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• U.S. Foreign Assistance to Sub-Saharan Africa: The FY2012 Request [May 20, 2011]

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  "The Obama Administration has identified a number of other policy objectives in Africa, including food security, democracy, economic growth, conflict prevention and mitigation, and addressing transnational threats. This range of objectives reflects the continent's size and diversity. It also challenges policy makers to balance foreign aid priorities and achieve strategic focus. While health programs represent the bulk of U.S. bilateral spending, other types of assistance, such as democracy promotion and security cooperation, may be more powerful in defining U.S. bilateral relations with African countries and in achieving U.S. diplomatic leverage. Given the inability of many African countries to meet basic development and governance criteria, policy makers often debate whether poor performance justifies terminating or, rather, continuing aid. Analysts, practitioners, and aid advocates have long debated the value and design of aid programs in Africa. Critics allege that aid has done little to improve socioeconomic outcomes in Africa, and that in some cases it may serve to prolong conflicts or empower undemocratic regimes or rebel groups. Aid advocates counter that programs should be reformed or scaled up, not terminated, and that seeking to improve the welfare of impoverished populations abroad is both a humanitarian imperative and in the U.S. national interest. The methods and metrics for evaluating the effectiveness and impact of aid programs are also a topic of debate. Congress authorizes, appropriates funding for, and oversees aid programs in Africa. U.S. assistance is also subject to a number of legislative restrictions imposed by Congress, including some which directly or indirectly pertain to African countries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cook, Nicolas; Blanchard, Lauren Ploch; Arieff, Alexis

  2011-05-20
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [May 13, 2011]

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  "The Obama Administration views Iran as a major threat to U.S. national security interests, a perception generated not only by Iran's nuclear program but also by its materiel assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan, to the Palestinian group Hamas, and to Lebanese Hezbollah. Throughout its first year, the Obama Administration offered Iran's leaders consistent and sustained engagement with the potential for closer integration with and acceptance by the West. To try to convince Iranian leaders of peaceful U.S. intent, the Obama Administration downplayed any discussion of potential U.S. military action against Iranian nuclear facilities or efforts to try to change Iran's regime."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-05-13
• Iraq: Politics, Governance, and Human Rights [May 18, 2011]

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  "Iraq's political system is increasingly characterized by peaceful competition and formation of cross-sectarian alliances. However, ethnic and sectarian political and sometimes violent infighting continues, often involving the questionable use of key levers of power and legal institutions. This infighting--and the belief that holding political power may mean the difference between life and death for the various political communities--significantly delayed agreement on a new government that was to be selected following the March 7, 2010, national elections for the Council of Representatives (COR, parliament). With U.S. diplomatic help, on November 10, 2010, major ethnic and sectarian factions agreed on a framework for a new government, breaking the long deadlock. The agreement, under which Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki is serving a second term, was implemented when a broad-based cabinet was confirmed on December 21, 2010."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-05-18
• Kosovo and U.S. Policy [Updated July 18, 2003]

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  "In 1998 and 1999, the United States and its NATO allies attempted to put an end to escalating violence between ethnic Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav/Serb forces in Yugoslavia's Kosovo region. They were outraged by Serb atrocities against ethnic Albanian civilians, and feared that the conflict could drag in other countries and destabilize the region. These efforts culminated in a 78-day NATO bombing campaign against Serbia from March to June 1999. Yugoslav leader Slobodan Milosevic withdrew his forces from the province in June 1999. Since that time, Kosovo has been governed by a U.N.Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), under the terms of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1244. At an undetermined time after an autonomous government is in place, Kosovo's final status is to be considered. Almost all ethnic Albanians want independence for Kosovo; Serbs say it should remain within Serbia. The NATO-led peacekeeping force KFOR is charged with providing a secure environment for the implementation of UNSC Resolution 1244."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woehrel, Steven J.; Kim, Julie

  2003-07-18
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [December 31, 2008]

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  "The Bush Administration has characterized Iran as a 'profound threat to U.S. national security interests,' a perception generated primarily by Iran's nuclear program and its military assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan, to the Palestinian group Hamas, and to Lebanese Hezbollah. The Bush Administration's approach has been to try to prevent a nuclear breakout by Iran by applying coordinated international economic pressure on Iran while also offering it potential cooperation should it comply with the international demands to suspend its enrichment of uranium. The incorporation of diplomacy and engagement into the overall U.S. strategy led the Administration to approve the participation of a high-level State Department official at multilateral nuclear talks with Iran on July 19, 2008, although that meeting, and subsequent discussions, have not resulted in Iran's acceptance of the international offer of incentives. [...]. Amid widespread recognition that most U.S. goals on Iran have not been accomplished, the incoming Obama Administration, based on statements from President-elect Obama, is likely to shift toward more consistent engagement with Iran and to de-emphasize potential U.S. military action or efforts to promote democracy in Iran. Yet, there is a vigorous debate among experts over whether such shifts would yield clearer results. The policy decisions come as Iran enters its runup to June 2009 presidential elections, which most U.S. experts hope will produce change to more moderate leadership in Iran."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2008-12-31
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [Updated October 8, 2008]

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  This is an updated report from the Congressional Research Service about security threats from Iran and policy responses. "The Bush Administration characterizes Iran as a 'profound threat to U.S. national security interests,' a perception generated primarily by Iran's nuclear program and its military assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan, to the Palestinian group Hamas, and to Lebanese Hezbollah. [...] The Bush Administration approach to contain the potential threat posed by Iran's nuclear program is to strengthen international economic pressure on Iran while also offering Iran potential cooperation should it comply with the international demands to suspend its enrichment of uranium. [...] A new U.N. Security Council resolution is being considered, although progress reportedly has been slowed by U.S.-Russia tensions over Georgia. A previous three U.N. resolutions (1737, 1747, and 1803) impose sanctions that ban weapons of mass destruction (WMD)-related trade with Iran; freeze the assets of Iran's nuclear and related entities and personalities; prevent Iran from transferring arms outside Iran; ban or require reporting on international travel by named Iranians; call for inspections of some Iranian sea and airborne cargo shipments; and call for restrictions on dealings with some Iranian banks. [...] The Administration strongly denies that it is planning to take military action against Iran, but has refused to rule it out if no other efforts to curb Iran's uranium enrichment program succeed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2008-10-08
• Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy [Updated October 17, 2008]

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  This CRS report focuses on Bahrain: security and reform in the country as well as U.S. policy towards it. "After instability during the late 1990s, Bahrain undertook substantial political reforms, but the Shiite majority continues to simmer over the Sunni-led government's perceived manipulation of laws and regulations to maintain its grip on power. Bahrain's stability has long been a key U.S. interest; it has hosted U.S. naval headquarters for the Gulf for nearly 60 years. In September 2004, the United States and Bahrain signed a free trade agreement (FTA); legislation implementing it was signed January 11, 2006 (P.L. 109-169). This report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2008-10-17
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [Updated September 4, 2008]

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  This CRS report discusses U.S. concerns and policy responses to Iran. "The Bush Administration characterizes Iran as a "profound threat to U.S. national security interests," a perception generated primarily by Iran's nuclear program but that also takes into account Iran's military assistance to armed groups in Iraq, to the Palestinian group Hamas, and to Lebanese Hezbollah. The threat assessment of some other governments was lessened by the December 3, 2007 key judgements of a National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) that indicates that Iran is driving to develop an actual nuclear weapon, but Administration officials say that this finding was not the main thrust of the NIE, which judged Iran to be continuing uranium enrichment. The Bush Administration approach to contain the potential threat posed by Iran's nuclear program is to strengthen international economic pressure on Iran while also offering Iran potential cooperation should it comply with the international demands to suspend its enrichment of uranium. This led the Administration to approve the participation of a high-level State Department official at multilateral nuclear talks with Iran on July 19, 2008. Three U.N. resolutions (1737, 1747, and 1803) impose sanctions that ban weapons of mass destruction (WMD)-related trade with Iran; freeze the assets of Iran's nuclear and related entities and personalities; prevent Iran from transferring arms outside Iran; ban or require reporting on international travel by named Iranians; call for inspections of some Iranian sea and airborne cargo shipments; and call for restrictions on dealings with some Iranian banks."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2008-09-04
• China-Southeast Asia Relations: Trends, Issues, and Implications for the United States [December 7, 2004]

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  "In November 2004, China and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN includes Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam) agreed to gradually remove tariffs and create the world's largest free trade area by 2010. China is also beginning to develop bilateral and multilateral security relationships with Southeast Asian states. This report explores what is behind this shift in China - ASEAN relations and how it may affect American interests in the region. The key policy issue for Congress to assess how the United States should view China's expanding posture in Southeast Asia and decide what is the best way to react to this phenomenon. This report also may be of assistance to Congressional decision-makers as they review legislation such as S. 3016 (108th Congress), a bill to promote freedom, economic growth, and security in Asia. This report will be updated as required."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

  2004-12-07
• Homeland Security Department: FY2009 Appropriations [March 4, 2009]

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  "This report describes the FY2009 appropriations for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The Administration requested a net appropriation of $38, 849 million in budget authority for FY2009. The House Appropriations Committee reported its version of the FY2009 DHS Appropriations bill on June 24, 2008. The bill was filed on September 18, 2008, as H.R. 6947, and the accompanying report has been numbered H.Rept. 110-862. House-reported H.R. 6947 would have provided a net appropriation of $41,137 million in budget authority for DHS for FY2009. This amounted to an increase of $2,288 million, or nearly 6% increase over the President's request. The Senate-reported its version of the bill on June 19, 2008. S. 3181 would have provided $41,314 million in net budget authority for DHS for FY2009, a $2,465 million or 6% increase over the President's request."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lake, Jennifer E.; Nunez-Neto, Blas

  2009-03-04
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [Updated March 13, 2009]

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  This report discusses U.S. concerns and policy responses to Iran. This report characterizes and outlines the steps taken by the previous administration to address Iran's threat to U.S. national security and the new administration's policies on diplomacy with Iran. This report also includes a detailed description on the regime structure, stability, and elections including the upcoming June 12, 2009 presidential elections; the human rights situation; Iran's strategic capabilities and weapons of mass destruction programs; foreign policy and support for terrorist groups, and U.S. policy responses, options, and legislation.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2009-03-13
• China-Southeast Asia Relations: Trends, Issues, and Implications for the United States [Updated February 8, 2005]

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  "China's developing relationship with Southeast Asia is undergoing a significant shift. This will likely have implications for United States' interests in the region. While the United States has been focused on Iraq and Afghanistan, China has been evolving its external engagement with its neighbors, particularly in Southeast Asia. In the 1990s, China was perceived as a threat to its Southeast Asian neighbors in part due to its conflicting territorial claims over the South China Sea and past support of communist insurgency. This perception began to change in the wake of the Asian financial crisis of 1997/98 when China resisted pressure to devalue its currency while the currencies of its neighbors were in free fall. Today, China's 'charm offensive' has downplayed territorial disputes while focusing on trade relations with Southeast Asia which are viewed by some as the catalyst for expanding political and security linkages. In November 2004, China and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN includes Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam) agreed to gradually remove tariffs and create the world's largest free trade area by 2010. China is also beginning to develop bilateral and multilateral security relationships with Southeast Asian states."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

  2005-02-08
• Gangs in Central America [January 3, 2011]

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  "Congress has maintained an interest in the effects of gang violence in Central America, and on the expanding activities of transnational gangs with ties to that region operating in the United States. The violent Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and its main rival, the '18th Street' gang (also known as M-18) continue to threaten citizen security and challenge government authority in Central America. Gang-related violence has been particularly acute in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, which have among the highest homicide rates in the world. In recent years, governments in those countries appeared to move away, at least on a rhetorical level, from repressive anti-gang strategies. However, continuing gang-related violence prompted El Salvador to adopt tough new legislation on gangs in September 2010. Guatemala may follow suit. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about the expanding presence of the MS-13 and M-18 in cities across the United States, as well as reports that these gangs may be evolving into more sophisticated transnational criminal enterprises. Between February 2005 and October 2010, U.S. officials arrested some 3,332 alleged MS-13 members in cities across the United States, many of whom were subsequently deported. Evidence suggests, however, that previously deported members of both the MS-13 and the M-18 often reenter the United States illegally."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2011-01-03
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [July 12, 2011]

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  "The Obama Administration views Iran as a major threat to U.S. national security interests, a perception generated not only by uncertainty about Iran's intentions for its nuclear program but also by its materiel assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan, to the Palestinian group Hamas, and to Lebanese Hezbollah. Throughout its first year, the Obama Administration offered Iran's leaders consistent and sustained engagement with the potential for closer integration with and acceptance by the West. To try to convince Iranian leaders of peaceful U.S. intent, the Obama Administration downplayed any discussion of potential U.S. military action against Iranian nuclear facilities or efforts to try to change Iran's regime. However, after observing a crackdown on peaceful protests in Iran in 2009, and failing to obtain Iran's agreement to implement a compromise outlined on October 1, 2009, the Administration has worked during 2010 and 2011 to increase economic and political pressure on Iran. […] The apparent slowing of Iran's nuclear program has, at least temporarily, quieted discussion in Israeli and U.S. expert circles about using military action to set Iran's nuclear program back. The Administration has stepped up arms sales to regional states that share the U.S. suspicions of Iran's intentions. For further information, see CRS Report RS20871, Iran Sanctions; CRS Report R40849, Iran: Regional Perspectives and U.S. Policy, coordinated by Casey L. Addis; and CRS Report RL34544, Iran's Nuclear Program: Status."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-07-12
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [Updated February 26, 2008]

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  "According to the Administration, Iran is a major national security challenge for the United States. The Administration perception is generated primarily by Iran's nuclear program but is compounded by Iran's military assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan and to the Palestinian group Hamas and Lebanese Hezbollah. However, the threat assessment of some other governments was lessened by the December 3, 2007 key judgements of a National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) that indicates that Iran is likely not on a drive to develop an actual nuclear weapon. […] Two U.N. resolutions (1737 and 1747) ban weapons of mass destruction (WMD)-related trade with Iran, freeze the assets of Iran's nuclear and related entities and personalities, prevent Iran from transferring arms outside Iran, and require reporting on international travel by named Iranians. […] Separate U.S. efforts, showing some success, have included trying to persuade European governments to curb trade, investment, and credits to Iran; and pressuring foreign banks not to do business with Iran. […] The Administration has strongly denied widespread speculation that it plans military action against Iran, but has refused to rule it out if no other efforts to curb Iran's uranium enrichment program succeed. Some legislation passed by the House in the 110th Congress, including H.R. 1400 and H.R. 957, would increase U.S. sanctions on Iran […] Other legislation, such as H.R. 1357, H.R. 2347 (passed by the House), and S.1430, promote divestment of companies that do business with Iran. Some in the Administration believe that only a change of Iran's regime would end the threat posed by Iran."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2008-02-26
• Immigration Provisions of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) [May 15, 2012]

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  "The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) of 1994 and its subsequent reauthorizations in 2000 and 2005 authorized funding related to domestic violence for enforcement efforts, research and data collection, prevention programs, and services for victims. VAWA also increased penalties for certain domestic violence-related crimes and expanded the Federal Criminal Code to include new categories of crimes. With respect to noncitizens, VAWA gave abused noncitizen spouses the opportunity to 'self-petition' for themselves and/or their abused children for lawful permanent resident (LPR) status independently of their sponsoring spouses. In addition, the VAWA reauthorization in 2000 created the U visa, which protects and assists victims who assist law enforcement agencies in investigating and prosecuting an array of crimes that includes domestic violence. It is available to any foreign national who suffered physical or mental abuse as a victim of a qualifying crime that violated U.S. laws; has information about the crime; and was, is, or is likely to be helpful in the investigation or prosecution of the crime. (For more information on U visas, see Appendix C. For a detailed legislative history of the immigration provisions in VAWA, see Appendix B.)"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kandel, William

  2012-05-15
• Kazakhstan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [June 20, 2008]

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  "Kazakhstan is an important power in Central Asia by virtue of its geographic location, large territory, ample natural resources, and economic growth, but it faces ethnic, political, and other challenges to stability. This report discusses U.S. policy and assistance. Basic facts and biographical data are provided. This report may be updated. Related products include CRS Report RL33458, 'Central Asia: Regional Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2008-06-20
• Department of Justice (DOJ) Appropriations for FY2008 and FY2009

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  "Congress established the Department of Justice (DOJ) in 1870 (28 U.S.C. 501), with the Attorney General at its head. DOJ provides counsel for citizens in federal cases and protects them through law enforcement; represents the federal government in all proceedings, civil and criminal, before the Supreme Court; and provides legal advice and opinions, upon request, to the President and executive branch department heads. This report provides coverage of the FY2009 appropriations cycle for DOJ, including FY2008 supplemental appropriations. […] For FY2009, the Administration's budget request for DOJ was $23,088.9 million. This amount is $503 million less than the FY2008 enacted budget. In light of the House and Senate action on FY2008 supplemental funding, the FY2009 DOJ budget request may well be between $910.3 million and $1,633.6 million below the total level of funding that Congress might provide for FY2008. Several issues with funding implications that have arisen during FY2009 appropriations hearings include (1) continued oversight of the FBI's greater emphasis on national security investigations as opposed to traditional crime, (2) reported spikes in violent crime in medium-sized and small cities, (3) the Administration's proposal to further cut funding for state and local law enforcement assistance and consolidate related grant programs, (4) reported increases in drug trafficking and related violent crime on the Southwest border, (5) funding shortfalls for the Federal Prison System, and (6) the reentry of several waves of offenders whose prison sentences will soon end. This report will be updated as necessary."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  James, Nathan; Franco, Celinda; Krouse, William J.

  2008-06-10
• Kazakhstan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [August 10, 2012]

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  "According to the Obama Administration, the United States' strategic aim in Kazakhstan is to help the country develop into a stable, secure, and democratic country that embraces free market competition and rule of law, and is a respected regional leader. Cumulative U.S. aid budgeted for Kazakhstan in fiscal years 1992 through 2010 was $2.05 billion (all program and agency funds), with Kazakhstan ranking fifth in aid among the 12 Soviet successor states. A large part of U.S. aid has supported Comprehensive Threat Reduction (CTR) programs to prevent the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Budgeted aid for FY2011 was $17.6 million, and is estimated to be $18.8 million for FY2012. Requested aid for FY2013 is $14.9 million (these latter amounts include foreign assistance listed in the 'Congressional Budget Justification for Foreign Operations', and exclude Defense and Energy Department funding). Among congressional actions, foreign operations appropriations since FY2003 have forbade assistance to the government of Kazakhstan unless the Secretary of State determines and reports that Kazakhstan has significantly improved its human rights record. A waiver on national security grounds has been exercised in recent years. Reportedly responding to a U.S. appeal, the Kazakh legislature in May 2003 approved sending military engineers to assist in coalition operations in Iraq. The 27 troops trained Iraqis in demining and water purification. They pulled out of Iraq in late 2008. Since 2009, Kazakhstan has permitted air and land transit for U.S. and NATO troops and equipment--as part of the Northern Distribution Network--to support stabilization operations in Afghanistan. In mid-May 2011, the Kazakh legislature voted against sending some officers to take part in noncombat missions in Afghanistan, citing popular opposition to sending military personnel to Afghanistan."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2012-08-10
• Iraq: Politics, Governance, and Human Rights [July 19, 2012]

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  "Relations among major political factions broke down in late 2011 and have deteriorated further since, threatening Iraq's stability and the perception of the achievements of the long U.S. intervention in Iraq. Yet, these tensions have not erupted into all-out communal or political violence. Sunni Arabs, always fearful that Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki would seek unchallenged power for Shiite factions allied with him, accuse him of authoritarianism as he seeks to sideline high ranking Sunni Arabs from government. Iraq's Kurds have also become increasingly distrustful of Maliki over territorial, political, and economic issues, and are threatening to limit or end their involvement in the central government. More recently, the powerful Shiite faction of Moqtada Al Sadr has expressed support for the move by the other groups to try to oust Maliki to share power, although he remains susceptible to overtures from Maliki, Iran, and other pro-Maliki entities. The political rift has not halted the function of governance but has stalled the movement on national oil laws that had occurred during August- November 2011 and prevented major efforts to improve key services, such as provision of electricity. Some Sunni insurgent groups apparently seek to undermine the Shiite-led government by conducting high-profile attacks intended to reignite sectarian conflict, although the attacks have failed to spark such broad conflict to date."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2012-07-19
• Kazakhstan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests [August 29, 2012]

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  "Kazakhstan is an important power in Central Asia by virtue of its geographic location, large territory, ample natural resources, and economic growth, but it faces ethnic, political, and other challenges to stability. Kazakhstan gained independence at the end of 1991 after the break-up of the former Soviet Union. Kazakhstan's president at the time, Nursultan Nazarbayev, was one of the top leaders of the former Soviet Union and was instrumental in forming the successor Commonwealth of Independent States. He has been reelected president of Kazakhstan several times and in June 2010 was proclaimed the 'Leader of the Nation' with lifetime ruling responsibilities and privileges. Kazakhstan's economy is the strongest in Central Asia, buoyed by oil exports. Its progress in democratization and respect for human rights has been halting, according to most observers. Nonetheless, Kazakhstan's pledges to reform convinced the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) to select the country's leadership for its 2010 presidency. According to the Obama Administration, the United States' strategic aim in Kazakhstan is to help the country develop into a stable, secure, and democratic country that embraces free market competition and rule of law, and is a respected regional leader."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2012-08-29
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [August 2, 2012]

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  "The issue of Iran and its nuclear program has emerged as a top priority for the Obama Administration. A sense of potential crisis with Iran has taken hold since late 2011 as Iran's nuclear enrichment program continues to advance and as the government of Israel has asserted that it might take unilateral military action against Iran's nuclear facilities if diplomacy and sanctions do not soon yield an agreement that ensures that Iran cannot develop a nuclear weapon. […] Some in the 112th Congress, aside from supporting additional economic sanctions against Iran, assert that the United States should provide additional political support to the democracy movement in Iran, despite the relative quiescence of the opposition since early 2010. The Administration argues that it has supported the opposition through civil society and other programs, and by using recent authorities to sanction Iranian officials who suppress human rights in Iran and help Syria repress human rights."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2012-08-02
• Immigration Provisions of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) [August 28, 2012]

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  "The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) includes provisions to assist foreign nationals who have been victims of domestic abuse. These provisions, initially enacted by Congress with the Immigration Act of 1990 and the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) of 1994, afford benefits to abused foreign nationals and allow them to self-petition for lawful permanent resident (LPR) status independently of the U.S. citizen or LPR relatives who originally sponsored them. Congress reauthorized VAWA with the Battered Immigrant Women Protection Act of 2000, which also created the U visa for foreign national victims of a range of crimes--including domestic abuse--who assisted law enforcement. A second reauthorization in 2005 added protections and expanded eligibility for abused foreign nationals. VAWA expired in 2011. On November 30, 2011, Senator Leahy introduced S. 1925, the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2011. It was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary and reported favorably on February 7, 2012. On April 26, 2012, the Senate passed it by a vote of 68 to 31. In the House, Representative Adams introduced H.R. [House Resolution] 4970 (To reauthorize the Violence Against Women Act of 1994) on April 27, 2012. It was referred to the House Judiciary Committee where it was reported favorably on May 8, 2012. The House passed the bill in the nature of a substitute on May 16, 2012, by a vote of 222 to 205."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kandel, William

  2012-08-28
• Iraq: Politics, Governance, and Human Rights [August 21, 2012]

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  "Relations among major political factions broke down in late 2011 and threaten Iraq's stability and the achievements of the long U.S. intervention in Iraq. Yet, these tensions have not erupted into all-out communal or political violence. Sunni Arabs, always fearful that Prime Minister Nuri al- Maliki would seek unchallenged power for Shiite factions, accuse him of authoritarianism as he seeks to sideline high ranking Sunni Arabs from government. Iraq's Kurds have also become increasingly distrustful of Maliki over territorial, political, and economic issues, and are threatening to limit or end their involvement in the central government. The Shiite faction of Moqtada Al Sadr expressed support for the other groups' efforts in mid-2012 to try to oust Maliki, but Iran has pressed Sadr to distance himself from that action, contributing to the failure of the ouster drive thus far. […] As Iraq emerges from its U.S.-led transition, it is realigning itself in the region. Some see it moving closer to Iran, for example by refusing to call for Iran's ally, Bashar Al Assad of Syria, to yield power amid major unrest. Others see Iraq trying to reestablish its historic role as a major player in the Arab world, and to do so Iraq has been trying to rebuild relations with Sunni Arab states, particularly Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq took a large step toward returning to the Arab fold by hosting an Arab League summit on March 27-29, 2012."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2012-08-21
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [May 28, 2008]

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  "The Bush Administration characterizes Iran as a 'profound threat to U.S. national security interests.' The Administration perception is generated primarily by Iran's nuclear program but is increasingly focused on Iran's military assistance to armed groups in Iraq, which is resulting in U.S. battlefield losses. Iranian aid to the Palestinian group Hamas and Lebanese Hezbollah is also considered a key threat to U.S. interests. The threat assessment of some other governments was lessened by the December 3, 2007 key judgments of a National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) that indicates that Iran is likely not on a drive to develop an actual nuclear weapon, although Administration officials say that this finding was not the main thrust of the NIE, which judged Iran to be continuing uranium enrichment. […] To strengthen its diplomacy, the Administration has maintained a substantial naval presence in the Persian Gulf. The Administration has strongly denied widespread speculation that it plans military action against Iran, but has refused to rule it out if no other efforts to curb Iran's uranium enrichment program succeed. Some believe that the Administration might take military action to curb Iran's 'malign' influence in Iraq. Others believe that only a change of Iran's regime would end the threat posed by Iran, although regime change is not currently a prominent feature of Administration policy toward Iran. For further information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS20871, 'The Iran Sanctions Act (ISA)', and CRS Report RS22323, 'Iran's Activities and Influence in Iraq', both by Kenneth Katzman, and CRS Report RS21592, 'Iran's Nuclear Program: Recent Developments'. This report is updated regularly."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2008-05-28
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [September 5, 2012]

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  "Addressing the perceived threat posed by Iran to a broad range of U.S. interests has been a top priority for the Obama Administration. A sense of potential crisis with Iran has taken hold since late 2011 as Iran's nuclear enrichment program continues to advance. That Iranian progress has caused the government of Israel to assert that it might take unilateral military action against Iran's nuclear facilities unless the United States provides assurances that it will act, militarily if necessary, to prevent Iran from developing a nuclear weapon. Aside from the nuclear issue, the United States has long seen a threat to U.S. interests posed by Iran's support for militant groups in the Middle East and in Iraq and Afghanistan. U.S. officials accuse Iran of helping Syria's leadership try to defeat a growing popular opposition movement and of taking advantage of Shiite majority unrest against the Sunni-led, pro-U.S. government of Bahrain. To counter the perceived threat from Iran, the Obama Administration has orchestrated broad international pressure on Iran through economic sanctions, while also offering Iran sustained engagement if it verifiably assures the international community that its nuclear program is peaceful."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2012-09-05
• Immigration Legislation and Issues in the 112th Congress [September 11, 2012]

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  "Despite President Obama's calls for a national conversation on immigration reform, immigration has not been a front-burner issue for the 112th Congress. Unlike in some past years, there has been little discussion in this Congress of comprehensive immigration reform legislation, which typically has encompassed border security, employment eligibility verification, temporary worker programs, permanent admissions, and unauthorized aliens, among other issues. The 112th Congress has, however, taken legislative action on some immigration-related measures. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012 (P.L. 112-74) contains provisions on border security, visa security, tourist visas, refugees, and other immigration issues. Legislation has also been enacted on military service-based immigration benefits (P.L. 112-58), border tunnels (P.L. 112- 127), and E-2 treaty investor visas (P.L. 112-130). In addition, the House and Senate have each passed other immigration-related legislation. Both houses have passed different bills (H.R. 4970, S. 1925) to reauthorize the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). The House has passed, and the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee has reported, legislation (H.R. 915) that would provide statutory authority for the Border Enforcement Security Task Force (BEST) initiative. The House has passed bills that would reform permanent employment-based and family-based admissions (H.R. 3012) and to reauthorize the H-1C temporary worker category for nurses (H.R. 1933). It also has passed legislation on border security at and between ports of entry (H.R. 1299) and student visa reform (H.R. 3120). The Senate has passed a bill (S. 3245) that would extend the authorization for four immigration programs for three years, until September 30, 2015. The four programs are (1) the EB-5 visa program for immigrant investors, (2) the E-Verify electronic employment eligibility verification program, (3) the special immigrant religious worker program, and (4) the Conrad State J-1 visa waiver program for foreign medical graduates. The Senate FY2013 DHS Appropriations bill (S. 3216), as reported by the Senate Appropriations Committee, would likewise extend these four programs until September 30, 2015."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bruno, Andorra

  2012-09-11
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [September 2, 2011]

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  "The Obama Administration views Iran as a major threat to U.S. national security interests, a perception generated not only by uncertainty about Iran's intentions for its nuclear program but also by its materiel assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan, to the Palestinian group Hamas, and to Lebanese Hezbollah. U.S. officials are highly critical of what they say is stepped up Iranian support for Iraqi Shiite militias that have attacked U.S. forces, who are scheduled to leave Iraq by the end of 2011. U.S. officials also accuse Iran of helping Syria's leadership use force and other methods to try to defeat a growing popular opposition movement, and of taking advantage of Shiite majority unrest against the Sunni-led, pro-U.S. government of Bahrain. […] In 2011, in the context of the popular uprisings throughout the Middle East, and perhaps addressing criticism that it did not sufficiently support the popular uprising in Iran in 2009, the Administration has increased its public support of the Iranian opposition 'Green Movement.' Some in the 112th Congress believe the United States should become more vocal in supporting the democracy movement in Iran, and perhaps even provide material support to Iranian activists, but there are no indications the Administration plans to do so. For further information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS20871, 'Iran Sanctions'; and CRS Report RL34544, 'Iran's Nuclear Program: Status.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-09-02
• Peacekeeping and Stabilization Missions Abroad: The Development of Civilian Capabilities, 2004-2011 [December 19, 2012]

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  "Congress has played a key role in fostering the development of civilian capacity and capabilities to deal with conflicts overseas. 'First generation' efforts were the establishment in 2004 of the former Office of the Coordinator for Reconstruction and Stabilization (S/CRS). This office was the result of widespread concern that the U.S. government lacked appropriate civilian 'tools' to help stem, stabilize, and otherwise address conflicts that were perceived as a threat to the United States after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (9/11). Senator Richard G. Lugar and former Senator Joseph R. Biden Jr. provided the impetus to establish it in permanent law. The 113th Congress may wish to play a continuing role regarding civilian capacity and capabilities by examining 'second generation' efforts, which include the State Department Bureau of Conflict and Stabilization Operations (CSO). In November 2011, the Obama Administration announced its establishment of this bureau, which integrated S/CRS. CSO is intended to provide the institutional focus for policy and 'operational solutions' to prevent, respond to, and stabilize crises. The evolution from S/CRS to CSO appears to have responded to changing perceptions of the security environment, S/CRS's perceived utility, and budget constraints. This report1 provides background on the origins and development of S/CRS and related capabilities. It also discusses four issues raised during the S/CRS years that may still be relevant for the CSO Bureau: perceptions of S/CRS's effectiveness, the appropriate size for Civilian Response Corps (CRC), flexible funding for stabilization operations, and funding for a reserve component. It does not cover events or perceptions since the formation of the CSO Bureau and will not be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Serafino, Nina M.

  2012-12-19
• Central Asia: Regional Developments and Implications for U.S. Interests [June 11, 2008]

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  "After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States recognized the independence of all the former Central Asian republics, supported their admission into Western organizations, and elicited Turkish support to counter Iranian influence in the region. Congress was at the forefront in urging the formation of coherent U.S. policies for aiding these and other Eurasian states of the former Soviet Union. Soon after the terrorist attacks on America on September 11, 2001, all the Central Asian states offered overflight and other support to coalition anti-terrorist efforts in Afghanistan. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan hosted coalition troops and provided access to airbases. In 2003, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan also endorsed coalition military action in Iraq, and Kazakhstan provided about two dozen troops for rebuilding. U.S. policy has emphasized bolstering the security of the Central Asian 'front-line' states to help them combat terrorism, proliferation, and arms trafficking. Other strategic U.S. objectives have included promoting free markets, democratization, human rights, and energy development. Such policies aim to help the states become what the Administration considers to be responsible members of the international community rather than to degenerate into xenophobic, extremist, and anti-Western regimes that threaten international peace and stability."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nichol, James P.

  2008-06-11