gun dealers and the agency's conduct of a Phoenix, AZ-based investigation known as 'Operation Fast and Furious.' This report complements CRS Report RL34514, The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and Operations for FY2008, FY2009, and FY2010. For the FY2011 budget cycle, this report will be updated as needed. For coverage of ATF's FY2012 budget request, see CRS Report RL32842, Gun Control Legislation."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Krouse, William J.

2011-06-06
Keystone XL Pipeline Project: Key Issues [March 21, 2011]

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"In September 2008, TransCanada (a Canadian company) applied to the U.S. Department of State for a permit to cross the U.S.-Canada international border with the Keystone XL pipeline project. If constructed, the pipeline would carry crude oil produced from the oil sands region of Alberta, Canada, to U.S. Gulf Coast refineries. Because the pipeline would connect the United States with a foreign country, it requires a Presidential Permit issued by the State Department. Some Members of Congress have expressed support for the proposed pipeline's energy security and economic benefits while others have expressed reservations about its environmental impacts. Though Congress has no direct role in permitting the pipeline's construction, it may have an oversight role stemming from federal environmental statutes that govern the pipeline's application review process. This report describes the Keystone XL pipeline proposal and the process required for federal approval. It summarizes key arguments for and against the pipeline put forth by the pipeline's developers, federal agencies, environmental groups, and other stakeholders. The report discusses potential consistency challenges faced by the State Department in reviewing the pipeline application given its recent prior approvals of similar pipeline projects. Finally, the report reviews the constitutional basis for the State Department's authority to issue a Presidential Permit, and opponents' possible challenges to this authority."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Parfomak, Paul W.; Luther, Linda G.; Nerurkar, Neelesh

2011-03-21
Virus-Serum-Toxin Act: A Brief History and Analysis [January 3, 2005]

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"The Viruses, Serums, Toxins, Antitoxins, and Analogous Products Act (21 U.S.C. 151-159), also known as the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act (VSTA), is intended to assure the safe and effective supply of animal vaccines and other biological products. The act and its applicable regulations are administered by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The VSTA was enacted in 1913, and revised once in 1985. A 2002 law affected the VSTA by transferring border and import inspection functions from USDA to the Department of Homeland Security."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Monke, James

2005-01-03
U.S.-Canada Energy Relationship: Joined at the Well [June 17, 2011]

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"The United States and Canada, while independent countries, effectively comprise a single integrated market for petroleum and natural gas. Canada is the single largest foreign supplier of petroleum products and natural gas to the United States--and the United States is the dominant consumer of Canada's energy exports. The value of the petroleum and natural gas trade between the two countries totaled nearly $100 billion in 2010, helping to promote general economic growth and directly support thousands of energy industry and related jobs on both sides of the border. Increased energy trade between the United States and Canada--a stable, friendly neighbor--is viewed by many as a major contributor to U.S. energy security. The U.S.-Canada energy relationship is increasingly complex, however, and is undergoing fundamental change, particularly in the petroleum and natural gas sectors. […] As Congress debates legislative proposals affecting the petroleum and natural gas industries, it may be helpful to consider these proposals in the broadest possible North American context, recognizing that the energy sector in Canada may be moved in one direction or another based on policies in Washington, DC. To date, the judgment of Congress has favored a growing U.S.- Canada energy partnership--but ensuring that this relationship continues to be as mutually beneficial as possible will likely remain a key oversight challenge for the next decades."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Parfomak, Paul W.; Ratner, Michael

2011-06-17
Stability in Russia's Chechnya and Other Regions of the North Caucasus: Recent Developments [December 13, 2010]

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"Terrorist attacks in Russia's North Caucasus--a border area between the Black and Caspian Seas that includes the formerly breakaway Chechnya and other ethnic-based regions--appeared to increase substantially in 2007-2009. Moreover, civilian and government casualties reached levels not seen in several years and terrorist attacks again took place outside the North Caucasus. Although the number of terrorist incidents may have leveled off or even declined slightly in 2010 from the high levels of 2009, the rate of civilian and government casualties continued to increase throughout the North Caucasus in 2010 and a rising number of terrorist incidents took place outside of Chechnya. Illustrative of the new range and scope of violence, the Moscow subway system was bombed in March 2010, resulting in over 40 deaths and dozens of injuries. Before the recent rise in terrorism, it seemed that government security forces had been successful in tamping down their range and scope by aggressively carrying out over a thousand sweep operations ('zachistki') in the North Caucasus. [...] The United States generally has supported the Russian government's efforts to combat terrorism in the North Caucasus. However, successive Administrations and Congress have continued to raise concerns about the wide scope of human rights abuses committed by the Russian government in the North Caucasus. The conference agreement on Consolidated Appropriations for FY2010 (P.L. 111-117), calls for $7.0 million to continue humanitarian, conflict mitigation, human rights, civil society and relief and recovery assistance programs in the North Caucasus. It also repeats language used for several years that directs that 60% of the assistance allocated to Russia will be withheld (excluding medical, human trafficking, and Comprehensive Threat Reduction aid) until the President certifies that Russia is facilitating full access to Chechnya for international nongovernmental organizations providing humanitarian relief to displaced persons."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nichol, James P.

2010-12-13
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and Operations for FY2011 [January 6, 2011]

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"The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) is the lead federal law enforcement agency charged with administering and enforcing federal laws related to the manufacture, importation, and distribution of firearms and explosives. Congress transferred ATF's enforcement and regulatory functions for firearms and explosives from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of Justice (DOJ) as part of the Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296). ATF is also responsible for investigating arson cases with a federal nexus, as well as criminal violations of federal laws governing the manufacture, importation, and distribution of alcohol and tobacco. Congress authorized appropriations for ATF in the Department of Justice Authorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-162) for FY2006 through FY2009; however, the 111th Congress did not consider legislation to reauthorize annual appropriations for DOJ or ATF. For three fiscal years, FY2008 through FY2010, Congress has provided about $49 million in program increases to address firearms trafficking. About $43 million of this funding has been allocated to Project Gunrunner, an ATF initiative to reduce gun trafficking across the Southwest border, or other projects to assist the government of Mexico. In the 110th Congress, the House passed a bill (H.R. 6028) that would have authorized appropriations over three years, for FY2008 through FY2010, of $73.5 million to increase ATF resources dedicated to stemming illegal gun trafficking into Mexico. In the 111th Congress, bills with similar authorizations were introduced (S. 205, H.R. 495, H.R. 1448, and H.R. 1867)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Krouse, William J.

2011-01-06
Organized Crime in the United States: Trends and Issues for Congress [December 22, 2010]

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"On the national security front, experts and policymakers have expressed concern over a possible nexus between organized crime and terrorism. Despite the difference in motivation for organized crime (profit) and terrorism (ideology), the linking element for the two is money. Terrorists may potentially obtain funding for their operations from partnering directly with organized crime groups or modeling their profitable criminal acts. Even if organized crime groups and terrorist organizations do not form long-term alliances, the possibility of short-term business alliances may be of concern to policymakers. In light of these developments, several possible issues for Congress arise. One issue centers on whether the evolving nature of organized crime requires new enforcement tools. Some policymakers have suggested that current laws may not be effective at countering present threats from organized crime. As organized criminals threaten American society from both within and outside U.S. borders, should Congress expand law enforcement's extraterritorial jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute these criminals, and to what extent should Congress encourage multilateral--both domestic and international--crime fighting efforts? Another possible issue for Congress concerns whether the resources that the federal government allocates to organized crime matters are adequate and appropriately allocated to counter the threats organized crime poses. Following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, national priorities and federal resources shifted away from more traditional crime fighting--including that of organized crime--toward counterterrorism and counterintelligence. For instance, the number of federal agents actually working on organized crime matters and the number of organized crime cases opened in FY2004 decreased relative to levels before September 11, 2001."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Finklea, Kristin M.

2010-12-22
Immigration: Terrorist Grounds for Exclusion and Removal of Aliens [January 12, 2010]

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"The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) spells out a strict set of admissions criteria and exclusion rules for all foreign nationals who come permanently to the United States as immigrants (i.e., legal permanent residents) or temporarily as nonimmigrants. Notably, any alien who engages in terrorist activity, or is a representative or member of a designated foreign terrorist organization, is generally inadmissible. After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the INA was broadened to deny entry to representatives of groups that endorse terrorism, prominent individuals who endorse terrorism, and (in certain circumstances) the spouses and children of aliens who are removable on terrorism grounds. The INA also contains grounds for inadmissibility based on foreign policy concerns. The report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission) concluded that the key officials responsible for determining alien admissions (consular officers abroad and immigration inspectors in the United States) were not considered full partners in counterterrorism efforts prior to September 11, 2001, and as a result, opportunities to intercept the September 11 terrorists were missed. The 9/11 Commission's monograph, 9/11 and Terrorist Travel, underscored the importance of the border security functions of immigration law and policy. In the 110th Congress, legislation was enacted to modify the terrorism-related grounds for inadmissibility and removal, as well as the impact that these grounds have upon alien eligibility for relief from removal."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Garcia, Michael John

2010-01-12
Keystone XL Pipeline Project: Key Issues [May 3, 2011]

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"In September 2008, TransCanada (a Canadian company) applied to the U.S. Department of State for a permit to cross the U.S.-Canada international border with the Keystone XL pipeline project. If constructed, the pipeline would carry crude oil produced from the oil sands region of Alberta, Canada, to U.S. Gulf Coast refineries. Because the pipeline would connect the United States with a foreign country, it requires a Presidential Permit issued by the State Department. Some Members of Congress have expressed support for the proposed pipeline's potential energy security and economic benefits while others have expressed reservations about its potential environmental impacts. Though Congress has no direct role in permitting the pipeline's construction, it may have an oversight role stemming from federal environmental statutes that govern the pipeline's application review process. This report describes the Keystone XL pipeline proposal and the process required for federal approval. It summarizes key arguments for and against the pipeline put forth by the pipeline's developers, federal agencies, environmental groups, and other stakeholders. The report discusses potential consistency challenges faced by the State Department in reviewing the pipeline application given its recent prior approvals of similar pipeline projects. Finally, the report reviews the constitutional basis for the State Department's authority to issue a Presidential Permit, and opponents' possible challenges to this authority."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Parfomak, Paul W.; Luther, Linda G.; Nerurkar, Neelesh

2011-05-03
U.S.-EU Cooperation Against Terrorism [May 2, 2011]

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"The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks gave new momentum to European Union (EU) initiatives to combat terrorism and improve police, judicial, and intelligence cooperation among its member states. Since the 2001 attacks, the EU has sought to speed up its efforts to harmonize national laws and bring down barriers among member states' law enforcement authorities so that information can be meaningfully shared and suspects apprehended expeditiously. Among other steps, the EU has established a common definition of terrorism and a common list of terrorist groups, an EU arrest warrant, enhanced tools to stem terrorist financing, and new measures to strengthen external EU border controls and improve aviation security. [...] Despite U.S.-EU strides to foster closer counterterrorism and law enforcement cooperation, some challenges remain. Data privacy has been and continues to be a key sticking point. In February 2010, the European Parliament (EP) rejected a U.S.-EU agreement--known as the SWIFT accord--that would have continued allowing U.S. authorities access to financial data stored in Europe to help combat terrorism on the grounds that it did not contain sufficient protections to safeguard the personal data and privacy rights of EU citizens. [...] This report examines the evolution of U.S.-EU counterterrorism cooperation and the ongoing challenges that may be of interest in the 112th Congress. For additional background, also see CRS Report RL31509, Europe and Counterterrorism: Strengthening Police and Judicial Cooperation, by Kristin Archick."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Archick, Kristin

2011-05-02
FY2009 Spring Supplemental Appropriations for Overseas Contingency Operations [May 5, 2009]

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This report examines the White House's request for supplemental appropriations that include funding for defense, foreign affairs, and domestic fire fighting. The report details the different programs that would be funded through the supplemental appropriations, including operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, preparedness and emergency management measures regarding swine flu outbreak, border security between the United States and Mexico, and more.

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Daggett, Stephen; Epstein, Susan B.; Margesson, Rhoda

2009-05-05
Georgia [Republic]: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [September 23, 2010]

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"The small Black Sea-bordering country of Georgia gained its independence at the end of 1991 with the dissolution of the former Soviet Union. The United States had an early interest in its fate, since the well-known former Soviet foreign minister, Eduard Shevardnadze, soon became its leader. Democratic and economic reforms faltered during his rule, however. New prospects for the country emerged after Shevardnadze was ousted in 2003 and the U.S.-educated Mikheil Saakashvili was elected president. Then-U.S. President George W. Bush visited Georgia in 2005, and praised the democratic and economic aims of the Saakashvili government while calling on it to deepen reforms. The August 2008 Russia-Georgia conflict caused much damage to Georgia's economy and military, as well as contributing to hundreds of casualties and tens of thousands of displaced persons in Georgia. The United States quickly pledged $1 billion in humanitarian and recovery assistance for Georgia. In early 2009, the United States and Georgia signed a Strategic Partnership Charter, which pledged U.S. support for democratization, economic development, and security reforms in Georgia."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nichol, James P.

2010-09-23
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and Operations for FY2008, FY2009, and FY2010 [April 15, 2010]

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"The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) is the lead federal law enforcement agency charged with administering and enforcing federal laws related to the manufacture, importation, and distribution of firearms and explosives. Congress transferred ATF's enforcement and regulatory functions for firearms and explosives from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of Justice as part of the Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296). ATF is also responsible for investigating arson cases with a federal nexus, as well as criminal violations of federal laws governing the manufacture, importation, and distribution of alcohol and tobacco. For the past two fiscal years, FY2009 and FY2010, Congress has provided ATF with program increases to address illegal gun trafficking from the United States to Mexico under an initiative known as 'Project Gunrunner.' For FY2008, Congress also provided ATF with a program increase for domestic gun trafficking, but the focus of this program increase was also largely on the Southwest border. As a result, for those three fiscal years, Congress has provided over $49 million in program increases to address gun trafficking. Congress has also provided nearly $30 million for the construction of a National Center for Explosives Training and Research (NCETR). In the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-117), Congress matched the Administration's request and appropriated $1.121 billion for ATF, or 3.9% more than the agency's FY2009 appropriations ($1.078 billion)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Krouse, William J.

2010-04-15
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and Operations for FY2010 [April 27, 2010]

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"The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) is the lead federal law enforcement agency charged with administering and enforcing federal laws related to the manufacture, importation, and distribution of firearms and explosives. Congress transferred ATF's enforcement and regulatory functions for firearms and explosives from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of Justice (DOJ) as part of the Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296). […]. In March 2010, the House Commerce-Justice-State Appropriations subcommittee held a hearing on the ATF FY2011 budget submission. Members of the subcommittee raised questions about gun trafficking on the Southwest border, regulatory backlogs, violent crime impact teams, and interagency coordination on gang violence. Congress has passed and the President has signed into law the Prevent All Cigarette Trafficking Act (P.L. 111-154). This act grants ATF greater authority to inspect the businesses and records of 'cigarette deliverers.' In addition, under the Mérida Initiative, ATF has recently released a Spanish language version of its firearms trace request software (e-Trace 4.0) to Mexico, Guatemala, and Costa Rica, and has established a U.S.-Mexico ballistic information exchange capability under the National Integrated Ballistic Imaging Network program. Also of note, in the fall of 2009, the Department of Justice Office of Inspector General released three reports on ATF operations. The first examined ATF's Project Gunrunner. The second examined ATF's efforts to investigate contraband cigarette trafficking. The third examined ATF's concurrent jurisdiction with the Federal Bureau of Investigation for explosives-related investigations."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Krouse, William J.

2010-04-27
April 2010 Coup in Kyrgyzstan: Context and Implications for U.S. Interests [May 7, 2010]

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"The United States has been interested in helping Kyrgyzstan to enhance its sovereignty and territorial integrity, increase democratic participation and civil society, bolster economic reform and development, strengthen human rights, prevent weapons proliferation, and more effectively combat transnational terrorism and trafficking in persons and narcotics. The significance of Kyrgyzstan to the United States increased after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States. The Kyrgyz government permitted the United States to establish a military base at the Manas international airport outside Bishkek that trans-ships personnel, equipment, and supplies to support U.S. and NATO operations in Afghanistan. The former Bakiyev government had renegotiated a lease on the airbase in June 2009 (it was renamed the Manas Transit Center), in recognition that ongoing instability in Afghanistan jeopardized regional security. The lease is up for renewal in July 2010. Otunbayeva has declared that the interim government will uphold Kyrgyzstan's existing foreign policy, including the presence of the transit center, although some changes to the lease may be sought in the future. She also has launched an investigation of corrupt dealings by the previous government on fuel contracts and other services for the transit center. Cumulative U.S. budgeted assistance to Kyrgyzstan for FY1992-FY2008 was $953.5 million (FREEDOM Support Act and agency funds). Kyrgyzstan ranks third in such aid per capita among the Soviet successor states, indicative of U.S. government and congressional support in the early 1990s for its apparent progress in making reforms and more recently to support anti-terrorism, border protection, and operations in Afghanistan."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nichol, James P.

2010-05-07
CRS Issue Statement on Organized Crime and Gangs in the U.S. [January 12, 2010]

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From the Document: "Terrorists and other organized criminal groups pose a threat to the United States. Over the past year alone, two shootings and one attempted bombing of an airliner occurred that have been considered terrorist attacks. Individuals claiming allegiance to groups that wish to do harm to U.S. interests continue to be of concern to Congress. Also of concern to Congress are criminal activities of other organized groups and the potential nexus between them and terrorist organizations. [...] In recent years, there has been an increase in violence directed at Americans and American economic interests from other organized criminal elements--many with transnational connections--such as drug trafficking organizations, gangs, and criminal syndicates. Drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) are a domestic criminal threat and a significant concern to federal, state, and local law enforcement. [...] A number of street and prison gangs work closely with Mexican DTOs and drug cartels, including the Surenos 13, 18th Street, Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13), the Mexican Mafia in California, the Texas Mexican Mafia (Mexikanemi), Hermanos de Pistoleros Latinos, and the Texas Syndicate in the south Texas area. A number of regional and national gangs, including Asian gangs, are also reported to have transnational connections and be criminally active along the U.S.-Canada border. Growing gang involvement in smuggling operations has long been a concern as a potential domestic security threat."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Randol, Mark A.

2010-01-12
Mexico-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress [May 13, 2009]

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"The United States and Mexico have a close and complex bilateral relationship, with extensive economic linkages as neighbors and partners under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Bilateral relations are close, and characterized by extensive commercial and cultural ties and cooperation on a range of bilateral and international issues. A current bilateral dispute involves the implementation of NAFTA trucking provisions. In March 2009, Congress terminated a pilot-project for Mexican-registered trucks to operate beyond the border commercial zone, and Mexico responded by imposing import tariffs on over 90 U.S. agricultural and industrial products. […].President Barack Obama traveled to Mexico on April 16-17, 2009 to discuss cooperation in the fight against drug-related violence, immigration reform, and clean energy and climate change. This had been preceded by visits in March by Secretary of State Clinton, who discussed a broad range of bilateral issues, including Mérida Initiative cooperation, and Secretary of Homeland Security Napolitano, and Attorney General Eric Holder who emphasized new anti-crime efforts. On April 24, 2009, Mexico's Health Ministry announced an outbreak of a new influenza strain, subsequently dubbed influenza A(H1N1). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention issued a travel health warning on April 27 advising U.S. citizens to avoid all nonessential travel to Mexico. The Calderón government took significant measures to combat the outbreak, which began to ease in early May 2009. The influenza outbreak will likely have a significant negative effect on the Mexican economy, which already has been experiencing a severe downturn because of the global financial crisis and U.S. recession."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sullivan, Mark P.; Beittel, June S.

2009-05-13
Mexico's Drug-Related Violence [May 15, 2009]

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"This report examines the causes for the escalation of the violence in Mexico. It provides a brief overview of Mexico's counterdrug efforts, a description of the major DTOs, the causes and trends in the violence, the Calderón government's efforts to crackdown on the DTOs, and the objectives and implementation of the Mérida Initiative and other measures the U.S. government has taken to support Mexico in its battle with the drug traffickers." According to the report, "drug-related violence in Mexico has spiked in recent years as drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) have competed for control of smuggling routes into the United States. Drug trafficking issues are prominent in Mexico because the country has for at least four decades been among the most important producers and suppliers of heroin, marijuana and (later) methamphetamine to the U.S. market. Today it is the leading source of all three drugs and is now the leading transit country for cocaine coming from South America to the United States. Although previous Mexican governments had accommodated some drug trafficking in the country, when President Felipe Calderón came into office in December 2006 he made battling the Mexican drug trafficking organizations a top priority. He has raised spending on security and sent thousands of troops and federal police to combat the DTOs in states along the U.S.-Mexico border and throughout the country. In response to the government's crackdown, the DTOs have responded with escalating violence."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Beittel, June S.

2009-05-15
Passports: Current Regulations [August 4, 2009]

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"Prior to 2007, little or no documentation was required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the Caribbean. In December 2004, with the 9/11 Commission recommending tighter borders to help prevent another terrorist attack, Congress passed the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which now requires passports for anyone entering the United States. As of mid-2009, approximately 30% of American citizens hold a passport. [...]. On January 31, 2008, another change occurred. Government-issued proof of identity and citizenship documents are required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, and the Caribbean, according to the Department of Homeland Security. People under the age of 18, however, are allowed to present only proof of citizenship, such as a birth certificate. Phase II, implemented on June 1, 2009, adds to the existing requirements that travelers have passports for all land and sea crossings. U.S. or Canadian children under the age of 16, however, are allowed to present an original or copy of their birth certificate or other proof of citizenship. Groups of U.S. or Canadian children under the age of 19, when traveling in church or school groups, social groups, or sports teams, and when entering under adult supervision, also can present birth certificates or other proof of citizenship, rather than a passport. This report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Epstein, Susan B.

2009-08-04
Immigration Reform Issues in the 111th Congress [February 2, 2010]

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"This report synthesizes the multi-tiered debate over immigration reform into key elements: legal immigration; legalization; immigration control; refugees, asylees, and humanitarian migrants; and, alien rights, benefits and responsibilities. It delineates the issues for the 111th Congress on permanent residence, temporary admissions, border security, worksite enforcement, employment eligibility verification, document fraud, criminal aliens, and the grounds for inadmissibility. Addressing these contentious policy reforms against the backdrop of economic crisis sharpens the social and business cleavages and narrows the range of options."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2010-02-02
Merida Initiative for Mexico and Central America: Funding and Policy Issues [January 21, 2010]

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"Increasing violence perpetrated by drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) and other criminal groups is threatening citizen security in Mexico and Central America. Drug-related violence claimed more than 6,500 lives in Mexico in 2009, and several Central American countries have among the highest homicide rates in the world. Mexican DTOs dominate the illicit drug market in the United States and are expanding their operations by forming partnerships with U.S. gangs. As a result, some of the drug-related violence in Mexico has spilled over into the United States. On October 22, 2007, the United States and Mexico announced the Mérida Initiative, a proposed package of U.S. counterdrug and anticrime assistance for Mexico and Central America that would begin in FY2008 and last through FY2010. Congress appropriated roughly $1.3 billion for Mexico and Central America, as well as Haiti and the Dominican Republic, in the FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 110-252), FY2009 Omnibus Appropriations Act (P.L. 111- 8), and the FY2009 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-32). Each of these Acts contained human rights conditions on 15% of certain law enforcement and military assistance provided. Throughout 2009, drug-related violence in Mexico and the potential threat of spillover along the Southwest border focused congressional concern on the pace of implementation of the Mérida Initiative. On December 3, 2009, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a preliminary report for Congress on the status of funding for the Mérida Initiative."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Seelke, Clare Ribando

2010-01-21
Port and Maritime Security: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated May 27, 2005]

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"The U.S. maritime system consists of more than 300 sea and river ports with more than 3,700 cargo and passenger terminals. However, a large fraction of maritime cargo is concentrated at a few major ports. Most ships calling at U.S. ports are foreign owned with foreign crews. Container ships have been the focus of much of the attention on seaport security because they are seen as vulnerable to terrorist infiltration. More than 9 million marine containers enter U.S. ports each year. While the Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP) analyzes cargo and other information to target specific shipments for closer inspection, it physically inspects only a small fraction of the containers."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Frittelli, John

2005-05-27
Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated January 24, 2006]

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"The Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides over the past two decades in terms of political and economic development. While the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, by the end of 2004, it had rebounded with an estimated growth rate of nearly 6% for the year, surpassing even the most optimistic predictions. Nevertheless, several nations face considerable challenges that could threaten political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, and increasing crime. Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 109th Congress has focused on continued counter-narcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; trade issues, including consideration of several free trade agreements (FTAs); threats to democracy in such nations as Haiti and Venezuela; and efforts to foster political change in Cuba. Congress also has maintained an active interest in neighboring Mexico, focusing especially on border security and migration issues. Since 2000, the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) has been the primary U.S. program supporting the Colombian governments efforts to combat drug trafficking and terrorist activity perpetrated by guerrilla and paramilitary groups. The 109th Congress approved the Administrations request to continue ACI funding in FY2006 at approximately the same levels as in previous years."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-

2005-11-16
Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated March 29, 2006]

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"The Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides over the past two decades in terms of political and economic development. While the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it rebounded in 2004, with a growth rate of 5.9%. Estimates for 2005 show a growth rate of 4.3%. Nevertheless, several nations face considerable challenges that could threaten political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of radical populism in several countries. Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the second session of the 109th Congress are focusing on continued counter-narcotics efforts in the region; trade issues, including the possible consideration of implementing legislation for one or more free trade agreements; potential challenges to democracy in Venezuela and Bolivia; ongoing efforts to bring political stability and ameliorate poverty in Haiti; efforts to foster change in Cuba; and cooperation on border security, migration, and anti-terrorism measures, especially with Mexico. Since 2000, the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) has been the primary U.S. program supporting the Colombian government's efforts to combat drug trafficking and terrorist activity perpetrated by guerrilla and paramilitary groups. In the first session, the 109th Congress approved the Administration's request to continue ACI funding in FY2006 at approximately the same levels as in previous years, and the second session will be considering the FY2007 request for ACI funding."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cook, Colleen W.

2006-03-29
Georgia [Republic]: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [May 18, 2011]

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"The small Black Sea-bordering country of Georgia gained its independence at the end of 1991 with the dissolution of the former Soviet Union. The United States had an early interest in its fate, since the well-known former Soviet foreign minister, Eduard Shevardnadze, soon became its leader. Democratic and economic reforms faltered during his rule, however. New prospects for the country emerged after Shevardnadze was ousted in 2003 and the U.S.-educated Mikheil Saakashvili was elected president. Then-U.S. President George W. Bush visited Georgia in 2005, and praised the democratic and economic aims of the Saakashvili government while calling on it to deepen reforms. The August 2008 Russia-Georgia conflict caused much damage to Georgia's economy and military, as well as contributing to hundreds of casualties and tens of thousands of displaced persons in Georgia. The United States quickly pledged $1 billion in humanitarian and recovery assistance for Georgia. In early 2009, the United States and Georgia signed a Strategic Partnership Charter, which pledged U.S. support for democratization, economic development, and security reforms in Georgia. The Obama Administration has pledged continued U.S. support to uphold Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nichol, James P.

2011-05-18
Visa Policy: Roles of the Departments of State and Homeland Security [March 4, 2004]

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Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States on temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), two departments the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) each played key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOSs Consular Affairs remains responsible for issuing visas, DHSs Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services approves immigrant petitions, and DHSs Bureau of Customs and Border Protection inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas.

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Wasem, Ruth Ellen

2004-03-04
Terrorist Identification, Screening, and Tracking under Homeland Security Presidential Directive 6 [Updated December 23, 2004]

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"In Homeland Security Presidential Directive 6 (HSPD-6), the Administration announced plans to establish a Terrorist Screening Center (TSC), as a multi-agency effort to be administered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), where several watch lists are being consolidated into a single terrorist screening database (TSDB). The TSC is the latest of three multi-agency efforts undertaken by the Administration to better identify, screen, and track known terrorists and suspected terrorists. The other two are the Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force (FTTTF) and the Terrorist Threat Integration Center (TTIC). The TSC complements the FBI-led FTTTF's efforts to prevent terrorists from entering the United States and to track and remove them if they manage to enter the country. The TTIC serves as a single locale where terrorism-threat data from all sources are analyzed further. Under HSPD-6, certain terrorist watch list functions previously performed by the Department of State's Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR) were transferred to the TTIC and TSC. At the TTIC, intelligence analysts are building a Terrorist Identities Database (TID) based on TIPOFF, the U.S. government's principal terrorist watch list database prior to HSPD-6. From TID records, TSC analysts have built a consolidated Terrorist Screening Database. The Administration has increased access to, and use of, lookout records by making them available in a "sensitive but unclassified" format to authorized federal, state, local, territorial and tribal authorities; certain private sector entities; and certain foreign governments. From system to system, however, there remains no standardization of data elements, such as, name, date of birth, place of birth, nationality, or biometric identifiers. Moreover, additional work remains to upgrade and integrate consular and border management, intelligence, criminal history, and biometric systems."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Krouse, William J.

2004-12-23
Macedonia: Country Background and Recent Conflict [Updated November 7, 2001]

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From the Document: "In 2001, ethnic Albanian rebels calling themselves the National Liberation Army (NLA) stepped up attacks on Macedonian security forces first in several villages near the city of Tetovo and by the western border with Kosovo, and later near the capital, Skopje. The NLA is thought to have ties to the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and rebel Albanian forces operating in southern Serbia. In March, the Macedonian government began a counter-insurgency campaign. It opened talks on political reforms with elected ethnic Albanian representatives, but refused to negotiate with the rebels themselves. Clashes between the rebels and government forces continued, notwithstanding intermittent cease-fire agreements and ongoing political talks. With U.S. and European diplomatic intervention, the parties signed a framework agreement on August 13, amidst the deadliest violence to date. Deadlock in the Macedonian parliament over aspects of the accord has delayed implementation of the agreement by several weeks. In early 2001, the international community, including the United States, condemned the violent actions of the Albanian extremists and expressed support for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Macedonia, while urging restraint on the part of the Macedonian forces. At the invitation of President Bush, Macedonian President Trajkovski came to Washington on May 2, where President Bush underscored U.S. support for Macedonia's efforts to resolve the conflict. While not leading NATO's Task Force Harvest mission, the United States supported the operation with medical, intelligence, and logistical assets provided by U.S. military forces and facilities already stationed in the Balkans. NATO allies have agreed to replace U.S. armed forces in the NATO Balkans missions if the United States needs to divert some of them to the anti-terrorist campaign in Afghanistan. U.S. officials have pressed the Macedonian and Albanian parties to implement the framework agreement.'"

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kim, Julie

2001-11-07
Kosovo: International Reactions to NATO Air Strikes [Updated April 21, 1999]

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From the Document: "In response to Serbian aggression in Kosovo, NATO began air operations against targets in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on March 24, 1999. This report reviews international reactions to that operation. Responses in eight NATO countries -- France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Turkey, and the United Kingdom which are key to the operation for either military and/or geopolitical reasons are discussed. The potential for the conflict in Kosovo to spill across international borders is considered to be high. Thus, this report considers the reaction to the NATO air strikes of the following non-NATO regional actors: Albania, Austria, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, and Slovenia. The strongest international opposition to the NATO operation has come from Russia and China. For this reason, U.N. Security Council approval has not been sought because both countries have veto power on the Council. Their reactions are discussed, together with a review of action in the United Nations on the crisis in Kosovo. Related CRS products include Kosovo and U.S. Policy, by Steven Woehrel and Julie Kim, CRS Issue Brief 98041; Kosovo-U.S. and Allied Military Operations, by Steve Bowman, CRS Issue Brief 10027; Kosovo: Issues and Options for U.S. Policy, by Steven Woehrel, CRS Short Report RS20125; Kosovo Conflict: Russian Responses and Implications for the United States, by James Nichol, CRS Long Report 30130; and Kosovo: Greek and Turkish Perspectives, by Carol Migdalovitz, CRS Short Report 20149. The report will be updated as events warrant."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Donfried, Karen

1999-04-21

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