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Director of National Intelligence and Intelligence Analysis [Updated February 11, 2005]
"The 9/11 Commission made a number of recommendations to improve the quality of intelligence analysis. A key recommendation was the establishment of a Director of National Intelligence (DNI) position to manage the national intelligence effort and serve as the principal intelligence adviser to the President - along with a separate director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Subsequently, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, P.L. 108-458, made the DNI the principal adviser to the President on intelligence and made the DNI responsible for coordinating communitywide intelligence estimates. Some observers note that separating the DNI from the analytical offices may complicate the overall analytical effort."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2005-02-11
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Federal Advisory Committees: A Primer [Updated March 20, 2007]
From the Summary: "Federal advisory committees are frequently chartered by the Chief Executive, Congress, and agency heads to render independent advice and to make recommendations. By virtue of their ad hoc status, advisory committees can circumvent normal bureaucratic constraints to provide diverse points of view in matters of public policy within a definite time frame. Whether designated as commissions, committees, councils, or task forces, these independent study bodies have dealt with social crises, policy issues, and technical problems of major proportions. Commissions provide a flexible option, since their composition, organization, and working arrangements may be varied through the specific mandates establishing them. […] This report sets forth definitions and requirements for creating commissions as required by FACA. Twelve commissions were created by the Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act (112 Stat. 2681), and are used here to illustrate the various options that are available for creating independent study bodies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Stephanie
2007-03-20
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Petroleum Refining: Economic Performance and Challenges for the Future [Updated March 23, 2007]
From the Summary: "The petroleum refining industry provides products that are critical to the functioning of the economy. Virtually all transportation, land, sea, and air, is fueled by products that are refined from crude oil. Industrial, residential, and commercial activities, as well as electricity generation, use petroleum-based products. Along with volatile changes in crude oil prices, the industry has faced evolving health, safety, and environmental requirements which have changed and multiplied product specifications and required capital investment in refineries. Since the late 1990s, the industry has undergone significant structural change which might alter its profitability requirements, its ability to provide stable product volumes to the consuming market, and its ability to adapt to current and future environmental requirements. […] To the extent that continued capacity expansion and technological investments are reduced, or not undertaken, because of low historical rates of return, even though recent returns are higher, U.S. dependence on imported refined products might increase, or product markets could be disrupted by shortages and price spikes. As the 110th Congress considers energy legislation, it is likely to be concerned with domestic energy security and market stability, issues linked to the performance of the petroleum refining industry. Increased imports of refined products, particularly motor gasoline, combined with growing imports of crude oil, could make the United States increasingly vulnerable to shocks originating in the world oil market. Importing motor gasoline into the United States in appropriate volumes may become increasingly difficult because of the unavailability of world supplies consistent with U.S. fuel specification requirements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Pirog, Robert L.
2007-03-23
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United Nations Human Rights Council: Issues for Congress [Updated March 9, 2007]
From the Summary: "On March 15, 2006, the U.N. General Assembly passed a resolution replacing the Commission on Human Rights with a new Human Rights Council (the Council). The U.N. Secretariat and some governments, including the United States, view the establishment of the Council as a key component of comprehensive U.N. reform. The Council was designed to be an improvement over the Commission, which was widely criticized for the composition of its membership when perceived human rights abusers were elected as members. The General Assembly resolution creating the Council, among other things, increases the number of meetings per year, reduces the number of Council seats from 53 to 47, and introduces a 'universal periodic review' process to assess each Member State's fulfillment of its human rights obligations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchfield, Luisa
2007-03-09
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Intelligence Issues for Congress [Updated April 12, 2007]
From the Summary: "To address the challenges facing the U.S. Intelligence Community in the 21st century, congressional and executive branch initiatives have sought to improve coordination among the different agencies and to encourage better analysis. In December 2004, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. 108- 458) was signed, providing for a Director of National Intelligence (DNI) with substantial authorities to manage the national intelligence effort. The legislation also established a separate Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Congressional concerns with intelligence capabilities are reflected in FY2007 intelligence authorization legislation (S. 372). […] International terrorism, a major threat facing the United States in the 21st century, presents a difficult analytical challenge. Techniques for acquiring and analyzing information on small groups of plotters differ significantly from those used to evaluate the military capabilities of other countries. U.S. intelligence efforts are complicated by unfilled requirements for foreign language expertise. […] Intelligence support to military operations continues to be a major responsibility of intelligence agencies. The use of precision guided munitions depends on accurate, real-time targeting data; integrating intelligence data into military operations will require changes in organizational relationships as well as acquiring necessary technologies. Counterterrorism requires the close coordination of intelligence and law enforcement agencies, but there remain many institutional and procedural issues that complicate cooperation between the two sets of agencies. This report, which replaces Issue Brief IB10012 of the same name, will be updated as new information becomes available."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2007-04-12
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U.S. and Coalition Military Operations in Afghanistan: Issues for Congress [Updated March 27, 2007]
From the Summary: "The U.S. military has been involved in Afghanistan since the fall of 2001 when Operation Enduring Freedom toppled the Taliban regime and attacked the Al Qaeda terrorist network hosted by the Taliban. A significant U.S. military presence in the country could continue for many years as U.S., North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Coalition, and Afghan National Army (ANA) forces attempt to stabilize the country by defeating the insurgency, facilitating reconstruction, and combating Afghanistan's illegal drug trade. Despite NATO's assumption of command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), the United States will remain the largest troop contributing nation and will continue Operation Enduring Freedom, intended to locate and destroy insurgents and terrorists operating in Afghanistan. Acting on a 2006 request by NATO senior leaders for additional troops, the United States, Great Britain, and possibly Poland will together send approximately 6,000 additional troop to help combat insurgents. Insurgent activity continues to evolve, with some of the tactics and techniques being used by Afghan insurgents reportedly similar to those employed in Iraq. Reports suggest that instead of building a 70,000 soldier Afghan National Army as agreed to in the 2002 Bonn Conference, the Administration intends to support a 50,000 soldier force, while some Afghan officials suggest that a 150,000 man Afghan National Army will be needed to insure both internal and external security. Senior U.S. officials have also stated that the Afghan National Army needs to be significantly better equipped if it is to become an effective security force."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2007-03-27
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Iraq: U.S. Military Operations [Updated March 23, 2007]
From the Summary: "The major challenges to coalition forces are now quelling a persistent Iraqi resistance movement and training/retaining sufficient Iraqi security forces to assume responsibility for the nations domestic security. Though initially denying that there was an organized resistance movement, DOD officials have now acknowledged there is regional/local organization, with apparently ample supplies of arms and funding. CENTCOM has characterized the Iraqi resistance as "a classical guerrilla-type campaign." DOD initially believed the resistance to consist primarily of former regime supporters and foreign fighters; however, it has now acknowledged that growing resentment of coalition forces and an increase in sectarian conflicts, independent of connections with the earlier regime, are contributing to the insurgency. Joint counterinsurgency operations involving both U.S. and Iraqi forces are being intensified in Baghdad and al-Anbar province, focusing on a "clear, hold, and build" strategy. According to DOD, as of February 3, 2007, 3,091 U.S. troops had died in Iraq operations. There have been more than 23,417 U.S. personnel wounded or injured since military operations began. Non-U.S. Coalition fatalities have totaled 258, while Iraqi security force fatalities from June 2003 through March 11, 2007, are estimated to be 6,260. The latest unclassified DOD statistics indicate that as of March 1, about 137,900 U.S. troops are in Iraq, and an additional 20,000 military support personnel in the region. An additional 24,500 troops are now scheduled for accelerated deployment of over the next few months. About 14,100 non-U.S. troops are also in theater, with Britain being the largest contributor."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bowman, Steve
2007-03-23
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Arab League Boycott of Israel [April 12, 2007]
From the Summary: "The Arab League, an umbrella organization comprising 23 Middle Eastern and African countries and entities, has maintained an official boycott of Israeli companies and Israeli-made goods since the founding of Israel in 1948. The boycott is administered by the Damascus-based Central Boycott Office, a specialized bureau of the Arab League. […] The U.S. government has often been at the forefront of international efforts to end the boycott and its enforcement. Despite U.S. efforts, however, many Arab League countries continue to support the boycott's enforcement. U.S. legislative action related to the boycott dates from 1959 and includes multiple statutory provisions expressing U.S. opposition to the boycott, usually in foreign assistance legislation. In 1977, Congress passed laws making it illegal for U.S. companies to cooperate with the boycott and authorizing the imposition of civil and criminal penalties against U.S. violators. U.S. companies are required to report to the Department of Commerce any requests to comply with the Arab League Boycott. In FY2006, U.S. companies submitted 1,291 reports on boycott-related requests. During the same period, penalties for violating U.S. anti-boycott legislation worth $95,950 were levied on nine companies to settle allegations they violated U.S. antiboycott provisions, an increase from five cases and $57,000 in FY2005."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2007-04-12
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Group of Eight Summits: Evolution and Possible Reform [Updated March 29, 2007]
From the Summary: "The Group of Eight (G8) summit is a forum to informally discuss and create policies on major foreign policy issues among the heads of state of the United States, France, Germany, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, Japan, and Russia. The 2007 summit will be hosted by Germany and is scheduled to take place in Heilegendamm on June 6-8, 2007. This report discusses the evolution of the G8 and possible reform as background for the meeting. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2007-03-29
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Military Support to the Severely Disabled: Overview of Service Programs [Updated March 29, 2007]
From the Summary: "Ongoing military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan have caused serious injuries to some military personnel. Many have been returned to medical facilities in the U.S., especially Walter Reed Army Medical Center, the National Naval Medical Center, and Brooke Army Medical Center. These severe and traumatic injuries - including amputations, burns, blindness, brain injury, and paralysis - often create significant hardships for the affected individuals that make independent living difficult or impossible. For example, an injured service member may need extensive physical therapy, transportation assistance, and job retraining in order to make the transition back to civilian life. In 2003 and 2004, some pointed out inadequacies in the military's ability to provide these services to its seriously injured personnel. Members of Congress have frequently expressed concern about the level of care for these wounded warriors and their family members. The Department of Defense (DOD) and each of the military services have established new programs to care for the severely disabled, ensuring rehabilitative assistance and easing the transition back to civilian life. Congress has followed these initiatives with interest and recently directed DOD to develop policies and procedures to standardize these programs. This report examines the background for the new initiatives and provides a status of each program, including contact information. This report will be updated as these programs continue to evolve and mature."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Henning, Charles A.
2007-03-29
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Homeland Security: Coast Guard Operations, Background and Issues for Congress [Updated April 13, 2007]
From the Summary: "The Coast Guard is the lead federal agency for maritime homeland security. For FY2008, the Coast Guard is requesting a total of about $4.5 billion, or a bit more than half its total proposed budget, for the five missions defined in The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296) as the Coast Guard's homeland security missions. The Coast Guard's homeland security operations pose several potential issues for Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2007-04-13
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Defense Contracting in Iraq: Issues and Options for Congress [Updated March 26, 2007]
From the Summary: "The Department of Defense (DOD) is the largest agency in the federal government. It obligated nearly $270 billion on contracts for goods and services in FY2005 - an 88% increase over the amount obligated in the year 2000. The growth in DOD spending has been primarily for the acquisition of services. Furthermore, there has been a substantial shift in the types of contracts for troop support services, the size of the contracts, and the lack of effective management control over the administration of the contracts, and the oversight of the contractors. These new contracts have characteristics that make oversight difficult. One factor is that the concept of 'full and open competition ' has been historically the guiding principle by which the federal government has awarded contracts. Yet the majority of contracts for troop support services in Iraq have been awarded on a 'noncompetitive ' or sole-source basis. This report will examine logistical support contracts for troop support services (also known as service contracts) in Iraq, primarily administered through the United States' (U.S.) Army's Logistics Civil Augmentation Program (LOGCAP). Four broad areas will be discussed, including (1) contract administration; (2) contract costs, the development of contract requirements, and the use of no-bid, sole-source contracts, and costs-reimbursement contracts; (3) transparency; and (4) the acquisition workforce."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grasso, Valerie Bailey
2007-03-26
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War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [Updated March 8, 2007]
From the Summary: "Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether or not Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This report does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with the congressional authorization for the action and the application and effectiveness of the War Powers Resolution. The purpose of the War Powers Resolution (P.L. 93-148, passed over President Nixon's veto on November 7, 1973) is to ensure that Congress and the President share in making decisions that may get the United States involved in hostilities. Compliance becomes an issue whenever the President introduces U.S. forces abroad in situations that might be construed as hostilities or imminent hostilities. Criteria for compliance include prior consultation with Congress, fulfillment of the reporting requirements, and congressional authorization. If the President has not complied fully, the issue becomes what action Congress should take to bring about compliance or to influence U.S. policy. A related issue has been congressional authorization of U.N. peacekeeping or other U.N.-sponsored actions. For over three decades, war powers and the War Powers Resolution have been an issue in U.S. military actions in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Central America, and Europe."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2007-03-08
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Navy Force Structure: Alternative Force Structure Studies of 2005---Background for Congress [April 9, 2007]
From the Summary: "This CRS [Congressional Research Service] report summarizes three studies submitted to Congress in 2005 on potential future Navy ship force structures, and is intended as a lasting reference source on these three studies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2007-04-09
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U.S. Trade with Developing Countries: Trends, Prospects, and Policy Implications [March 28, 2007]
From the Summary: "Developing countries, a heterogeneous group of low- and middle-income countries, have become an increasingly significant factor in U.S. trade flows and trade policy over the last two or more decades. Their influence is reflected in the issues on the trade agenda of the 110th Congress: the possible renewal of fast track trade authority/Trade Promotion Authority; implementing legislation for free trade agreements; re-authorization of trade adjustment assistance (TAA) for workers and firms; review and possible re-authorization of Generalized System of Preferences and other trade preference programs; and oversight of the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) round negotiations in the WTO. The growth of developing countries' economies and foreign trade presents the United States with opportunities and challenges. The imports from many developing economies provide U.S. consumers with an ever widening range of choices of products at lower prices, raising real incomes and contributing to a higher U.S. standard of living. A number of the developing countries have also become robust markets for U.S. exports because of rapid economic growth and trade liberalization. […] Trade with developing countries also raises a set of virtually unique issues regarding labor rights, environment protection, intellectual property rights, among others, that have become fixtures on the U.S. trade agenda. At the same time, developing countries are challenging U.S. policies on trade remedies, high tariffs on wearing apparel and other import-sensitive products, pricing of medicines, and the temporary entry of foreign workers. If current trade trends hold, developing countries can be expected to account for increasing shares of U.S. exports and imports and for world trade. As a result, these opportunities and challenges will likely continue, if not expand."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cooper, William H., 1949-
2007-03-28
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Greenhouse Gas Reductions: California Action and the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative [April 13, 2007]
From the Summary: "In the absence of a federal program requiring greenhouse gas reductions, a growing group of U.S. states are taking action in this arena. Significant actions have been undertaken in California and by a coalition of states from the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions. California has undertaken several initiatives that seek to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 2004, the state issued regulations to reduce greenhouse gases from motor vehicles. Eleven other states have formally adopted California's new vehicle requirements. In 2006, California passed two climate change statutes. The first would establish a statewide cap on greenhouse gases. The second would effectively limit the use of coal-generated electricity in California. The state has also taken action to reduce the carbon intensity in its transportation fuels. The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), a partnership of eight Northeast and Mid-Atlantic states, would set up a cap-and-trade system aimed at limiting carbon dioxide emissions from power plants. The cap is scheduled to take effect in January 2009 and cap carbon dioxide emissions at 121 million metric tons through the end of 2014. In 2015, the cap would begin to decrease, so that by 2018, emissions would be capped at 10% below the initial level. Because some observers see RGGI as a possible model for a federal cap-and-trade program, several of RGGI's design elements are generating interest and debate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2007-04-13
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Bosnia: Overview of Current Issues [Updated March 7, 2007]
From the Summary: "Over 11 years have passed since the Dayton accords ended the 1992-1995 Bosnian war. Bosnia-Herzegovina continues to make gradual progress toward integration into Euro-Atlantic institutions, but with ongoing international engagement. Bosnia held nationwide elections on October 1, 2006; the results highlighted opposing ethnic positions and produced no clear consensus on many key issues regarding Bosnia's foundations and future. Notably, a U.S.-backed package of major constitutional reforms to strengthen Bosnia's central state institutions narrowly failed a parliamentary vote in April 2006 and now appears to be largely on hold. Meanwhile, international community plans to substantially reduce its overseeing role in Bosnia in 2007 have been put off until mid-2008. In December 2006, Bosnia formally joined NATO's Partnership for Peace (PfP) program. Bosnia is in talks with the European Union on finalizing a stabilization and association agreement, a first step toward eventual EU accession. This report provides an overview of prominent current issues concerning Bosnia that may be of interest to Members of the 110th Congress and may be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie
2007-03-07
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Wireless Technology and Spectrum Demand: Advanced Wireless Services [Updated November 1, 2007]
From the Summary: "Advances in wireless telecommunications technology are converging with Internet technology to foster new generations of applications and services. Presently, the United States and other countries are moving to third-generation (3G) and fourth-generation (4G) mobile telephony. A related trend is the growth in use of Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) and WiMAX (an industry designation for a type of broadband standard). Wi-Fi uses local wireless networks for high-speed (broadband) mobile access to the Internet. WiMAX uses broadband wireless to link fixed points and also supports mobile devices. From the perspective of spectrum management, a significant difference in the technologies is that 3G, 4G, and WiMAX services operate on designated, licensed frequencies, while Wi-Fi shares unlicenced spectrum with other uses. From the perspective of spectrum policy, a key difference between licensed and unlicensed use is that the market for services delivered over licensed frequencies is developed by the license-holder whereas demand for services on unlicensed frequencies is developed by the manufacturers of the devices. As the markets for Wi-Fi and WiMAX expand, policy issues before Congress include the competitive impact on commercial wireless carriers when municipalities offer wireless broadband services, promoting the development of broadband wireless access, and assuring the availability of appropriate spectrum."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moore, L. K. S. (Linda K. S.)
2007-11-01
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NAFTA at Ten: Lessons from Recent Studies [February 13,2004]
From the Summary: "On January 1, 2004, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) completed its tenth year and most of its provisions are now implemented. NAFTA is a free trade agreement (FTA) that effectively added Mexico to the U.S.-Canada FTA completed in 1989. Its anniversary has sparked numerous evaluations, which are particularly relevant as the United States pursues free trade agreements with multiple Latin American countries. Most studies found that NAFTA's effects on the U.S. and Mexican economies to be modest at most. This report provides an analytical summary of the economic lessons reached in support of Congress's role in the trade policy process. It will be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)
2004-02-13
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H.R. 1 (Implementing the 9/11 Commission Recommendations Act of 2007) and S. 4 (Improving America's Security Act of 2007): A Comparative Analysis [March 29, 2007]
From the Summary: "This comparative analysis of H.R. 1 (Implementing the 9/11Commission Recommendations Act of 2007) and S. 4 (Improving America's Security Act of 2007) is an assessment of major similarities and differences between the two bills as passed by the House (January 9, 2007) and Senate (March 13, 2007) and under conference consideration. References to the two bills are to engrossed versions. The presentation is organized to follow the basic construct of the House bill because its coverage remained more stable through the legislative process and as the analyses began. Titles unique to S. 4 follow the Titles of H.R. 1. CRS [Congressional Research Service] experts are available to follow up on any additional needs, including clarification of content or of legislative references; each section of the analysis includes contact information for the analyst or attorney who prepared it. CRS also provides online access to research products that directly address a number of issues that are the focus of or are raised by H.R. 1 and S. 4. These products are available under the CRS homepage heading 'Terrorism and Homeland Security' (see [http://www.crs.gov])."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruner, Edward F.
2007-03-29
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Coast Guard Deepwater Program: Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress [Updated April 20, 2007]
From the Summary: "The Integrated Deepwater Systems (IDS) program, or Deepwater program for short, is a $24-billion, 25-year project to replace and modernize the Coast Guard's aging fleet of deepwater-capable ships and aircraft. It is the largest and most complex acquisition effort in Coast Guard history, encompassing 91 new cutters, 124 new small surface craft, and 244 new or converted airplanes, helicopters, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The Deepwater program has received a total of about $4.4 billion through FY2007, including about $1.14 billion in FY2007. The Coast Guard's proposed FY2008 budget requests $836.9 million for the program. The management and execution of the Deepwater program has been strongly criticized in recent months by the Department of Homeland Security Inspector General (DHS IG), the Defense Acquisition University (DAU), the Government Accountability Office (GAO), several Members of Congress from committees and subcommittees that oversee the Coast Guard, and other observers. House and Senate committees and subcommittees have conducted several oversight hearings this year devoted partly or entirely to problems and concerns regarding the management and execution of the program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2007-04-20
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Coast Guard Deepwater Program: Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress [Updated April 3, 2007]
From the Summary: "The Integrated Deepwater Systems (IDS) program, or Deepwater program for short, is a $24-billion, 25-year project to replace and modernize the Coast Guard's aging fleet of deepwater-capable ships and aircraft. It is the largest and most complex acquisition effort in Coast Guard history, encompassing 91 new cutters, 124 new small surface craft, and 244 new or converted airplanes, helicopters, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The Deepwater program has received a total of about $4.4 billion through FY2007, including about $1.14 billion in FY2007. The Coast Guard's proposed FY2008 budget requests $836.9 million for the program. The Coast Guard is pursuing the Deepwater program as a system-of-systems acquisition project, under which a combination of cutters, patrol boats, aircraft, supporting communications equipment, and logistic support is to be procured as a single, integrated package. To execute this system-of-systems acquisition approach, the Coast Guard is using a lead system integrator (LSI) - a private-sector entity responsible for designing, building, and integrating the various elements of the package. The management and execution of the Deepwater program has been strongly criticized in recent weeks by the Department of Homeland Security Inspector General (DHS IG), the Defense Acquisition University (DAU), the Government Accountability Office (GAO), several Members of Congress from committees and subcommittees that oversee the Coast Guard, and other observers. Between late- January and mid-February 2007, House and Senate committees and subcommittees conducted several oversight hearings devoted partly or entirely to problems and concerns regarding the management and execution of the program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2007-04-03
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FY2007 Supplemental Appropriations for Defense, Foreign Affairs, and Other Purposes [Updated March 28, 2007]
From the Summary: "On March 23, by a vote of 218-212, the House approved H.R. 1591, a bill providing $124 billion in supplemental appropriations for FY2007 and requiring the redeployment of U.S. troops out of Iraq. The bill's rule allowed no amendments and opponents did not offer a motion to recommit. The Senate Appropriations Committee marked up and reported its version of a supplemental appropriations bill, S. 965, on March 22, and floor action began on March 26. The Senate took up the House-passed bill and substituted the text of S. 965, and subsequent debate in the Senate has proceeded using the House number, H.R. 1591. The House-passed bill includes a Democratic leadership plan that sets three alternative timetables for withdrawal from Iraq. It requires the President to certify by July 1, 2007, that Iraq is making progress toward specific security and political benchmarks and to certify by October 1, 2007, that progress on the political benchmarks has been achieved. Redeployment of U.S. forces must be completed within 180 days after either date if the certification is not made. Withdrawal must begin, in any event, by March 1, 2008 and be completed by the end of August 2008. Forces may remain in Iraq only to protect U.S. facilities and personnel, carry on normal diplomatic activities, conduct targeted missions against members of terrorist organizations like al-Qaeda, and train Iraqi security forces. The bill also establishes requirements for unit readiness and time between deployments, and requires either that the President certify the requirements have been met or formally waive them. On spending, the House bill provides $21.3 billion more than the Administration requested. It provides $100.4 billion for defense, $7.1 billion higher than the request."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belasco, Amy; Daggett, Stephen; Towell, Pat
2007-03-28
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Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security [Updated March 27, 2007]
From the Summary: "Operation Iraqi Freedom overthrew Saddam Hussein's regime, but Iraq remains unstable because of Sunni Arab resentment and a related insurgency, compounded by Sunni-Shiite violence that a January 2007 national intelligence estimate (NIE) says has key elements of a "civil war." Mounting U.S. casualties and financial costs - without clear improvements in levels of violence - have intensified a debate within the United States over whether to wind down U.S. involvement without completely accomplishing initial U.S. goals. U.S. Defense Department reports, the December 6, 2006, report of the Iraq Study Group, and the NIE express pessimism about security in Iraq, although U.S. officials say the 2007 Baghdad security plan is producing some reduction of sectarian violence. In an effort to counter these trends, President Bush addressed the nation on new initiatives in Iraq on January 10, 2007 and announced a deployment of at least an additional 21,500 U.S. combat forces to help stabilize Baghdad and restive Anbar Province, as well as other measures to create jobs and promote political reconciliation. He and other officials have asserted that the new security plan would build on important successes: two elections (January and December 2005) that chose an interim and then a full-term parliament and government; a referendum that adopted a permanent constitution (October 15, 2005); progress in building Iraq's security forces; and economic growth. While continuing to build, equip, and train Iraqi security units, the Administration has worked to include more Sunni Arabs in the power structure, particularly the security institutions. Some in Congress - as well as the Iraq Study Group - believe that the United States should begin winding down U.S. combat involvement in Iraq."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2007-03-27
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Free Trade Agreements: Impact on U.S. Trade and Implications for U.S. Trade Policy [Updated November 1, 2007]
From the Summary: "Free trade areas (FTAs) are arrangements among two or more countries under which they agree to eliminate tariffs and nontariff barriers on trade in goods among themselves. However, each country maintains its own policies, including tariffs, on trade outside the region. In the last few years, the United States has engaged or has proposed to engage in negotiations to establish bilateral and regional free trade arrangements with a number of trading partners. Such arrangements are not new in U.S. trade policy. The United States has had a free trade arrangement with Israel since 1985 and with Canada since 1989, which was expanded to include Mexico and became the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) effective in January 1994. […] FTAs raise some important policy issues for the 110th Congress as it considers implementing legislation and monitors negotiations as part of its oversight responsibilities: Do FTAs serve or impede U.S. long-term national interests and trade policy objectives? Which type of an FTA arrangement meets U.S. national interests? What should U.S. criteria be in choosing FTA partners? Are FTAs a substitute for or a complement to U.S. commitments and interests in promoting a multilateral trading system via the World Trade Organization (WTO)? TPA expired as of July 1, 2007. What effect will that have on the future of FTAs as a trade policy strategy? This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cooper, William H., 1949-
2007-11-01
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Voluntary Carbon Offsets: Overview and Assessment [November 7, 2007]
From the Summary: "Businesses and individuals are buying carbon offsets to reduce their 'carbon footprint' or to categorize an activity as 'carbon neutral.' A carbon offset is a measurable avoidance, reduction, or sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) or other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Offsets generally fall within the following four categories: biological sequestration, renewable energy, energy efficiency, and reduction of non-CO2 emissions. In terms of the carbon concentration in the atmosphere, an emission reduction, avoidance, or sequestration is beneficial regardless of where or how it occurs. A credible offset equates to an emission reduction from a direct emission source, such as a smokestack or exhaust pipe. The core issue for carbon offset projects is: do they actually 'offset' emissions generated elsewhere? If the credibility of the voluntary offsets is uncertain, claims of carbon neutrality may be challenged. […] The viability of the voluntary offset market may influence future policy decisions regarding climate change mitigation. For example, credible offsets could play an important role, particularly in terms of cost-effectiveness, in an emissions control regime. There is some concern that the range in the quality of voluntary market offsets may damage the overall credibility of carbon offsets. If this occurs, it may affect policy decisions concerning whether or not to include offsets as an option in a mandatory reduction program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2007-11-07
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U.S. Military Space: Status of Selected Programs [Updated March 29, 2007]
From the Summary: "The 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act specified that military space activities be conducted by the Department of Defense (DOD). DOD and the intelligence community manage a broad array of space activities, including launch vehicle development, communications satellites, navigation satellites (the Global Positioning System - GPS), early warning satellites to alert the United States to foreign missile launches, weather satellites, reconnaissance satellites, and developing capabilities to protect U.S. satellite systems and to deny the use of space to adversaries (called "space control" or "counterspace systems"). The 1990-1991 Persian Gulf War is dubbed by some as the first "space war" because support from space displayed great improvement over what was available during the previous major conflict, Vietnam. These systems continue to play significant roles in U.S. military operations. How to organize DOD and the intelligence community to work effectively on space programs has been an issue for many years. Tracking the DOD space budget is extremely difficult since space is not identified as a separate line item in the DOD budget. Additionally, DOD sometimes releases only partial information (omitting funding for classified programs) or will suddenly release without explanation new figures for prior years that are quite different from what was previously reported."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Figliola, Patricia Moloney
2007-03-29
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Ecuador: Political and Economic Situation and U.S. Relations [Updated July 23, 2007]
From the Summary: "Ecuador, a small, oil-producing country in the conflicted Andean region of South America, has recently experienced severe political and economic instability. On January 15, 2007, Rafael Correa, a left-leaning, U.S.-trained economist, was inaugurated to a four-year term as President of Ecuador, becoming the country's eighth president in ten years. President Correa is fulfilling his campaign pledge to call a constituent assembly to reform the country's constitution. However, he has yet to enact his other campaign promises, which included renegotiating Ecuador's foreign debt and increasing state control over foreign oil companies. On April 15, 2007, 82% of Ecuadorians voted in favor of convoking a constituent assembly with the power to dismiss currently elected officials, despite vehement protests from the opposition-led congress. Elections for constituent assembly delegates are scheduled for September 30, 2007. Ecuador has traditionally had close relations with the United States, although recent trade disputes have strained bilateral relations. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about Correa's ties with Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and his stated policies regarding trade, energy, and counternarcotics matters. Despite those concerns, Congress enacted legislation in June 2007 to extend U.S. trade preferences for Ecuador through February 30, 2008. This report will be updated periodically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seelke, Clare Ribando
2007-07-23
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Afghanistan: Government Formation and Performance [Updated July 19, 2007]
From the Summary: "Post-Taliban Afghanistan has adopted a constitution and elected a president and a parliament; that body is emerging as a significant force in Afghan politics. However, the Afghan government's limited writ throughout the country and its perceived corruption have contributed to an increase in Taliban violence. See CRS Report RL30588, 'Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy', by Kenneth Katzman."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2007-07-19
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Cruise Missile Defense [Updated March 15, 2007]
From the Summary: "Congress has expressed interest in cruise missile defense for years. Cruise missiles (CMs) are essentially unmanned attack aircraft - vehicles composed of an airframe, propulsion system, guidance system, and weapons payload. They may possess highly complex navigation and targeting systems and thus have the capability to sustain low, terrain-hugging flight paths as well as strike with great accuracy. CMs can be launched from numerous platforms - air-, land-, or sea-based - and they can be outfitted with either conventional weapons or weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The Department of Defense is pursuing several initiatives that seek to improve capabilities against an unpredictable cruise missile threat. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bolkcom, Christopher C.
2007-03-15
