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Visa Policy: Roles of the Departments of State and Homeland Security [March 4, 2004]
Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been
raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States
on temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of
terrorists. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission
of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States
vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led many to call for revisions in the policy
as well as changes in who administers immigration law.
Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to
come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain
exceptions noted in law. Prior to establishment of the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS), two departments the Department of State (DOS) Bureau of
Consular Affairs and the Department of Justice (DOJ) Immigration and
Naturalization Service (INS) each played key roles in administering the law and
policies on the admission of aliens. Although DOSs Consular Affairs remains
responsible for issuing visas, DHSs Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrant Services
approves immigrant petitions, and DHSs Bureau of Customs and Border Protection
inspects all people who enter the United States. In FY2002, DOS issued
approximately 6.2 million visas and rejected over 2.2 million aliens seeking visas.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2004-03-04
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U.S. Immigration Policy: Chart Book of Key Trends [March 7, 2013]
"This report is a chart book of selected immigration trends that touch on the main elements of comprehensive immigration reform (CIR). The main issues in the immigration debate typically include increases to border security and enforcement of immigration laws within the U.S. interior, expansion of employment eligibility verification, and reforms to the system for legal temporary and permanent immigration. The thorniest issues concern policy options to address the millions of unauthorized aliens residing in the country. This report offers snapshots of time series data, 'using the most complete and consistent time series currently available for each statistic.' Some of the time series span decades, others capture only a few years. The key findings and elements germane to the data depicted are summarized with the figures. For those who seek more complete analyses of the issues, the report cites Congressional Research Service (CRS) products that discuss the policies underlying the data presented in each of the figures."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2013-03-07
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Visa Issuances: Policy, Issues, and Legislation [Updated February 11, 2004]
"Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, considerable concern has been raised because the 19 terrorists were aliens who apparently entered the United States with temporary visas despite provisions in immigration laws that bar the admission of terrorists. Foreign nationals not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. Fears that lax enforcement of immigration laws regulating the admission of foreign nationals into the United States may continue to make the United States vulnerable to further terrorist attacks have led to revisions in the policy as well as changes in who administers immigration law. The 107th Congress expanded the definition of terrorism and the designation of terrorist organizations used to determine the inadmissibility and removal of aliens in the USA Patriot Act (P.L. 107-56). Another law, the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act (P.L. 107-173), sought to improve the visa issuance process by mandating data sharing so that consular officers have access to relevant electronic information. This law also required the development of an interoperable electronic data system to be used to share information relevant to alien admissibility and removability and required that all visas issued by October 2004 have biometric identifiers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2004-02-11
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U.S.-EU Cooperation Against Terrorism [May 2, 2011]
"The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks gave new momentum to European Union (EU) initiatives to combat terrorism and improve police, judicial, and intelligence cooperation among its member states. Since the 2001 attacks, the EU has sought to speed up its efforts to harmonize national laws and bring down barriers among member states' law enforcement authorities so that information can be meaningfully shared and suspects apprehended expeditiously. Among other steps, the EU has established a common definition of terrorism and a common list of terrorist groups, an EU arrest warrant, enhanced tools to stem terrorist financing, and new measures to strengthen external EU border controls and improve aviation security. [...] Despite U.S.-EU strides to foster closer counterterrorism and law enforcement cooperation, some challenges remain. Data privacy has been and continues to be a key sticking point. In February 2010, the European Parliament (EP) rejected a U.S.-EU agreement--known as the SWIFT accord--that would have continued allowing U.S. authorities access to financial data stored in Europe to help combat terrorism on the grounds that it did not contain sufficient protections to safeguard the personal data and privacy rights of EU citizens. [...] This report examines the evolution of U.S.-EU counterterrorism cooperation and the ongoing challenges that may be of interest in the 112th Congress. For additional background, also see CRS Report RL31509, Europe and Counterterrorism: Strengthening Police and Judicial Cooperation, by Kristin Archick."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2011-05-02
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U.S.-EU Cooperation Against Terrorism [September 4, 2013]
"The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent revelation of Al Qaeda cells in Europe gave new momentum to European Union (EU) initiatives to combat terrorism and improve police, judicial, and intelligence cooperation among its member states. Other deadly incidents in Europe, such as the Madrid and London bombings in 2004 and 2005 respectively, injected further urgency into strengthening EU counterterrorism capabilities and reducing barriers among national law enforcement authorities so that information could be meaningfully shared and suspects apprehended expeditiously. Among other steps, the EU has established a common definition of terrorism and a common list of terrorist groups, an EU arrest warrant, enhanced tools to stem terrorist financing, and new measures to strengthen external EU border controls and improve aviation security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2013-09-04
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U.S. Immigration Policy: Chart Book of Key Trends [December 17, 2014]
"This report is a chart book of selected immigration trends that touch on the main elements of comprehensive immigration reform (CIR). Most policymakers agree that the main issues in CIR include increased border security and immigration enforcement, improved employment eligibility verification, revision of legal immigration, and options to address the millions of unauthorized aliens residing in the country. The report offers snapshots of time series data, using the most complete and consistent time series currently available for each statistic. The key findings and elements germane to the data depicted are summarized with the figures. The summary offers the highlights of key immigration trends."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kandel, William
2014-12-17
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Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated August 18, 2006]
"An array of bilateral issues continues to affect relations between the United States and Syria: the course of Arab-Israeli talks; questions of arms proliferation; Syrian connections with terrorist activity; Syria's role in Lebanon; and Syria's opposition to the U.S. occupation in Iraq. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations between the two countries, largely because of Syria's designation by the U.S. State Department as a sponsor of international terrorism. Syria has reportedly cooperated with the United States in investigating Osama bin Laden's Al Qaeda organization in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks but has been unwilling to sever connections with some other terrorist organizations. Also, after Operation Iraqi Freedom began in March 2003, senior U.S. officials warned Syria to stop permitting transit of military supplies and volunteer fighters through Syria to Iraq. Syria has denied these allegations and cited measures it has taken to tighten its borders. Since the outbreak of fighting between Israeli military forces and the militant Lebanese Shi'ite Hezbollah organization on July 12, 2006, U.S. officials have increased their criticism of Syria's political and logistical support for Hezbollah. After the passage of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1701, the leaders of Syria and Iran claimed a victory, maintaining that their protege, Hezbollah, had compelled Israel to accept a partial withdrawal from southern Lebanon. This report supersedes Issue Brief IB92075, Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues, and will be updated as significant developments occur."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.
2006-08-18
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Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated September 14, 2006]
"An array of bilateral issues continues to affect relations between the United States and Syria: the course of Arab-Israeli talks; questions of arms proliferation; Syrian connections with terrorist activity; Syria's role in Lebanon; and Syria's opposition to the U.S. occupation in Iraq. A variety of U.S. legislative provisions and executive directives prohibit direct aid to Syria and restrict bilateral trade relations between the two countries, largely because of Syria's designation by the U.S. State Department as a sponsor of international terrorism. Syria has reportedly cooperated with the United States in investigating Osama bin Laden's Al Qaeda organization in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks but has been unwilling to sever connections with some other terrorist organizations. Also, after Operation Iraqi Freedom began in March 2003, senior U.S. officials warned Syria to stop permitting transit of military supplies and volunteer fighters through Syria to Iraq. Syria has denied these allegations and cited measures it has taken to tighten its borders. Since the outbreak of fighting between Israeli military forces and the militant Lebanese Shi'ite Hezbollah organization on July 12, 2006, U.S. officials have increased their criticism of Syria's political and logistical support for Hezbollah. After the passage of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1701, the leaders of Syria and Iran claimed a victory, maintaining that their protege, Hezbollah, had compelled Israel to accept a partial withdrawal from southern Lebanon. This report supersedes Issue Brief IB92075, Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues, and will be updated as significant developments occur."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.
2006-09-14
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Stability in Russia's Chechnya and Other Regions of the North Caucasus: Recent Developments [December 13, 2010]
"Terrorist attacks in Russia's North Caucasus--a border area between the Black and Caspian Seas that includes the formerly breakaway Chechnya and other ethnic-based regions--appeared to increase substantially in 2007-2009. Moreover, civilian and government casualties reached levels not seen in several years and terrorist attacks again took place outside the North Caucasus. Although the number of terrorist incidents may have leveled off or even declined slightly in 2010 from the high levels of 2009, the rate of civilian and government casualties continued to increase throughout the North Caucasus in 2010 and a rising number of terrorist incidents took place outside of Chechnya. Illustrative of the new range and scope of violence, the Moscow subway system was bombed in March 2010, resulting in over 40 deaths and dozens of injuries. Before the recent rise in terrorism, it seemed that government security forces had been successful in tamping down their range and scope by aggressively carrying out over a thousand sweep operations ('zachistki') in the North Caucasus. [...] The United States generally has supported the Russian government's efforts to combat terrorism in the North Caucasus. However, successive Administrations and Congress have continued to raise concerns about the wide scope of human rights abuses committed by the Russian government in the North Caucasus. The conference agreement on Consolidated Appropriations for FY2010 (P.L. 111-117), calls for $7.0 million to continue humanitarian, conflict mitigation, human rights, civil society and relief and recovery assistance programs in the North Caucasus. It also repeats language used for several years that directs that 60% of the assistance allocated to Russia will be withheld (excluding medical, human trafficking, and Comprehensive Threat Reduction aid) until the President certifies that Russia is facilitating full access to Chechnya for international nongovernmental organizations providing humanitarian relief to displaced persons."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nichol, James P.
2010-12-13
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Crisis in the Central African Republic [May 14, 2014]
"This report provides background on the evolving political, security, and humanitarian crisis in the Central African Republic (CAR). It includes a map of conflict-affected areas and a timeline of key events (see Figure 1 and Figure 2). Violence in CAR has displaced hundreds of thousands of people and is placing new strains on global humanitarian and peacekeeping resources. U.S. policy responses to the situation in CAR include: [1] humanitarian assistance; [2] support to African and French troops that have deployed to CAR; [3] anticipated contributions to a U.N. peacekeeping operation in CAR authorized to begin in September 2014; [4] aid for conflict mitigation and peacebuilding; [5] public diplomacy initiatives; and [6] an Executive Order authorizing targeted sanctions. Possible issues for Congress include the authorization, appropriation, and oversight of U.S. humanitarian assistance and contributions to international stabilization efforts. The crisis in CAR also has implications for several broader issues of potential interest to Congress, including: [1] stability in the wider central Africa region; [2] the prevention of mass atrocities; [3] the status of U.S. efforts to counter the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), a small but brutal militia present in CAR and neighboring states; and [4] the impact of instability in CAR on wildlife poaching and other cross-border criminal activity in the region."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Arieff, Alexis
2014-05-14
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Crisis in the Central African Republic [August 17, 2015]
"This report provides background on the evolving political, security, and humanitarian crisis in the Central African Republic (CAR), a landlocked, sparsely inhabited, and extremely under-developed country. Violence in CAR since 2013 has displaced hundreds of thousands of people and placed strains on global humanitarian and peacekeeping resources. U.S. responses include: [1] humanitarian assistance; [2]diplomatic and financial support for a U.N. peacekeeping operation, MINUSCA; [3] additional bilateral support for African peacekeepers and French troops that have deployed to CAR; [4] foreign aid for conflict mitigation and peacebuilding activities; [5] public diplomacy initiatives; and [6] an Executive Order authorizing targeted sanctions. Possible issues for Congress include the authorization, appropriation, and oversight of U.S. humanitarian assistance and contributions to international stabilization efforts. The crisis in CAR also has implications for several broader issues of potential interest to Congress, including: [1] stability in the surrounding region; [2] the prevention of 'mass atrocities'; [3] U.S. efforts to counter the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), a small but brutal militia active in CAR and neighboring states; and [4] the impact of the conflict in CAR on wildlife poaching and other cross-border criminal activity in the region. Congress has monitored the crisis in CAR and the U.S. response, including related fiscal implications. The 113th Congress held hearings on CAR before the Africa subcommittees of the House Foreign Affairs Committee (November 2013 and April 2014) and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (December 2013). The FY2015 Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act (P.L. 113-235) states that 'funds made available by this Act for [CAR] shall be made available for reconciliation and peacebuilding programs.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Arieff, Alexis; Husted, Tomas F.
2015-08-17
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Libya: Transition and U.S. Policy [March 4, 2016]
"Libya's political transition has been disrupted by armed non-state groups and threatened by the indecision and infighting of interim leaders. After an armed uprising ended the 40-plus year rule of Muammar al Qadhafi in late 2011, interim authorities proved unable to form a stable government, address pressing security issues, reshape the country's public finances, or create a viable framework for post-conflict justice and reconciliation. Elections for legislative bodies and a constitutional drafting assembly were held and transparently administered from 2012 through 2014, but were marred by declining rates of participation, threats to candidates and voters, and zero-sum political competition. Insecurity was prevalent in Libya in the immediate wake of the 2011 conflict and deepened in 2014, driven by overlapping ideological, personal, financial, and transnational rivalries. Resulting conflicts involving Libyans in different parts of the country drove the political transition off course. At present, armed militia groups and locally organized political leaders remain the most powerful arbiters of public affairs. Criminals and violent Islamist extremist organizations have exploited these conditions, and the latter have strengthened their military capabilities and advanced their ideological agendas inside Libya and beyond its borders."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2016-03-04
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Saudi Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations [November 16, 2009]
"The 111th Congress and the Obama Administration may consider further agreements and initiatives to implement or enhance these arrangements. The Obama Administration has requested $400,000 in border security assistance and $65,000 in International Military Education and Training (IMET) funding for Saudi Arabia in FY2010. Section 7041 of the House version of the FY2010 Foreign Operations appropriations bill (H.R. 3081) would prohibit the use of funds appropriated by the bill for assistance to Saudi Arabia. This report provides background information about Saudi Arabia and analyzes current issues in U.S.-Saudi relations. See also CRS Report RL32499, Saudi Arabia: Terrorist Financing Issues, and CRS Report RS21695, The Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2009-11-16
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated January 24, 2006]
"The Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides over the past two decades in terms of political and economic development. While the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, by the end of 2004, it had rebounded with an estimated growth rate of nearly 6% for the year, surpassing even the most optimistic predictions. Nevertheless, several nations face considerable challenges that could threaten political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, and increasing crime. Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 109th Congress has focused on continued counter-narcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; trade issues, including consideration of several free trade agreements (FTAs); threats to democracy in such nations as Haiti and Venezuela; and efforts to foster political change in Cuba. Congress also has maintained an active interest in neighboring Mexico, focusing especially on border security and migration issues. Since 2000, the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) has been the primary U.S. program supporting the Colombian governments efforts to combat drug trafficking and terrorist activity perpetrated by guerrilla and paramilitary groups. The 109th Congress approved the Administrations request to continue ACI funding in FY2006 at approximately the same levels as in previous years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-
2005-11-16
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Terrorist Identification, Screening, and Tracking under Homeland Security Presidential Directive 6 [Updated December 23, 2004]
"In Homeland Security Presidential Directive 6 (HSPD-6), the Administration announced plans to establish a Terrorist Screening Center (TSC), as a multi-agency effort to be administered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), where several watch lists are being consolidated into a single terrorist screening database (TSDB). The TSC is the latest of three multi-agency efforts undertaken by the Administration to better identify, screen, and track known terrorists and suspected terrorists. The other two are the Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force (FTTTF) and the Terrorist Threat Integration Center (TTIC). The TSC complements the FBI-led FTTTF's efforts to prevent terrorists from entering the United States and to track and remove them if they manage to enter the country. The TTIC serves as a single locale where terrorism-threat data from all sources are analyzed further. Under HSPD-6, certain terrorist watch list functions previously performed by the Department of State's Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR) were transferred to the TTIC and TSC. At the TTIC, intelligence analysts are building a Terrorist Identities Database (TID) based on TIPOFF, the U.S. government's principal terrorist watch list database prior to HSPD-6. From TID records, TSC analysts have built a consolidated Terrorist Screening Database. The Administration has increased access to, and use of, lookout records by making them available in a "sensitive but unclassified" format to authorized federal, state, local, territorial and tribal authorities; certain private sector entities; and certain foreign governments. From system to system, however, there remains no standardization of data elements, such as, name, date of birth, place of birth, nationality, or biometric identifiers. Moreover, additional work remains to upgrade and integrate consular and border management, intelligence, criminal history, and biometric systems."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Krouse, William J.
2004-12-23
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated March 29, 2006]
"The Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides over the past two decades in terms of political and economic development. While the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it rebounded in 2004, with a growth rate of 5.9%. Estimates for 2005 show a growth rate of 4.3%. Nevertheless, several nations face considerable challenges that could threaten political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of radical populism in several countries. Legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean in the second session of the 109th Congress are focusing on continued counter-narcotics efforts in the region; trade issues, including the possible consideration of implementing legislation for one or more free trade agreements; potential challenges to democracy in Venezuela and Bolivia; ongoing efforts to bring political stability and ameliorate poverty in Haiti; efforts to foster change in Cuba; and cooperation on border security, migration, and anti-terrorism measures, especially with Mexico. Since 2000, the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) has been the primary U.S. program supporting the Colombian government's efforts to combat drug trafficking and terrorist activity perpetrated by guerrilla and paramilitary groups. In the first session, the 109th Congress approved the Administration's request to continue ACI funding in FY2006 at approximately the same levels as in previous years, and the second session will be considering the FY2007 request for ACI funding."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Cook, Colleen W.
2006-03-29
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Lebanon [Updated April 21, 2021]
From the Summary: "Since having its boundaries drawn by France after the First World War, Lebanon has struggled to define its national identity. Its population then included Christian, Sunni Muslim, and Shi'a Muslim communities of roughly comparable size, and with competing visions for the country. Seeking to avoid sectarian conflict, Lebanese leaders created a confessional system that allocated power among the country's religious sects according to their percentage of the population. Since then, Lebanon's demographics and political dynamics have shifted, exacerbating tension among groups. Sectarian divisions have stoked violence, such as during the 1975-1990 civil war, as well as political gridlock on issues that require dividing power, such as government formation. These dynamics are intensified by external actors--including Syria and Iran--that maintain influence in Lebanon by backing Hezbollah and its political allies. Other states, such as Saudi Arabia, have backed Sunni communities as part of a broader effort to curtail Iran's regional influence. The United States has sought to bolster forces that could serve as a counterweight to Syrian and Iranian influence in Lebanon, providing more than $2 billion in military assistance to the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) since 2006, with the aim of creating a national force strong enough to counter nonstate actors like Hezbollah and secure the country's borders against extremist groups operating in neighboring Syria, including those affiliated with Al Qaeda and the Islamic State."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-04-21
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Three Seas Initiative [Updated April 26, 2021]
From the Document: "The Three Seas Initiative (3SI) is a regional effort in Europe to expand cross-border energy, transportation, and digital infrastructure and boost economic development in the area between the Adriatic Sea, Baltic Sea, and Black Sea. Twelve countries (Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia), all of which are members of the European Union (EU), participate in the 3SI. [...] The U.S. government, including some Members of Congress, have indicated strong backing for the 3SI. In November 2020, the House of Representatives passed a bipartisan resolution 'expressing support of the Three Seas Initiative in its efforts to increase energy independence and infrastructure connectivity thereby strengthening the United States and European national security' (H.Res. 672, 116th Congress). Officials from the Biden Administration and the Trump Administration have expressed diplomatic support for the 3SI, and high-level U.S. officials (including then-President Trump in 2017) have joined its annual summits."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.; Mix, Derek E.
2021-04-26
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Iran and Israel:Tension Over Syria [October 24, 2018]
"Iranian military operations in support of the Syrian government since 2011 have exacerbated long standing tensions between Iran and Israel. These tensions have worsened considerably since late 2016 as Iran has helped Syria's government regain key territory, and in turn has sought a more permanent military presence in Syria.Israeli officials have described the deployment of Iran-backed forces in Syria--particularly in the southwest, near Israel's northern border--as a significant security threat compelling Israel to act.In September 2018, Israeli Intelligence Minister Israel Katz stated, 'in the last two years Israel has taken military action more than 200 times within Syria itself.' During 2018, Israeli and Iranian forces have repeatedly targeted one another in and over Syrian-and Israeli-controlled areas.While Israel has conducted numerous air strikes inside Syria since 2012--mostly on targets linked to weapons shipments to Lebanese Hezbollah--the 2018 strikes appear for the first time to have directly targeted Iranian facilities and personnel in Syria."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.; Katzman, Kenneth; Zanotti, Jim
2018-10-24
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated April 1, 2019]
From the Document: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the states that gained their independence after the USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] collapsed in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid to Europe and Eurasia."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-04-01
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Kazakhstan [Updated June 21, 2019]
From the Overview: "Kazakhstan, a U.S. partner in areas such as counterterrorism, regional security, and nuclear nonproliferation, is a strategically situated country endowed with significant hydrocarbon and mineral resources. It shares long borders with Russia to the north and China to the east. Although sparsely populated, Kazakhstan is the world's ninth largest country by area. Previously a republic of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became independent in 1991. Since then, the country's authoritarian government has introduced significant market reforms, developed the energy sector, and moved to diversify its economy. Kazakhstan pursues a 'multi-vector' foreign policy, seeking to balance relations with major powers while actively participating in international organizations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blackwood, Maria A.
2019-06-21
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COVID-19 Pandemic in Africa: Impact, Responses, and Lessons from Ghana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Rwanda
From the Document: "The outbreak of the novel coronavirus [2019] (COVID-19) has caused widespread disruption of lives the world over. In response, governments have elevated the pandemic to the level of national security and instituted measures to mitigate its spread and impact. In Africa, the spread of infections across the continent has pushed African governments to initiate extraordinary responses. These include mandatory quarantines, social distancing, border closures, travel restrictions, bans on social and religious gatherings, and curfews. While these measures have partially contributed to Africa's relatively low infection rate, they have adversely affected the socio-economic and political landscape of most states across the continent. According to the World Bank, as a result of the pandemic, economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2020 will decline from 2.4 percent, as initially projected, to between -2.1 percent and -5.1 percent. As a result, the region will likely experience its first recession in 25 years. Politically, preparations for scheduled elections in 2020 in several countries are under threat. Moreover, some African leaders are instrumentalizing COVID-19 to perpetuate their incumbency, including by shrinking the space for political participation and dissenting views. In light of the foregoing, this paper examines the impact of COVID-19 and response strategies in Africa with a specific focus on three countries--Ghana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Rwanda."
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars
Frimpong, Osei Baffour; Minani Bihuzo Bin Kakuru, Rigobert, 1960-; Commodore, Richmond
2020-09
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Passports: Current Regulations [August 4, 2009]
"Prior to 2007, little or no documentation was required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the Caribbean. In December 2004, with the 9/11 Commission recommending tighter borders to help prevent another terrorist attack, Congress passed the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which now requires passports for anyone entering the United States. As of mid-2009, approximately 30% of American citizens hold a passport. [...]. On January 31, 2008, another change occurred. Government-issued proof of identity and citizenship documents are required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, and the Caribbean, according to the Department of Homeland Security. People under the age of 18, however, are allowed to present only proof of citizenship, such as a birth certificate. Phase II, implemented on June 1, 2009, adds to the existing requirements that travelers have passports for all land and sea crossings. U.S. or Canadian children under the age of 16, however, are allowed to present an original or copy of their birth certificate or other proof of citizenship. Groups of U.S. or Canadian children under the age of 19, when traveling in church or school groups, social groups, or sports teams, and when entering under adult supervision, also can present birth certificates or other proof of citizenship, rather than a passport. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2009-08-04
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Passports: Current Regulations [March 25, 2008]
"Prior to 2007, little or no documentation was required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the Caribbean. In December 2004, with the 9/11 Commission recommending tighter borders to help prevent another terrorist attack, Congress passed the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which would eventually require passports for anyone entering the United States. After the January 2007 implementation of phase I of the new passport regulations (requiring passports when entering by air), the Department of State was deluged with passport applications. The time necessary to get a passport expanded from the typical four to six weeks to several months, ruining many Americans' travel plans. On January 31, 2008, another change occurred. Government-issued proof of identity and citizenship documents will be required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, and the Caribbean, according to the Department of Homeland Security. People under the age of 18, however, will be required to present only proof of citizenship, such as a birth certificate. Phase II is the requirement to have passports for land and sea crossings. It is scheduled to be implemented after June 2009. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2008-03-25
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Passports: Current Regulations [February 5, 2008]
"Prior to 2007, little or no documentation was required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the Caribbean. In December 2004, with the 9/11 Commission recommending tighter borders to help prevent another terrorist attack, Congress passed the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which would eventually require passports for anyone entering the United States. After the January 2007 implementation of phase I of the new passport regulations (requiring passports when entering by air), the Department of State was deluged with passport applications. The time necessary to get a passport expanded from the typical four to six weeks to several months, ruining many Americans' travel plans. On January 31, 2008, another change occurred. Government-issued proof of identity and citizenship documents will be required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, and the Caribbean, according to the Department of Homeland Security. People under the age of 18, however, will be required to present only proof of citizenship, such as a birth certificate. Phase II is the requirement to have passports for land and sea crossings. It is scheduled to be implemented after June 2009. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2008-02-05
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Passports: Current Regulations [April 30, 2009]
"Prior to 2007, little or no documentation was required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the Caribbean. In December 2004, with the 9/11 Commission recommending tighter borders to help prevent another terrorist attack, Congress passed the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which now requires passports for anyone entering the United States. As of mid-2009, approximately 30% of American citizens hold a passport. [...]. On January 31, 2008, another change occurred. Government-issued proof of identity and citizenship documents are required to enter the United States from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, and the Caribbean, according to the Department of Homeland Security. People under the age of 18, however, will be required to present only proof of citizenship, such as a birth certificate. Phase II adds to the existing requirements that travelers have passports for all land and sea crossings. U.S. or Canadian children under the age of 16, however, will be allowed to present an original or copy of their birth certificate or other proof of citizenship. Groups of U.S. or Canadian children under the age of 19, when traveling in church or school groups, social groups, or sports teams, and when entering under adult supervision, also can present birth certificates or other proof of citizenship, rather than a passport. Phase II will be implemented on June 1, 2009. This report will be updated as events warrant.."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2009-04-30
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Palestinians: Background and U.S. Relations [August 17, 2012]
"This report covers current issues in U.S.-Palestinian relations. It also contains an overview of Palestinian society and politics and descriptions of key Palestinian individuals and groups-- chiefly the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the Palestinian Authority (PA), Fatah, Hamas, and the Palestinian refugee population. The 'Palestinian question' is important not only to Palestinians, Israelis, and their Arab state neighbors, but to many countries and non-state actors in the region and around the world-- including the United States--for a variety of religious, cultural, and political reasons. U.S. policy toward the Palestinians is marked by efforts to establish a Palestinian state through a negotiated two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict; to counter Palestinian terrorist groups; and to establish norms of democracy, accountability, and good governance within the Palestinian Authority (PA). Congress has appropriated assistance to support Palestinian governance and development amid concern for preventing the funds from benefitting Palestinian rejectionists who advocate violence against Israelis. […] The Gaza situation also presents a dilemma. Humanitarian and economic problems persist, but the United States, Israel, and other international actors are reluctant to take direct action toward opening Gaza's borders because of legal barriers to dealing with Hamas and/or potentially negative political and strategic consequences. A May 2011 power-sharing arrangement among Palestinian factions that would allow for presidential and legislative elections and reunified PA rule over Gaza and parts of the West Bank remains unimplemented. Since the signing of the Oslo Accord in 1993, Congress has committed more than $4 billion in bilateral assistance to the Palestinians, over half of it since mid-2007--including $800 million in direct budgetary assistance to the PA and approximately $550 million to strengthen and reform PA security forces and the criminal justice system in the West Bank. The future of these programs remains a subject of intense congressional interest and debate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Zanotti, Jim
2012-08-17
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Virus-Serum-Toxin Act: A Brief History and Analysis [January 3, 2005]
"The Viruses, Serums, Toxins, Antitoxins, and Analogous Products Act (21 U.S.C. 151-159), also known as the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act (VSTA), is intended to assure the safe and effective supply of animal vaccines and other biological products. The act and its applicable regulations are administered by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The VSTA was enacted in 1913, and revised once in 1985. A 2002 law affected the VSTA by transferring border and import inspection functions from USDA to the Department of Homeland Security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Monke, James
2005-01-03
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Mexico: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated May 12, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report provides an overview of political and economic conditions in Mexico, followed by assessments of selected issues of congressional interest in Mexico: security and foreign aid, extraditions, human rights, trade, migration, energy, water, and border environmental issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seelke, Clare Ribando
2020-05-12
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Power of Siberia: A Natural Gas Pipeline Brings Russia and China Closer [April 21, 2020]
From the Overview: "The 'Power of Siberia,' the first natural gas pipeline to bring Russian gas into China, began operations in December 2019. The pipeline's initial capacity, 5 billion cubic meters (BCM), would meet 1.3% of China's 2018 natural gas consumption. As the pipeline reaches its full capacity of 38 BCM by 2025, natural gas likely will be able to displace coal in China's northwest region in the long term. The Power of Siberia pipeline runs just over 1,400 miles from Russia's Chayanda natural gas field and connects to China along the border of Heilongjiang province; the pipeline will eventually extend from the Kovykta field (another 400 miles) in Siberia. [...] Congress may consider how this long-term energy arrangement between Russia and China may affect U.S. foreign policy and security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ratner, Michael; Greenley, Heather L.
2020-04-21
