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Codes of Conduct for Multinational Corporations: An Overview [Updated July 24, 2007]
From the Summary: "The U.S. economy is growing increasingly interconnected with other economies around the world, a phenomenon often referred to as globalization. As U.S. businesses expand globally, however, various groups across the social and economic spectrum are growing concerned over the economic, social, and political impact of this activity. Over the past 15 years, multinational corporations and nations have adopted voluntary, legally enforceable, and industry-specific codes of conduct to address many of these concerns. Congress will continue to play a pivotal role in addressing the large number of issues regarding internationally applied corporate codes of conduct that remain to be negotiated. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-
2007-07-24
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Iraq: Summary of U.S. Casualties [Updated August 3, 2007]
From the Summary: "The following casualty data was compiled by the Department of Defense (DOD), as tallied from the agency's press releases. 'Table 1' provides statistics on fatalities during Operation Iraqi Freedom, which began on March 19, 2003, and is ongoing, as well as on the number of fatalities since May 1, 2003, plus statistics on those wounded, but not killed, since March 19, 2003. Statistics may be revised as circumstances are investigated and as all records are processed through the U.S. military's casualty system. More frequent updates are available at DOD's website at [http://www.defenselink.mil/ news/] under 'OIF/OEF [Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom] Casualty Update.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Bryant, JoAnne
2007-08-03
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Coast Guard Cutter Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress [June 13, 2012]
From the Introduction: "This report provides background information and potential oversight issues for Congress on the Coast Guard's programs for procuring eight National Security Cutters (NSCs), 25 Offshore Patrol Cutters (OPCs), and 58 Fast Response Cutters (FRCs). These 91 planned cutters are intended as replacements for 90 aging Coast Guard cutters and patrol craft. The Coast Guard began procuring NSCs and FRCs a few years ago, and the first few NSCs and FRCs are now in service. The Coast Guard plans to begin procuring OPCs within the next few years. The NSC, OPC, and FRC programs have a combined estimated acquisition cost of about $16.8 billion, and the Coast Guard's proposed FY2013 budget requests a total of $852 million in acquisition funding for the three programs. The issue for Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify the Coast Guard's funding requests and acquisition strategies for the NSC, OPC, and FRC programs. Congress's decisions on these three programs could substantially affect Coast Guard capabilities and funding requirements, and the U.S. shipbuilding industrial base. The NSC, OPC, and FRC programs have been subjects of congressional oversight for several years, and were previously covered in an earlier CRS [Congressional Research Service] report that is now archived. The Coast Guard's plans for modernizing its fleet of polar icebreakers are covered in a separate CRS report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2012-06-13
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Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated February 8, 2006]
From the Summary: "This report provides an overview of Egyptian politics and current issues in U.S.- Egyptian relations. It briefly provides a political history of modern Egypt, an overview of its political institutions, and a discussion of the prospects for democratization in Egypt. U.S.-Egyptian relations are complex and multi-faceted, and this report addresses the following current topics: the Arab-Israeli peace process, Iraq, terrorism, democratization and reform, human rights, trade, and military cooperation. This report will be updated regularly. For more information on Egypt, see CRS [Congressional Research Services] Report RS22274, 'Egypt: 2005 Presidential and Parliamentary Elections'. U.S. policy on Egypt is aimed at maintaining regional stability, improving bilateral relations, continuing military cooperation, and sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. Successive Administrations have long viewed Egypt as a leader and moderating influence in the Middle East, though in recent years, there have been increasing calls for Egypt to democratize. […] The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of over $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. The United States will reduce Economic Support Funds (ESF) to about $400 million per year by 2008 in keeping with a plan to reduce aid to both Israel and Egypt. The Administration requested $455 million in economic grants and $1.3 billion in military grants for FY2007 for Egypt."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2006-02-08
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Fishery, Aquaculture, and Marine Mammal Legislation in the 109th Congress [Updated November 9, 2006]
From the Summary: "Fish and marine mammals are important resources in open ocean and nearshore coastal areas; many federal laws and regulations guide their management. Bills to reauthorize and amend major legislation -- the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSFCMA) and the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) -- have been introduced in the 109th Congress; the authorization of appropriations for both laws expired at the end of FY1999. Bills offering extensive amendments to the MSFCMA have been passed by the Senate (S. 2012) and reported in the House (H.R. 5018); a bill extensively amending the MMPA has been passed by the House (H.R. 4075). Recommendations by the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy will likely play a role in legislation considered during this Congress. […] Marine mammals are protected under the MMPA. With few exemptions, the MMPA prohibits harm or harassment ('take') of marine mammals, unless restrictive permits are obtained. It addresses specific situations of concern, such as dolphin mortality, primarily associated with the eastern tropical Pacific tuna fishery. No marine mammal legislation has yet been enacted by the 109th Congress. This report replaces CRS Issue Brief IB10139, 'Fishery, Aquaculture, and Marine Mammal Legislation in the 109th Congress', by Eugene H. Buck, and will be updated periodically to reflect legislative action."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Buck, Eugene H.
2006-11-09
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Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices [Updated November 9, 2006]
From the Summary: "The 109th Congress is considering proposals to amend the Endangered Species Act (ESA; P.L. [Public Law] 93-205, 16 U.S.C. [United States Code] §§1531-1543). Major issues in recent years have included changing the role of science in decision-making, modifying critical habitat (CH) procedures, incorporating further protection and incentives for property owners, and increasing protection of listed species, among others. In addition, many have advocated enacting as law some ESA regulations promulgated during the Clinton Administration. The ESA has been one of the more contentious environmental laws. This may stem from its strict substantive provisions, which can affect the use of both federal and nonfederal lands and resources. Under the ESA, species of plants and animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) can be listed as 'endangered' or 'threatened' according to assessments of their risk of extinction. Once a species is listed, powerful legal tools are available to aid its recovery and protect its habitat. The ESA may also be controversial because dwindling species are usually harbingers of broader ecosystem decline: the most common cause of listing species is habitat loss. […] This report identifies additional bills that have been introduced in the 109th Congress to address specific concerns related to how the ESA is implemented and how endangered species are managed, and will be updated periodically to reflect legislative action."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Buck, Eugene H.; Corn, M. Lynne (Mary Lynne), 1946-; Sheikh, Pervaze A.
2006-11-09
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World Bank's International Development Association (IDA) [Updated July 18, 2007]
From the Summary: "The World Bank is a Multilateral Development Bank (MDB) that makes loans and grants to low and middle-income countries to reduce poverty and promote economic development. Both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. Two of the World Bank facilities, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Development Association (IDA) lend directly to governments to finance projects and programs. IDA was established in 1960, 16 years after the creation of the World Bank to address concern that the poorest countries could not afford to borrow at the near-market rate terms offered by the IBRD. Consequently, IDA was established as a revolving fund, providing concessional loans to the poorest countries subsidized by donor contributions and transfers from the IBRD. IDA assistance is highly discounted, it is increasingly provided as grants, and only available to low-income member countries. Since IDA provides loans and grants to the poorest countries at subsidized rates, its resources must be periodically replenished. Donor nations have replenished IDA 14 times since its founding. […] At the March 5-6 kick-off meeting for the IDA-15 round, donor governments selected three themes for IDA-15: (1) IDA's role in the international foreign aid system, (2) the role of the World Bank in post-conflict reconstruction and fragile states, and (3) the need to improve the effectiveness of IDA assistance. This report provides brief background material on the World Bank's IDA, the U.S. role at the institution, and information on the status of the current IDA-14 replenishment. It then examines the negotiations for IDA-15, and analyzes the three core themes identified for IDA-15. The report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2007-07-18
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Haiti's Development Needs and a Statistical Overview of Conditions of Poverty [May 30, 2007]
From the Summary: "Haiti's poverty is massive and deep. Over half the population (54%) of 8.2 million people live in extreme poverty, living on less than $1 a day; 76% live on less than $2 a day. Poverty and hunger among the rural population is even more widespread. In order to reach Haiti's goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger by 2015, its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) would have to grow 3.5% per year, a goal Haiti is not considered likely to achieve. In the past 40 years, Haiti's per capita real GDP has declined by 30%. Therefore economic growth, even if greater than population growth, is not expected to be enough to reduce Haiti's endemic poverty. […] International donors are assisting Haiti in developing a long-term Poverty Reduction Plan to build on and succeed the Interim Cooperation Framework (ICF). An important part of this strategy is developing the final plan through a participatory process, with the goals of ensuring that the interests of Haiti's most disadvantaged population are taken into account and that democratic and governance processes are strengthened. The PRS [Poverty Reduction Strategy] is to be completed by July 2007, and implemented beginning in October 2007. The U.S. Agency for International Development's 2007-2009 programs are based on the objectives, strategy, and monitoring indicators established under the ICF. Some critics say that the PRS process does not allow adequate country input, uses limited development analysis, and should include discussion of alternative policies and other aspects of development policy. Enormous political, technical, and institutional challenges must be overcome before Poverty Reduction objectives can be achieved. The figures in this report put international efforts into the context of Haitian poverty, drawing a statistical portrait to convey the extent of the poverty and obstacles that must be overcome in order for sustainable development to occur in Haiti. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Taft-Morales, Maureen; Drummer, Demond Alexander
2007-05-30
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Homeland Security: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Border Surveillance [Updated May 22, 2007]
From the Summary: "Congress has expressed a great deal of interest in using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to surveil the United States' international land border. This report examines the strengths and limitations of deploying UAVs along the borders and related issues for Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bolkcom, Christopher C.
2007-05-22
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Iraq: Summary of U.S. Casualties [Updated November 9, 2006]
From the Summary: "The following casualty data was compiled by the Department of Defense (DOD), as tallied from the agency's press releases. 'Table 1' provides statistics on fatalities during Operation Iraqi Freedom, which began on March 19, 2003, and is ongoing, as well as on the number of fatalities since May 1, 2003, plus statistics on those wounded, but not killed, since March 19, 2003. Statistics may be revised as circumstances are investigated and as all records are processed through the U.S. military's casualty system. More frequent updates are available at DOD's website at [http://www.defenselink.mil/ news/] under 'OIF/OEF [Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom] Casualty Update.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Bryant, JoAnne
2006-11-09
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Superfund: Overview and Selected Issues [May 17, 2006]
From the Summary: "Superfund is the federal government's principal program for cleaning up the nation's contaminated waste sites and protecting public health and the environment from releases of hazardous substances. Enacted into law as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, P.L. [Public Law] 96-510), the program became known as Superfund because Congress established a large trust fund -- originally supported by taxes levied on specific petroleum products and chemicals -- to provide the majority of the program's funding needs. Although the 25-year-old program has seen less attention compared with earlier years, Superfund issues continue to generate debate. This report provides a background and overview of the Superfund program and examines four topics that have recently received interest. The first issue concerns Superfund program funding: who should pay for the program, general taxpayers or a dedicated tax on industry? The program was originally funded by a tax on industry that expired at the end of 1995. Without dedicated taxes, and with a relatively small balance in the trust fund, Congress has been using general revenues for a larger percentage of cleanup funds. Members of Congress have introduced bills to reinstate the taxes in recent years, but such efforts have lacked the necessary support. […] The fourth issue concerns Superfund's role at animal feeding operations. Stakeholders argue about whether these operations should be required to report ammonia air emissions, primarily resulting from animal waste, as hazardous substance releases. Another question concerns the responsibility for releases of animal waste that reach water bodies. Members sought to add language in the FY2006 agriculture appropriations bill that would have exempted manure from release provisions under Superfund. That effort failed, but similar language has been recently proposed in legislation. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Reisch, Mark
2006-05-17
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [Updated April 4, 2006]
From the Summary: "On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence and was immediately engaged in a war with all of its neighbors. Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a vibrant parliamentary democracy, albeit with relatively fragile governments. […] Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. U.S.-Israeli bilateral relations are multidimensional. The United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process, but U.S. and Israeli views differ on various peace process issues, such as the fate of the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and Israeli settlements. The United States and Israel concluded a free-trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. Since 1976, Israel has been the largest recipient of U.S. foreign aid. The two countries also have very close security relations. Current issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales to China, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage-related cases. See also CRS [Congressional Research Services] Issue Brief IB91137, 'The Middle East Peace Talks' and CRS Report RL33222, 'U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2006-04-04
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Free Trade Agreements: Impact on U.S. Trade and Implications for U.S. Trade Policy [June 18, 2012]
From the Summary: "The 112th Congress and the Obama Administration faced the question of whether and when to act on three FTAs [Free Trade Agreements] pending from the Bush Administration-with Colombia, Panama, and South Korea. Although the Bush Administration signed these agreements, it and the leaders of the 110th Congress could not reach agreement on proceeding to enact them. No action was taken during the 111th Congress either. After discussion with congressional leaders and negotiations with the governments of Colombia, Panama, and South Korea to assuage congressional concerns regarding treatment of union officials (Colombia), taxation regimes (Panama), and trade in autos (South Korea), President Obama submitted draft implementing legislation to Congress on October 3, 2011. The 112th Congress approved each of the bills in successive votes on October 12, along with legislation to renew an aspect of the Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) program. President Obama signed the bills into law on October 21, 2011. [...] FTAs raise some important policy issues: Do FTAs serve or impede U.S. long-term national interests and trade policy objectives? Which type of an FTA arrangement meets U.S. national interests? What should U.S. criteria be in choosing FTA partners? Are FTAs a substitute for or a complement to U.S. commitments and interests in promoting a multilateral trading system via the World Trade Organization (WTO)? What effect will the expiration of TPA have on the future of FTAs as a trade policy strategy?"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cooper, William H., 1949-
2012-06-18
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Effects of Government Expenditures and Revenues on the Economy and Economic Well-Being: A Cross-National Analysis [April 5, 2006]
From the Summary: "The FY2006 budget resolution (H.Con.Res. 95) required that mandatory spending be reduced by $35 billion and revenues be reduced by no more than $70 billion over the next five years. Congress passed and the President signed a reconciliation bill (P.L. [Public Law] 109-171) to reduce mandatory spending by $39 billion between FY2006 and FY2010. A revenue reduction reconciliation bill (H.R. 4297) has not been enacted as of the date of this report. Many argue that tax and spending reductions will stimulate economic growth, whereas many others argue that tax cuts will lead to a larger deficit with adverse economic effects and that spending cuts will reduce critical government services. This report examines the effects of government spending and taxation on economic growth and economic well-being by comparing the United States with 20 other industrial Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. […] The major source of funding for government expenditures is tax revenues. Taxes have an effect on government budgets, and most people would agree that they also have an effect on the economy. The evidence suggests, however, that countries with high tax revenues relative to GDP [gross domestic product] do not generally experience lower economic growth rates than countries with lower tax revenues. Some scholars argue that countries with higher taxes to fund higher social welfare spending tend to choose the types of taxes with the smallest economic distortions. Many scholars argue that long-term budget deficits can have an adverse impact on the economy. The evidence suggests that countries with larger budget surpluses tend to have higher economic growth rates, and that sustained government budget deficits are likely to reduce long-term economic growth. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hungerford, Thomas L.
2006-04-05
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Iraq's Debt Relief: Procedure and Potential Implications for International Debt Relief [April 21, 2006]
From the Summary: "Following the ouster of the Saddam Hussein regime in spring 2003, Iraq's external debt was estimated to be $125 billion. Reducing this debt to a sustainable level has been a priority of the U.S. government. Since 2003, debt relief negotiations have taken place in a variety of fora and led to the cancellation of a significant amount of Iraq's external debt. Iraq's external debt comprised four components: Paris Club bilateral debt ($37.15 billion), non-Paris Club bilateral debt ($67.4 billion), commercial debt ($20 billion) and multilateral debt ($0.5 billion). Debt relief negotiations first led to an 80% reduction of the Paris Club debt. The Paris Club agreement also set the terms for non-Paris Club and commercial debt cancellation levels. A provision of the Paris Club agreement is that Iraq cannot accept a debt cancellation agreement with other creditors on more favorable terms than those reached with the Paris Club. Thus, Iraq is expected to receive no more than an 80% cancellation from all of its creditors. Negotiations with non-Paris Club creditors are ongoing, and resolution of the commercial debt is largely complete. The negotiations and process of providing debt relief to Iraq may shed some light on the approaches bilateral and corporate creditors take toward providing international debt relief to middle-income countries who would not be eligible for the debt relief already provided to the poorest countries. In light of Iraq's experience, three new precedents appear to have taken shape: (1) a willingness by the international community to grant a stay on the enforcement of creditor rights to collect unpaid sovereign debt; (2) an increased flexibility in Paris Club debt relief decisions; and (3) an unwillingness by successor regimes to claim that their debt is odious and repudiate it. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2006-04-21
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Peru: 2006 Elections and Issues for Congress [April 25, 2006]
From the Summary: "Peru held the first round of national presidential and parliamentary elections on April 9, 2006. No presidential candidate won over 50%, so a run-off election is necessary. The results among the top three candidates were so close, however, that election officials may not know until the end of April which two candidates will be in the run-off in late May or early June. It appears that populist Ollanta Humala will be one of the two candidates. The other will be either Lourdes Flores Nano, a conservative, or left-of-center former president Alan Garcia. Congressional concern regarding the elections will likely focus on the impact the winning candidate would have on U.S. relations with Peru. Humala campaigned on an anti-globalization platform; both Flores and Garcia generally favor free market policies. Other issues in U.S.-Peruvian relations include trade, drugs, democracy, and human rights. The two countries signed a free trade agreement that still must be approved by their respective legislatures. This report will be updated as warranted. See also CRS [Congressional Research Services] Report RS22391, 'U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement,' by M. Angeles Villarreal, and CRS Report RL30918, 'Peru: Recovery from Crisis,' by Maureen Taft-Morales."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Taft-Morales, Maureen
2006-04-25
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Iraq's New Security Forces: The Challenge of Sectarian and Ethnic Influences [Updated January 12, 2006]
From the Summary: "This report analyzes the prospects for rebuilding an inclusive Iraqi security force that transcends Iraq's various ethnic and sectarian communities. U.S. policy makers and Iraqi officials aim to create a unified Iraqi security force; however, the predominately Sunni Arab insurgency has hampered this effort, and many believe that the new Iraqi security agencies will ultimately be composed of mostly Shiite and Kurdish recruits with both communities separately maintaining their own militias. As Iraqi officials attempt to build a pluralistic political system, an important challenge will be rebuilding an inclusive Iraqi security force that does not exacerbate relations between Iraq's ethnic/religious communities and increase the likelihood of civil war. For more information on Iraq, see CRS [Congressional Research Services] Report RL31339, 'Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance', by Kenneth Katzman and CRS Report RS22323, 'Iran's Influence in Iraq', by Jeremy M. Sharp. This report will be updated periodically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2006-01-12
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Iraq: Elections, Government, and Constitution [Updated March 30, 2006]
From the Summary: "Elections in 2005 for a transitional National Assembly and government (January 30, 2005), a permanent constitution (October 15), and a permanent (four year) Council of Representatives and government (December 15) were concluded despite insurgent violence and attracted progressively increasing Sunni participation. However, escalating sectarian violence and factional infighting have delayed formation of a new government. (See CRS [Congressional Research Services] Report RL31339, 'Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security', by Kenneth Katzman.)"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2006-03-30
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Oil Industry Profit Review 2005 [April 18, 2006]
From the summary: "The increase in world oil prices that began in 2004 and continued into 2005 led to increasing revenues and net incomes for all sectors of the oil industry. In 2004 and continuing into 2005, increasing world demand, led by China, India, and the United States, created a tight market in both oil production and refining, at a time where spare capacity was already at historically low levels. In addition, in 2004 and 2005, world political events including the war in Iraq, political unrest in Nigeria, and the political climate in Venezuela, among others, contributed to a market psychology that pushed up prices. In the U.S. domestic market, the effects of hurricanes Katrina and Rita continue to be felt both in oil production and oil refining. The hurricanes also contributed to the profitability of the oil industry in the U.S. market. However, while profits were high, the oil market demonstrated its ability to supply consumers as feared shortages associated with the hurricanes were very limited. […] Independent refiners and marketers earned a 92% profit increase in 2005 compared to 2004. Valero, the largest firm in this group and the largest refiner in the United States, led the way with a 99% increase in profit and earned almost two thirds of the profit of the group as a whole. High levels of profit, coupled with declining growth rates for profit, appear likely to continue in 2006. The potential volatility of the world oil market leaves any forecast for the industry uncertain. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Pirog, Robert L.
2006-04-18
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Arab League Boycott of Israel [April 19, 2006]
From the Summary: "The Arab League has maintained an official boycott of Israeli companies and Israeli-made goods since the founding of Israel in 1948. The United States actively opposes the boycott and works on both bilateral and multilateral fronts to end it. The U.S. government also enforces laws that prohibit U.S. firms from participating in the boycott. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2006-04-19
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Debt Collection Market and Selected Policy Issues [Updated June 22, 2021]
From the Introduction: "This report first provides an overview of the debt collection market, including consumer experiences during the debt collection process. It then discusses the FDCPA [Fair Debt Collection Practices Act], including the CFPB [Consumer Financial Protection Bureau]'s recently finalized regulations. Lastly, the report discusses selected policy issues pertaining to debt collection: communication frequency; time-barred and obsolete debt; validation issues; medical debt and credit reporting; and federal, state, and local government debt."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cooper, Cheryl R.
2021-06-22
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Crack Cocaine Offenses and the First Step Act of 2018: Overview and Implications of Terry V. United States [June 22, 2021]
From the Document: "On June 14, 2021, the Supreme Court issued an opinion in 'Terry v. United States,' [hyperlink] unanimously holding that a person convicted of possession with intent to distribute crack cocaine prior to enactment of the First Step Act of 2018 [hyperlink] is eligible for a retroactive sentence reduction under the First Step Act only if the crack offense triggered a mandatory minimum sentence. This Legal Sidebar outlines relevant background related to sentencing for criminal offenses involving crack and powder cocaine, then discusses the Supreme Court's decision in 'Terry.' The Sidebar concludes with considerations for Congress related to powder and crack cocaine sentencing."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Foster, Michael A. (Legislative attorney); Lampe, Joanna R.
2021-06-22
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Taiwan-U.S. Political Relations: New Strains and Changes [October 10, 2006]
From the Summary: "The status of Taiwan is a key issue for U.S. foreign policy and a critical point of contention in U.S. relations with China, which claims sovereignty over Taiwan. The U.S. policy framework for Taiwan was laid down in 1979 when Washington severed official relations with the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan and instead recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) as the legitimate Chinese government. The basics of that policy shift -- the Taiwan Relations Act, the 3 U.S.- China communiques, and the so-called 'six assurances' toward Taiwan -- remain in place today. But many other factors have changed dramatically. The PRC itself is a rising global economic power scarcely resembling the country it was at the Nixon opening in the 1970's. U.S. economic and political relations with the PRC have expanded and become more diverse, playing a more complex role now than they did then in U.S. calculations of its own interests. The PRC's military has grown as well, with much of its strategic planning focusing on a Taiwan contingency. […] This report reflects trends as of fall 2006. It will not be updated. For current developments in U.S.-Taiwan relations, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL33510, 'Taiwan: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy Choices.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dumbaugh, Kerry
2006-10-10
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Defense Outsourcing: The OMB Circular A-76 Policy [Updated October 5, 2006]
From the Summary: "This report provides information on the Office of Management and Budget's (OMB) Circular A-76, 'Performance of Commercial Activities,' and the impact of a related reform initiative, the Federal Activities Inventory Reform Act (FAIR) of 1998, within the Department of Defense (DOD). The Circular defines federal policy for determining whether recurring commercial activities should be transferred to performance by the private sector, or performed by federal government employees. The FAIR Act creates statutory reporting requirements for federal executive agencies, by requiring federal executive agencies to identify activities both 'inherently governmental' and those not inherently governmental, and to conduct managed competitions to determine who is best to perform the service. Competitive sourcing, through managed competitions, was a major initiative identified by the first Bush Administration's Presidential Management Agenda, and one of five government-wide initiatives to improve the management and performance of the federal government. It is likely that competitive sourcing will continue to serve as a major initiative in the second Bush Administration. […] The degree to which managed competitions, throughout the federal government, increase efficiency and save money will likely depend on the extent to which federal agencies employ OMB Circular A-76 and the FAIR Act. Congress can exercise its oversight authority by (1) monitoring federal agency progress in the implementation of OMB Circular A-76 policy and FAIR (2) determining whether cost savings are real; and (3) granting federal agencies the authority to explore alternatives to achieve costs savings besides OMB Circular A-76."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grasso, Valerie Bailey
2006-10-05
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Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Iraq and Afghanistan: Effects and Countermeasures [Updated September 25, 2006]
From the Summary: "Since October 2001, Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs, or roadside bombs) have been responsible for many of the more than 2,000 combat deaths in Iraq, and 178 combat deaths in Afghanistan. IEDs are hidden behind signs and guardrails, under roadside debris, or inside animal carcasses, and encounters with these bombs are becoming more numerous and deadly in both Iraq and Afghanistan. The threat includes vehicle-borne IEDs, in which extremists drive cars laden with explosives directly into a target. DOD efforts to counter IEDs have proven only marginally effective, and U.S. forces continue to be exposed to the threat at military checkpoints, or whenever on patrol. IEDs are increasingly being used in Afghanistan, and DOD reportedly is concerned that they might eventually be more widely used by other insurgents and terrorists worldwide. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wilson, Clay
2006-09-25
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Biofuels Incentives: A Summary of Federal Programs [July 25, 2006]
From the Summary: "With recent high energy prices and the passage of major energy legislation in 2005 (P.L. [Public Law] 109-58), there is ongoing congressional interest in promoting alternatives to petroleum fuels. Biofuels -- transportation fuels produced from plants and other organic materials -- are of particular interest. Ethanol and biodiesel, the two most widely used biofuels, receive significant government support under this law in the form of mandated fuel use, tax incentives, loan and grant programs, and certain regulatory requirements. […] This report outlines federal programs that provide direct or indirect incentives for biofuels. For each program described, the report provides details including administering agency, authorizing statute(s), annual funding, and expiration date. […] This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Yacobucci, Brent D.
2006-07-25
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Defense Surplus Equipment Disposal: Background Information [Updated September 21, 2006]
From the Summary: "The Department of Defense (DOD) has a policy for disposing of government equipment and supplies considered 'surplus' for a different mission, or deemed unnecessary to the agency's designated mission. The effort to dispose of surplus military equipment dates back to the end of World War II, when the federal government decided to reduce a massive inventory of surplus military equipment by making such equipment available to civilians."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grasso, Valerie Bailey
2006-09-21
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Bosnia and the European Union Military Force (EUFOR): Post-NATO Peacekeeping [Updated December 5, 2006]
From the Summary: "On December 2, 2004, NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] formally concluded its Stabilization Force (SFOR) mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina and handed over peace stabilization duties to a European Union force (EUFOR). The mission of the EU's Operation 'Althea' has been to ensure continued compliance with the 1995 Dayton peace agreement and contribute to a secure environment and Bosnia's efforts towards European integration. The EU recently postponed a decision to significantly reduce the 6,500-strong force until early 2007. NATO retains a small headquarters presence in Sarajevo to provide advice on defense reforms and to support counter-terrorism efforts and the apprehension of wanted war crimes suspects believed to be hiding in or transiting through Bosnia. Eleven years after Dayton, many Members of Congress remain engaged and interested in Bosnia's prospects for sustainable peace and efforts to integrate into NATO and the EU; the 110th Congress is likely to maintain this interest. This report may be updated as events warrant. See also CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS22324, 'Bosnia: Overview of Current Issues', by Julie Kim."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie
2006-12-05
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Project BioShield [Updated September 27, 2006]
From the Summary: "Many potential biological terrorism agents lack available countermeasures. President Bush proposed Project BioShield to address this need. The 108th Congress considered this proposal in S. 15, S. 1504, and H.R. 2122. President Bush signed S. 15 into law on July 21, 2004 (The Project BioShield Act of 2004, P.L. [Public Law] 108-276). The main provisions of this law include (1) relaxing procedures for bioterrorism-related procurement, hiring, and awarding of research grants; (2) guaranteeing a federal government market for new biomedical countermeasures; and (3) permitting emergency use of unapproved countermeasures. Project BioShield countermeasure procurement is funded by the Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2004 (P.L. 108- 90) which advance-appropriated $5.593 billion for FY2004-FY2013. Additional measures to encourage countermeasure development are being considered by the 109th Congress in S. 3 (Gregg), S. 975 (Lieberman), S. 1873 (Burr), S. 1880 (Kennedy), S. 2564 (Burr), and H.R. 5533 (Rogers). This report will be updated in response to legislative developments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gottron, Frank
2006-09-27
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Methyl Bromide and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion [Updated September 26, 2006]
From the Summary: "Methyl Bromide (MeBr), a widely used pesticide in agriculture, is regulated for its potential ozone-depleting effects in the Earth's stratosphere. Controls on production, emissions, and trade are mandated internationally under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (the 'Protocol') and domestically under Title VI of the U.S. Clean Air Act (CAA). Production for 'nonessential' uses was banned December 31, 2004, but the Protocol still regulates post-2004 production for 'critical uses.' U.S. agribusinesses have sought Critical Use Exemptions from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to treat commodities with MeBr after the ban. Exemptions are resisted by some Protocol parties and environmental advocates who seek a rapid, definitive ban on production 'and' use. Chemical companies maintain they cannot foresee development of effective chemical substitutes for all uses of MeBr in the near term, and agricultural producers indicate they may have to rely on less economical and less effective treatments. Production allowances for MeBr for 2005-2007 were approved under the Protocol and the EPA has approved allocation for registered users. Its production in decline, the EPA has stated it may permit commercial trade of pre-2005 manufactured MeBr. This report is updated as warranted."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morrissey, Wayne A.
2006-09-26
