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U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Rising Oil Prices [October 17, 2007]
"Petroleum prices have risen sharply since early 2005. At the same time the average amount of imports of energy-related petroleum products has fallen slightly. The combination of sharply rising prices and a slightly lower level of imports of energy-related petroleum products translates into an escalating cost for those imports. This rising cost added an estimated $70 billion to the nation's trade deficit in 2005 and $50 billion in 2006. Imported energy prices moderated in early 2007, before rising again through the summer and fall, following a pattern of rising energy import prices in the spring and summer. This report provides an estimate of the initial impact of the rising oil prices on the nation's merchandise trade deficit. This report will be updated as warranted by events."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-
2007-10-17
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [July 14, 2011]
"The 112th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. The U.S. export control system is diffused among several different licensing and enforcement agencies. Exports of dual-use goods and technologies are licensed by the Department of Commerce, munitions are licensed by the Department of State, and restrictions on exports based on U.S. sanctions are administered by the U.S. Treasury. Enforcement of export controls is conducted by these agencies as well as by units of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ). […] In considering the future of the U.S. export control system, Congress may weigh the merits of a unified export control system--the end result of the President's proposal--or the continuation of the present bifurcated system by reauthorizing the present EAA or writing new legislation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.; Kerr, Paul K.
2011-07-14
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Water Quality Issues in the 112th Congress: Oversight and Implementation [July 11, 2011]
"Much progress has been made in achieving the ambitious goals that Congress established more than 35 years ago in the Clean Water Act (CWA) to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters. However, long-standing problems persist, and new problems have emerged. Water quality problems are diverse, ranging from pollution runoff from farms and ranches, city streets, and other diffuse or 'nonpoint' sources, to toxic substances discharged from factories and sewage treatment plants. There is little agreement among stakeholders about what solutions are needed and whether new legislation is required to address the nation's remaining water pollution problems. For some time, efforts to comprehensively amend the CWA have stalled as interests have debated whether and exactly how to change the law. Congress has instead focused legislative attention on enacting narrow bills to extend or modify selected CWA programs, but not any comprehensive proposals. […] These issues are likely to be of interest in the 112th Congress, as well. In addition, a number of other CWA issues have drawn interest recently and been the subject of congressional oversight and legislation, with some legislators seeking to support implementation efforts, and others critical of recent regulatory initiatives. Among the topics of possible interest are environmental and economic impacts of Chesapeake Bay restoration efforts, federal promulgation of water quality standards in Florida, regulation of surface coal mining activities in Appalachia, and other CWA regulatory actions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copeland, Claudia
2011-07-11
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Visa Security Policy: Roles of the Departments of State and Homeland Security [June 30, 2011]
"Foreign nationals (i.e., aliens) not already legally residing in the United States who wish to come to the United States generally must obtain a visa to be admitted, with certain exceptions noted in law. The Departments of State (DOS) and Homeland Security (DHS) each play key roles in administering the law and policies on the admission of aliens. Although the DOS's Consular Affairs is responsible for issuing visas, the U.S. Citizenship and Immigrant Services (USCIS) in DHS approves immigrant petitions, the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) in DHS operates the Visa Security Program in selected embassies abroad, and the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) in DHS inspects all people who enter the United States. In addition, the Executive Office for Immigration Review (EOIR) in the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) has a significant policy role through its adjudicatory decisions on specific immigration cases. […] The case of Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, who allegedly attempted to ignite an explosive device on Northwest Airlines Flight 253 on December 25, 2009, refocused attention on the responsibilities of the Departments of State and Homeland Security for the visa process. He was traveling on a multi-year, multiple-entry tourist visa issued to him in June 2008. State Department officials have acknowledged that Abdulmutallab's father came into the Embassy in Abuja, Nigeria, on November 19, 2009, to express his concerns about his son, and that those officials at the Embassy in Abuja sent a cable to the National Counterterrorism Center. State Department officials maintain they had insufficient information to revoke his visa at that time. In the aftermath of the Abdulmutallab case, policymakers explored what went wrong and whether statutory and procedural revisions were needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2011-06-30
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U.S.-EU Cooperation Against Terrorism [July 18, 2011]
"The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks gave new momentum to European Union (EU) initiatives to combat terrorism and improve police, judicial, and intelligence cooperation among its 27 member states. Since the 2001 attacks, the EU has sought to speed up its efforts to harmonize national laws and bring down barriers among member states' law enforcement authorities so that information can be meaningfully shared and suspects apprehended expeditiously. Among other steps, the EU has established a common definition of terrorism and a common list of terrorist groups, an EU arrest warrant, enhanced tools to stem terrorist financing, and new measures to strengthen external EU border controls and improve aviation security. […] U.S. and EU officials have negotiated some revisions to the existing passenger name record (PNR) accord in an effort to assuage EP [European Parliament] concerns. Other issues that have led to periodic U.S.-EU tensions include terrorist detainee policies, differences in the U.S. and EU terrorist designation lists, and balancing border security with legitimate transatlantic travel and commerce. Congressional decisions related to improving border controls and transport security, in particular, may affect how future U.S.-EU cooperation evolves. In addition, given the European Parliament's growing influence in many of these policy areas, Members of Congress may be able to help shape Parliament's views and responses through ongoing contacts and the existing Transatlantic Legislators' Dialogue (TLD). This report examines the evolution of U.S.-EU counterterrorism cooperation and the ongoing challenges that may be of interest in the 112th Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2011-07-18
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U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [July 15, 2011]
"Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations, and the Administration has given U.S. SOF greater responsibility for planning and conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) has close to 60,000 active duty, National Guard, and reserve personnel from all four services and Department of Defense (DOD) civilians assigned to its headquarters, its four components, and one sub-unified command. The 2010 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) directs increases in SOF force structure, particularly in terms of increasing enabling units and rotary and fixed-wing SOF aviation assets and units. USSOCOM Commander Admiral Eric T. Olson, in commenting on the current state of the forces under his command, noted that since September 11, 2001, USSOCOM manpower has nearly doubled, the budget nearly tripled, and overseas deployments have quadrupled; because of this high level of demand, the admiral added, SOF is beginning to show some 'fraying around the edges,' and one potential way to combat this is by finding ways to get SOF 'more time at home.' […] Another implication is that these force reductions might also have an impact on the creation and sustainment of Army and Marine Corps 'enabling' units that USSOCOM is seeking to support operations. Another potential issue involves initiatives to get more 'time at home' for SOF troops to help reduce stress on service members and their families. One of the major factors is that SOF has neither access to nor the appropriate types of training facilities near their home stations, thereby necessitating travel away from their bases and families to conduct pre-deployment training."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2011-07-15
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U.S.-Taiwan Relationship: Overview of Policy Issues [August 4, 2011]
"For decades, Taiwan has been of significant security, economic, and political interest to the United States. While the United States does not diplomatically recognize Taiwan, it is a significant autonomous actor in the world. [...] After Taiwan's presidential election in 2008, the United States congratulated Taiwan as a 'beacon of democracy.' Taiwan donates official foreign aid, including $3.5 million to Japan after its catastrophes in March 2011. Taiwan's economy is the 17th largest in the world. Taiwan is the 9th-largest U.S. trading partner, including the 6th-largest market for U.S. agricultural exports. U.S. cumulative investment in Taiwan totaled $21 billion. Taiwan is a major innovator of information technology (IT) products. Ties or tension across the Taiwan Strait affect global peace and stability, the U.S.-Taiwan relationship, and U.S.-PRC [People's Repubic of China] engagement. Taiwan's democracy has allowed its people a greater say in their status, given competing party politics about Taiwan's sovereignty and priorities. The next presidential election is scheduled for January 14, 2012, two months earlier than in previous electoral cycles. Particularly since Taiwan and the PRC resumed the cross-strait dialogue in 2008, one view has stressed concerns that the U.S.-Taiwan relationship has not strengthened. Another approach has seen closer cross-strait engagement as allowing U.S. attention to shift to expand cooperation from a rising China, which opposes U.S. arms sales and other dealings with Taiwan. In any case, Washington and Taipei have put more efforts into their respective relations with Beijing. Taiwan's President Ma Ying-jeou has sought U.S. support for his policies, prioritizing U.S. arms sales and Taiwan's inclusion in the U.S. Visa Waiver Program (VWP). Taiwan also has asked for an extradition treaty. Another issue has concerned whether to resume Cabinet-level visits. The United States and Taiwan have sought to resume trade talks under the Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA), but there have been U.S. concerns about Taiwan's restrictions on U.S. beef."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kan, Shirley; Morrison, Wayne M.
2011-08-04
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United Nations System Efforts to Address Violence Against Women [July 12, 2011]
"The United Nations (U.N.) system supports a number of programs that address international violence against women (VAW). These activities, which are implemented by 36 U.N. entities, range from large-scale interagency initiatives to smaller grants and programs that are implemented by a range of partners, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs), national governments, and individual U.N. agencies. U.N. member states, including the United States, address VAW by ratifying multilateral treaties, adopting resolutions and decisions, and supporting U.N. mechanisms and bodies that focus on the issue. Many U.N. activities and mechanisms address VAW directly, while others focus on it in the context of broader issues such as humanitarian assistance, U.N. peacekeeping, and global health. U.N. entities do not specifically track the cost of programs or activities with anti-VAW components. As a result, it is unclear how much the U.N. system, including individual U.N. agencies, funds, and programs, spends annually on programs to combat violence against women. […] This report provides an overview of recent U.N. efforts to address VAW and highlights key U.N. interagency efforts. It also discusses selected U.N. funds, programs, and agencies that address international violence against women. It does not assess the extent to which VAW is directly addressed or is part of a larger initiative or program. For information on international violence against women, including its causes, consequences, and U.S. policy, see CRS Report RL34438, International Violence Against Women: U.S. Response and Policy Issues. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchfield, Luisa
2011-07-12
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U.S. Trade Deficit and the Impact of Changing Oil Prices [June 15, 2011]
"Petroleum prices have risen sharply since September 2010, at times reaching more than $112 per barrel of crude oil. Although this is still below the $140 per barrel price reached in 2008, the rising cost of energy is beginning to affect the rate of growth in the economy. While the price of oil has increased sharply, the volume of oil imports, or the amount of oil imported, has actually increased slightly. This resistance by market demand to changes in prices reflect the unique nature of the demand for oil and an increase in economic activity that has occurred since the worst part of the economic recession in 2009. Turmoil in the Middle East has been an important factor causing petroleum prices to rise sharply in the first four months of 2011, which could add as much as $100 billion to the U.S. trade deficit in 2011. The increase in energy import prices is pushing up the price of energy to consumers and could spur some elements of the public to pressure the 112th Congress to provide relief to households that are struggling to meet their current expenses. With oil prices rising to over $100 per barrel in early 2011, the International Energy Agency cautioned that the rising price of oil was becoming a threat to the global economic recovery. This report provides an estimate of the initial impact of the changing oil prices on the nation's merchandise trade deficit."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-
2011-06-15
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U.S.-Vietnam Relations in 2012: Current Issues and Implications for U.S. Policy [May 18, 2012]
"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, the United
States and Vietnam had minimal relations until the mid-1990s. Since the establishment of
diplomatic relations in 1995, overlapping security and economic interests have led the two sides
to expand relations across a wide range of issue-areas and begin to form a strategic partnership of sorts. Perhaps most prominently, in 2010, the two countries mobilized a multinational response to China's perceived attempts to boost its claims to disputed waters and islands in the South China
Sea. This coordinated effort to promote the freedom of navigation has continued."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.
2012-05-18
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U.S. Solar Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Industry Trends, Global Competition, Federal Support [May 30, 2012]
"Every President since Richard Nixon has sought to increase U.S. energy supply diversity. In
recent years, job creation and the development of a domestic renewable energy manufacturing
base have joined national security and environmental concerns as rationales for promoting the
manufacturing of solar power equipment in the United States. The federal government maintains
a variety of tax credits, loan guarantees, and targeted research and development programs to
encourage the solar manufacturing sector, and state-level mandates that utilities obtain specified
percentages of their electricity from renewable sources have bolstered demand for large solar
projects. The most widely used solar technology involves photovoltaic (PV) solar modules, which draw on semiconducting materials to convert sunlight into electricity. By year-end 2011, the total number of grid-connected PV systems nationwide reached almost 215,000. Domestic demand is met both by imports and by about 100 U.S. manufacturing facilities employing an estimated 25,000 U.S. workers in 2011. Production is clustered in a few states, including California, Oregon, Texas, and Ohio. [...] The competitiveness of solar PV as a source of electric generation in the United States will likely be adversely affected both by the expiration of these tax provisions and by the rapid development of shale gas, which has the potential to lower the cost of gas-fired power generation and reduce the cost-competitiveness of solar power, particularly as an energy source for utilities. In light of these developments, the ability to build a significant U.S. production base for PV equipment is in question."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Platzer, Michaela D.
2012-05-30
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U.S. Export Control System and the President's Reform Initiative [May 18, 2012]
"The 112th Congress may consider reforms of the U.S. export control system. The balance between national security and export competitiveness has made the subject of export controls controversial for decades. Through the Export Administration Act (EAA), the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), and other authorities, the United States restricts the export of defense items or munitions; so-called 'dual-use' goods and technology--items with both civilian and military applications; certain nuclear materials and technology; and items that would assist in the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons or the missile technology used to deliver them. U.S. export controls are also used to restrict exports to certain countries on which the United States imposes economic sanctions. At present, the EAA has expired and dual-use controls are maintained under IEEPA authorities. [...] In considering the future of the U.S. export control system, Congress may weigh the merits of a unified export control system--the end result of the President's proposal--or the continuation of the present bifurcated system by reauthorizing the present EAA or writing new legislation. In doing so, Congress may debate the record of the present dual-use system maintained by emergency authority, the aims and effectiveness of the present non-proliferation control regimes, the maintenance of the defense industrial base, and the delicate balance between the maintenance of economic competitiveness and the preservation of national security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kerr, Paul K.; Fergusson, Ian F.
2012-05-18
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U.S.-EU Cooperation Against Terrorism [May 21, 2012]
"The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks gave new momentum to European Union (EU) initiatives to combat terrorism and improve police, judicial, and intelligence cooperation among its 27 member states. Since the 2001 attacks, the EU has sought to speed up its efforts to harmonize national laws and bring down barriers among member states' law enforcement authorities so that information can be meaningfully shared and suspects apprehended expeditiously. Among other steps, the EU has established a common definition of terrorism and a common list of terrorist groups, an EU arrest warrant, enhanced tools to stem terrorist financing, and new measures to strengthen external EU border controls and improve aviation security. [...] Congressional decisions related to improving border controls and transport security, in particular, may affect how future U.S.-EU cooperation evolves. In addition, given the European Parliament's growing influence in many of these policy areas, Members of Congress may be able to help shape Parliament's views and responses through ongoing contacts and the existing Transatlantic Legislators' Dialogue (TLD). This report examines the evolution of U.S.-EU counterterrorism cooperation and the ongoing challenges that may be of interest in the 112th Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2012-05-21
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Vietnam-U.S. Normalization Process [December 27, 2005]
"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen for over 15 years. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship in many ways has been virtually normalized. Congress has played a significant role in this process. Each step in improving bilateral ties has brought controversy, albeit at diminishing levels. U.S. opponents in Congress and elsewhere have argued that Vietnam maintains a poor record on human and religious rights, particularly in the Central Highlands region. Opposition has also come from groups arguing that Vietnam has not done enough to account for U.S. Prisoners of War/Missing in Action (POW/MIAs) from the Vietnam War, though this argument has diminished markedly in recent years. Forces favoring normalization have included those reflecting a strong U.S. business interest in Vietnam's reforming economy and American strategic interests in integrating Vietnam more fully into East Asia and in expanding cooperation with a country that has an ambivalent relationship with China. […] Vietnam is one of the largest recipients of U.S. assistance in East Asia; U.S. aid in FY2005 surpassed $50 million. By far the largest component of the U.S. bilateral aid program is health-related assistance, particularly spending on HIV/AIDS treatment and prevention. The United States also has budgeted over $7 million to help Vietnam battle outbreaks of the H5N1 avian influenza virus, which is believed to be responsible for over 40 human deaths in Vietnam."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.
2005-12-27
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U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel [January 5, 2006]
"This report provides an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to Israel. It includes a review of past aid programs, data on annual assistance figures, and an analysis of current issues. The report will be updated annually to reflect developments over the previous year. For the most recent action on aid to Israel, see CRS Issue Brief IB82008, Israel: Background and Relations with the United States, by Carol Migdalovitz. For information on overall U.S. assistance to the Middle East, see CRS Report RL32260, 'U.S. Foreign Assistance to the Middle East: Historical Background, Recent Trends, and the FY2006 Request', by Jeremy M. Sharp. […] Following Israel's 2005 withdrawal from the Gaza Strip, Israeli officials reportedly have sought additional aid from the Bush Administration. Additional U.S. assistance could be used to fund development projects in the Negev desert and Galilee region. Israel reportedly suspended its initial aid request in the aftermath of hurricane Katrina. Although the Administration has not submitted a formal request for these new projects to Congress, there is some speculation that the proposed assistance package could range anywhere from $800 million to $1.5 billion."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2006-01-05
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U.S. Arms Sales: Agreements with and Deliveries to Major Clients, 1997-2004 [December 29, 2005]
"This report provides background data on United States arms sales agreements with and deliveries to its major purchasers during 'calendar years' 1997-2004. In a series of data tables, it lists the total dollar values of U.S. arms sales 'agreements' with its top five purchasers in five specific regions of the world for three specific periods: 1997-2000, 2001-2004, and 2004 alone, and the total dollar values of U.S. arms 'deliveries' to its top five purchasers in those same regions for the periods 1997-2000, 2001-2004, and for 2004 alone. In addition, the report provides data tables listing the total dollar values of U.S. arms 'agreements' with and 'deliveries' to its top 10 purchasers 'worldwide' for the periods 1997-2000, 2001-2004, and for 2004 alone. This report is prepared in conjunction with the annual CRS report for Congress entitled: 'Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1997-2004' (CRS Report RL33051). That report details both U.S. and foreign arms transfer activities globally, and provides analysis of arms trade trends. The intent here is to complement that elaborate 'worldwide' treatment of the international arms trade by providing only the dollar values of United States arms sales agreements with and delivery values to its leading customers, by geographic region, for the calendar years 1997-2000, 2001- 2004, and 2004. Unlike CRS Report RL33051, this report focuses exclusively on U.S. arms sales, provides the specific names of the major U.S. arms customers, by region, together with the total dollar values of their arms purchases or deliveries. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2005-12-29
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Water Infrastructure Financing: History of EPA Appropriations [April 5, 2012]
"The principal federal program to aid municipal wastewater treatment plant construction is authorized in the Clean Water Act (CWA). Established as a grant program in 1972, it now capitalizes state loan programs. Authorizations since 1972 have totaled $65 billion, while appropriations have totaled more than $85 billion. It has represented 25-30% of total funds appropriated to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in recent years. In appropriations legislation, funding for EPA wastewater assistance is contained in the measure providing funds for the Department of the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies, which includes EPA. Within the portion of that bill which funds EPA, wastewater treatment assistance is specified in an account now called State and Tribal Assistance Grants (STAG). Three trends in the funding of this account are most prominent: inclusion of non-infrastructure environmental grants to states, beginning in FY1993; increasing number and amount of special purpose grants since FY1989; and the addition of grant assistance for drinking water treatment projects in FY1997. This report summarizes, in chronological order, congressional activity to fund items in this account since 1987."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copeland, Claudia
2012-04-05
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U.S.-Vietnam Relations: Background and Issues for Congress [November 28, 2006]
"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen for over 15 years. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship in many ways has been virtually normalized. Congress has played a significant role in this process. Each step in improving bilateral ties has brought controversy, albeit at diminishing levels. Some argue that improvements in bilateral relations should be conditioned upon Hanoi improving its record on human and religious rights, particularly in the Central Highlands region. Opposition to the pace and scope of normalization also has come from groups arguing that Vietnam has not done enough to account for U.S. Prisoners of War/Missing in Action from the Vietnam War, though this argument has diminished markedly in recent years. Interests favoring normalization have included those reflecting a strong U.S. business interest in Vietnam's reforming economy and American strategic interests in integrating Vietnam more fully into East Asia and in expanding cooperation with a country that has an ambivalent relationship with China. […] In recent years, clashes over Vietnam's human rights record and trade issues have arisen. Simultaneously, however, the two countries have expanded political and security ties in the past three years, symbolized by the Vietnamese Prime Minister's visit to the United States in June 2005, the first such trip by a Vietnamese head of state. President Bush spoke of his desire to move bilateral relations to 'a higher plane,' backed Vietnam's bid to enter the WTO [World Trade Organization], and the two countries signed an international military education training (IMET) agreement. The two countries share a strategic interest in offsetting China's increased influence in Southeast Asia, though many argue there is little evidence that Hanoi seeks to balance Beijing's rising power. Vietnam is one of the largest recipients of U.S. assistance in East Asia; U.S. aid in FY2005 surpassed $50 million. This report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.
2006-11-28
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War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [February 14, 2006]
"Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether or not Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This issue brief does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with the congressional authorization for the action and the application and effectiveness of the War Powers Resolution. The purpose of the War Powers Resolution (P.L. 93-148, passed over President Nixon's veto on November 7, 1973) is to ensure that Congress and the President share in making decisions that may get the U.S. involved in hostilities. […] A longer-term issue is whether the War Powers Resolution is an appropriate and effective means of assuring congressional participation in actions that might get the United States involved in war. Some observers contend that the War Powers Resolution has not significantly increased congressional participation, while others emphasize that it has promoted consultation and served as leverage. Proposals have been made to strengthen, change, or repeal the resolution. None have been enacted to date."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2006-02-14
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United Nations System Funding: Congressional Issues [March 30, 2006]
"Congressional debate over U.N. [United Nations] funding focuses on the following questions: (1) What is the appropriate level of U.S. funding for U.N. system operations and programs? (2) What U.S. funding actions are most likely to produce a positive continuation of U.N. system reform efforts? The U.N. system includes the parent U.N. organization, a number of affiliated agencies, voluntary funds and programs, and peacekeeping operations. Participating states finance the system with voluntary and assessed contributions. For nearly 60 years, the United States has been the single largest financial contributor to the U.N. system. […] The Administration also requested $780 million in supplemental FY2005 funding for peacekeeping contributions; $680 million was appropriated in FY2005 supplemental funding for U.N. peacekeeping in P.L. 109-13. The $281.9 million request for U.S. voluntary contributions in the international organizations and programs account had included $114 million for UNICEF [United Nations Children Fund] and $95 million for UNDP [United Nations Development Program]. FY2005. P.L. 108-447, the Consolidated Appropriations Act for FY2005, included $1.18 billion for U.S. assessed contributions for international organizations (CIO); $490 million for assessed contributions for U.N. peacekeeping activities (CIPA); and $319,494,000 for voluntary contributions for the international organizations and programs (IO&P) account. In addition, $53 million was included for voluntary contributions to IAEA [International Atomic Energy Agency] in another account."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Browne, Marjorie Ann; Bite, Vita
2006-03-30
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United States and Europe: Current Issues [June 10, 2005]
"The United States and Europe share a long and intertwined history. Despite the end of the Cold War, both sides of the Atlantic continue to face a common set of international concerns, have few other comparable partners, and share a huge economic relationship. Nevertheless, numerous foreign policy and trade conflicts have seriously challenged U.S.-European relations in recent years. This report examines the current state of the transatlantic relationship and key issues in Europe and beyond that have implications for U.S. interests. It will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2005-06-10
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Unmanned Vehicles for U.S. Naval Forces: Background and Issues for Congress [October 25, 2006]
"Unmanned vehicles (UVs) are viewed as a key element of the effort to transform U.S. military forces. The Department of the Navy may eventually acquire every major kind of UV. Navy and Marine Corps UV programs raise several potential issues for Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2006-10-25
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Use of Federal Troops for Disaster Assistance: Legal Issues [September 16, 2005]
"Hurricane Katrina has raised questions concerning the President's legal authority to send active duty military forces into a disaster area and the permissible functions the military can perform to protect life and property and maintain order. The Stafford Act authorizes the use of the military for disaster relief operations at the request of the state governor, but does not authorize the use of the military to perform law enforcement functions, which is ordinarily prohibited by the Posse Comitatus Act. However, the President may invoke other authorities, such as the Insurrection Act, to use federal troops to aid in the execution of the law. This report summarizes the possible constitutional and statutory authorities and constraints relevant to the use of armed forces, including National Guard units in federal service, to provide assistance to states when a natural disaster impedes the operation of state and local police."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elsea, Jennifer
2005-09-16
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U.S. Embassy in Iraq [April 11, 2005]
"The Bush Administration is in the process of establishing new embassy facilities in Baghdad and regional offices throughout Iraq. The President has requested more than $1.3 billion in the FY2005 supplemental request for the logistical, security and construction costs associated with the embassy. On March 16, 2005, the House passed an emergency supplemental appropriation (H.R. 1268) which includes $592 million for Embassy Security, Construction, and Maintenance 'only' if deemed an emergency, and reporting requirements of the Secretary of State on project-by-project uses of the funds in the bill. In 2005, even before it is built and fully staffed, this embassy is among the largest of State Department's overseas missions. As of June 28, 2004, sovereignty officially was transferred to the Iraqi interim government. At the same time, the lines of U.S. government authority in Iraq were transferred from the Department of Defense (DOD), the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), and Ambassador Bremer to the Department of State (DOS), the American Embassy in Baghdad, and newly confirmed Ambassador Negroponte. This report discusses reestablishing normal diplomatic ties with Iraq and setting up the new embassy facilities and regional teams. It will be updated as changes occur."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2005-04-11
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Unfunded Mandates Reform Act: History, Impact, and Issues [April 24, 2012]
"The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 (UMRA) culminated years of effort by state and local government officials and business interests to control, if not eliminate, the imposition of unfunded intergovernmental and private-sector federal mandates. Advocates argued the statute was needed to forestall federal legislation and regulations that imposed obligations on state and local governments or businesses that resulted in higher costs and inefficiencies. Opponents argued that federal mandates may be necessary to achieve national objectives in areas where voluntary action by state and local governments and business failed to achieve desired results. UMRA provides a framework for the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) to estimate the direct costs of mandates in legislative proposals to state and local governments and to the private sector, and for issuing agencies to estimate the direct costs of mandates in proposed regulations to regulated entities. [...] This report examines debates over what constitutes an unfunded federal mandate and UMRA's implementation. It focuses on UMRA's requirement that CBO issue written cost estimate statements for federal mandates in legislation, its procedures for raising points of order in the House and Senate concerning unfunded federal mandates in legislation, and its requirement that federal agencies prepare written cost estimate statements for federal mandates in rules. It also assesses UMRA's impact on federal mandates and arguments concerning UMRA's future, focusing on UMRA's definitions, exclusions, and exceptions which currently exempt many federal actions with potentially significant financial impacts on nonfederal entities. An examination of the rise of unfunded federal mandates as a national issue and a summary of UMRA's legislative history are provided in an Appendix."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dilger, Robert Jay, 1954-; Beth, Richard S.
2012-04-24
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U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress [May 7, 2012]
"India, which has not signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and does not have International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all of its nuclear material, exploded a 'peaceful' nuclear device in 1974, convincing the world of the need for greater restrictions on nuclear trade. The United States created the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a direct response to India's test, halted nuclear exports to India a few years later, and worked to convince other states to do the same. India tested nuclear weapons again in 1998. However, President Bush announced July 18, 2005, he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader partnership with India. [...] The Obama Administration has continued with the Bush Administration's policy regarding civil nuclear cooperation with India. According to a November 8, 2010, White House fact sheet, the United States 'intends to support India's full membership' in the NSG, as well as other multilateral export control regimes."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kerr, Paul K.
2012-05-07
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U.S. Trade Remedy Laws and Nonmarket Economies: A Legal Overview [March 14, 2012]
"Two major U.S. trade remedies, each set out in Title VII of the Tariff Act of 1930, are antidumping (AD) law, which combats the sale of imported goods at less than their fair market value, and countervailing duty (CVD) law, which is aimed at offsetting foreign government subsidization of imported items. If dumped or subsidized imports are found to cause material injury, or threat, to a domestic industry, and the dumping margin or the net subsidy is not 'de minimis,' antidumping or countervailing duties will be imposed. Both remedies are available when goods are imported from competitor countries that have free market policies. Since 1984, however, only AD law had been applied to goods from nonmarket or other 'transitional' economies. With the continued economic growth of some of these economies, such as China and Vietnam, pressure has increased on the U.S. government to utilize both domestic trade remedies more aggressively against unfair imports from these countries. This report discusses the application of antidumping and countervailing duty law to the goods of nonmarket economy (NME) countries[.]"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Jeanne J.
2012-03-14
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U.S.-Panama Free Trade Agreement [April 26, 2012]
"On June 28, 2007, the United States and Panama signed a reciprocal free trade agreement (FTA) after two and a half years and 10 rounds of negotiations. Negotiations formally concluded on December 16, 2006, with an understanding that changes to labor, environment, and intellectual property rights chapters would be made pursuant to future congressional input. These changes were agreed to and the FTA was signed in time to be considered under Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) legislation, which expired on July 1, 2007. TPA allows Congress to consider certain trade implementing bills under expedited procedures. Panama's legislature ratified the FTA 58 to 4 on July 11, 2007 (see Appendix A for Chronology of U.S.-Panama FTA Milestones). Neither the 110th nor the 111th Congress took up the agreement. The U.S. Congress did not consider implementing legislation for over four years after the FTA was signed, an unprecedented delay reflecting multiple concerns of Congress (see below). Eventually, the 112th Congress took up the free trade agreement when congressional leaders and the Obama Administration came to an understanding on how to proceed. On July 7, 2011, the House Ways and Means and Senate Finance Committees both held simultaneous 'mock markups,' where they informally approved draft implementing bills. On October 3, 2011, the Obama Administration transmitted to both houses of Congress final implementing legislation and
supporting documents, as required under TPA. Following committee action, on October 12, 2011, the House agreed to the implementing bill (H.R. 3079) 300-129, followed by the Senate 77- 22. President Obama signed the bill into law on October 21, 2011 (P.L. 112-43, 125 Stat. 427). The FTA enters into force by presidential proclamation when Panama completes all legal and regulatory changes required to meet the obligations of the agreement."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)
2012-04-26
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U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement: Background and Issues [April 27, 2012]
"The U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement, or U.S. Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement, as it is officially called, is a comprehensive free trade agreement (FTA) between the United States and Colombia, which will eventually eliminate tariffs and other barriers in bilateral trade in goods and services. On April 15, 2012, at the Summit of the Americas in Cartagena Colombia, President Barack Obama announced that the agreement would enter into force on May 15, 2012, sooner than many observers expected. The announcement came after completion of several months of work by both governments to review each other's laws and regulations related to the implementation of the FTA, as well as to Colombia's efforts to fulfill its set of commitments under the Action Plan Related to Labor Rights. […] The CFTA negotiations grew out of a regional effort in 2004 to produce a U.S.-Andean free trade agreement between the United States and the Andean countries of Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador. After numerous rounds of talks, however, negotiators failed to reach an agreement, and Colombia continued negotiations with the United States for a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA). On February 27, 2006, the United States and Colombia concluded the U.S.-Colombia FTA, and finalized the text of the agreement on July 8, 2006. On August 24, 2006, President Bush notified Congress of his intention to sign the U.S.-Colombia FTA. The two countries signed the agreement on November 22, 2006. The Colombian Congress approved the agreement in June 2007 and again in October 2007, after the agreement was modified to include new labor and environmental provisions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Villarreal, M. Angeles
2012-04-27
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U.S. Solar Photovoltaic Manufacturing: Industry Trends, Global Competition, Federal Support [April 27, 2012]
"Every president since Richard Nixon has sought to increase U.S. energy supply diversity. In recent years, job creation and the development of a domestic renewable energy manufacturing base have joined national security and environmental concerns as rationales for promoting the manufacturing of solar power equipment in the United States. The federal government maintains a variety of tax credits, loan guarantees, and targeted research and development programs to encourage the solar manufacturing sector, and state-level mandates that utilities obtain specified percentages of their electricity from renewable sources have bolstered demand for large solar projects. The most widely used solar technology involves photovoltaic (PV) solar modules, which draw on semiconducting materials to convert sunlight into electricity. By year-end 2011, the total number of grid-connected PV systems nationwide reached almost 215,000. Domestic demand is met both by imports and by about 100 U.S. manufacturing facilities employing an estimated 25,000 U.S. workers in 2011. Production is clustered in a few states, including California, Oregon, Texas, and Ohio. […] The competitiveness of solar PV as a source of electric generation in the United States will likely be adversely affected both by the expiration of these tax provisions and by the rapid development of shale gas, which has the potential to lower the cost of gas-fired power generation and reduce the cost-competitiveness of solar power, particularly as an energy source for utilities. In light of these developments, the ability to build a significant U.S. production base for PV equipment is in question."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Platzer, Michaela D.
2012-04-27
