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Military and Civilian Satellites in Support of Allied Forces in the Persian Gulf War [February 27, 1991]
From the Summary: "The Persian Gulf War is the first large scale U.S. military action for which a large array of satellite systems is available for supporting military operations. From communications to navigation to intelligence gathering, apace assets have proved invaluable. The Department of Defense (DOD) has conducted its own space program since the Space Age began, but its activities are less well known that [sic] those of the civilian National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Since FY 1982, however, DOD's space budget has been larger than NASA's. In FY 1991, for example, the estimated DOD space budget is $18 billion compared to $13.9 billion for NASA. Most of this funding is for the development, procurement, launch, and operation of satellites for communications, navigation, weather forecasting, intelligence gathering, and early warning of missile launches (a comparatively small amount is for space weapons). There is now some debate in Congress over DOD's request to build advanced systems for some of these functions (such as the MILSTAR [Military Strategic and Tactical Relay] communications satellite program), but this paper addresses only existing space assets. DOD's space operations are the responsibility of U.S. Space Command (USSPACECOM) in Colorado Springs, Colorado; each Service has a component command. […] The Soviet Union launches a wide array of satellites, but since it did not participate in the military effort in the Persian Gulf, the only discussion of Soviet space systems in this report concerns commercially available remote sensing imagery. All the information contained in this report is from open sources."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
1991-02-27
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European Union Enlargement [Updated December 27, 2005]
From the Summary: "On May 1, 2004, 10 states joined the European Union (EU), enlarging the Union to 25 members. The EU views the enlargement process as a historic opportunity to promote stability and prosperity in Europe. In addition to the 10 new members (Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia), Bulgaria and Romania hope to accede to the EU in 2007. Turkey and Croatia began accession negotiations in October 2005. Macedonia was named as a candidate for EU membership in December 2005. This report will be updated as necessary. For additional information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS21372, 'The European Union: Questions and Answers', by Kristin Archick, and CRS Report RL32071, 'Turkey: Update on Selected Issues', by Carol Migdalovitz."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2005-12-27
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Navy DD(X) and CG(X) Programs: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated March 7, 2006]
From the Summary: "The Navy wants to procure 7 DD(X) destroyers and 19 CG(X) cruisers. The first two DD(X)s are to be procured in FY2007, with each ship being split-funded (i.e., incrementally funded) across FY2007 and FY2008. The estimated cost of each of the first two ships is $3,291 million, for a total of $6,582 million. The two ships have received a total of $1,010 million in FY2005 and FY2006 advance procurement funding. The FY2007 budget requests an additional $2,568 million in procurement funding for the two ships. The final $3,004 million in procurement funding for the two ships is to be requested in FY2008. The Navy estimates that the next three DD(X)s will cost an average of roughly $2.5 billion each. The total estimated procurement cost for the first five DD(X)s has increased about 3.2% from the total shown in the FY2006 budget submitted to Congress in early 2005. The first CG(X) is to be procured in FY2011. The DD(X)/CG(X) program poses several issues for Congress, the most prominent perhaps being the affordability of the DD(X)/CG(X) design. For a longer discussion of the DD(X) and CG(X), see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL32109, 'Navy DD(X), CG(X), and LCS Ship Acquisition Programs: Oversight Issues and Options for Congress', by Ronald O'Rourke. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2006-03-07
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Uganda: Recent Elections and Current Conditions [July 19, 2001]
From the Summary: "On March 12, 2001, Yoweri Museveni was re-elected president of Uganda after defeating his one- time ally, Kizza Besigye. International and regional election monitors declared the elections relatively free, although the electoral process was marred by mismanagement and sporadic violence. In the legislative elections in late June 2001, more than 50 incumbent members of Parliament were defeated, including 10 ministers. The elections were marred by violence in which an estimated 12 people were killed. Relations between Washington and Kampala are warm. The Clinton Administration championed the Museveni regime, and President Clinton visited Uganda during his 1998 tour of Africa. Relations began to cool when Ugandan troops once again intervened in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in 1998. Secretary of State Colin Powell visited Uganda during his four-nation tour of Africa in late May 2001. Powell met with President Museveni and opposition leaders to discuss a wide range of issues, including Sudan and DRC. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2001-07-19
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Navy Littoral Combat Ship (LCS): Background and Issues for Congress [Updated March 6, 2006]
From the Summary: "The Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) is a small, fast Navy surface combatant with modular weapon systems. The Navy wants to procure a total of 55. The first was procured in FY2005, three more were procured in FY2006, and the Navy's proposed FY2007 budget requests $521 million to procure two additional ships. The estimated average unit procurement cost of follow-on LCS 'sea frames' (i.e., LCSs without any mission modules) has grown to about $298 million, an increase of about 33% over last year's estimate of about $223 million. Section 124 of the conference report on the FY2006 defense authorization bill (H.R. 1815) limits the cost of the two FY2007 sea frames to $220 million per ship, plus adjustments for inflation and other factors. The Navy's FY2007 unfunded requirements list (URL) -- its 'wish list' of items desired but not included in the FY2007 budget -- includes an additional two LCSs for an additional $520 million. For a longer discussion of the LCS program, see CRS Report RL32109, 'Navy DD(X), CG(X), and LCS Ship Acquisition Programs: Oversight Issues and Options for Congress', by Ronald O'Rourke. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2006-03-06
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Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy [Updated November 1, 2007]
From the Summary: "Assessments of the U.S. effort to stabilize Afghanistan are mixed and subject to debate. The political transition was completed with the convening of a parliament in December 2005; a new constitution was adopted in January 2004, successful presidential elections were held on October 9, 2004, and parliamentary elections took place on September 18, 2005. The parliament has become an arena for factions that have fought each other for nearly three decades to debate and peacefully resolve differences. Afghan citizens are enjoying personal freedoms forbidden by the Taliban. Women are participating in economic and political life, including as ministers, provincial governors, and parliament leaders. However, the insurgency led by supporters of the Taliban movement and Al Qaeda continues to challenge U.S. and other NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] forces, particularly in the south. Contributing to the violence is popular frustration with lack of economic development, official corruption, and the failure to extend Afghan government authority into rural areas. Narcotics trafficking is resisting counter-measures and funding insurgent activity. The Afghan government and some U.S. officials blame Pakistan for failing to prevent Taliban commanders from operating from Pakistan, largely beyond the reach of U.S./NATO-led forces in Afghanistan. Yet, U.S. and NATO commanders pre-empted an anticipated 2007 'spring offensive' by the Taliban with an increase in force levels, accelerated reconstruction efforts, and combat operations. […] To help stabilize Afghanistan, the United States and partner countries are deploying a 41,000 troop NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) that now commands peacekeeping throughout Afghanistan, and running regional enclaves to secure reconstruction (Provincial Reconstruction Teams, PRTs), as well as building an Afghan National Army."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2007-11-01
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China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy Issues [Updated November 15, 2006]
From the Summary: "Congress has long been concerned about whether U.S. policy advances the national interest in reducing the role of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and missiles that could deliver them. Recipients of China's technology reportedly include Pakistan and countries that the State Department says support terrorism, such as Iran and North Korea. This CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report, updated as warranted, discusses the national security problem of China's role in weapons proliferation and issues related to the U.S. policy response, including legislation, since the mid-1990s. China has taken some steps to mollify U.S. concerns about its role in weapons proliferation. Nonetheless, supplies from China have aggravated trends that result in ambiguous technical aid, more indigenous capabilities, longer-range missiles, and secondary (retransferred) proliferation. As the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) has reported to Congress, China remains a 'key supplier' of weapons technology, particularly missile or chemical technology. […] Skeptics question whether China's cooperation in weapons nonproliferation has warranted President Bush's pursuit of stronger bilateral ties. The Administration has imposed repeated sanctions on 'entities' but not the PRC government. The House International Relations Committee held a hearing on May 18, 2004, to question U.S. support for China's membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group despite PRC ties with Pakistan. China has not joined the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI). Since 2002, Bush has relied on China's 'considerable influence' on North Korea to dismantle its nuclear weapons. China helped with the process of the Six-Party Talks and sponsored the Joint Statement of September 19, 2005, but results remain elusive. China has pursued balanced positions on Iran and North Korea, but also evolved to vote for U.N. Security Council resolutions on those countries that called for some sanctions. Questions remain about PRC sanctions after Pyongyang's nuclear test."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kan, Shirley
2006-11-15
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Unification of Germany: Background and Analysis of the Two-Plus-Four Talks [April 16, 1990]
From the Summary: "The decision of the Soviet Union to curtail sharply its presence and influence in Eastern Europe has led to a critical point in the process of resolving post-war Europe's central issue: the unification of Germany and the new Germany's role on the continent. The legal framework established in 1945 after Germany's unconditional surrender by the four allied powers -- the United States, the Soviet Union, France, and Great Britain -- has been altered by a series of agreements and by the Federal Republic of Germany's (FRG) steadily growing importance in political, economic, and security matters. The Two-plus-Four talks that include the two Germanys and the allied powers are intended to address the process of unification and the emergence of a fully sovereign German state. […] Great Britain has cautiously embraced unification and recognizes the Soviet need for reassurances as Moscow takes decisions to withdraw from Central Europe. London intends to pursue a settlement at the talks on Germany's future that will secure Bonn's continued commitment to NATO and to a politically visible nuclear umbrella for the Atlantic Alliance which includes a substantial U.S. political and military presence in Europe."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gallis, Paul E.
1990-04-16
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [Updated November 14, 2006]
From the Summary: "On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence and was immediately engaged in a war with all of its neighbors. Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a vibrant parliamentary democracy, albeit with relatively fragile governments. The Kadima Party placed first in the March 28, 2006, Knesset (parliament) election; Prime Minister Ehud Olmert formed a four-party coalition government that has been enlarged to include one more. Israel has an advanced industrial, market economy in which the government plays a substantial role. […] Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. U.S.-Israeli bilateral relations are multidimensional. The United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process, but U.S. and Israeli views have differed on various issues, such as the fate of the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and Israeli settlements. The United States and Israel concluded a free-trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. Israel has historically been the largest recipient of U.S. foreign aid. The two countries also have close security relations. Other issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales to China, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage-related cases. This report replaces CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB82008, 'Israel: Background and Relations with the United States', and will be updated as developments warrant. See also CRS Report RL33530, 'Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy', CRS Report RL33566, 'Lebanon: The Israel-Hamas-Hezbollah Conflict', and CRS Report RL33222, 'U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2006-11-14
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International Monetary Fund: Reforming Country Representation [Updated January 17, 2007]
From the Summary: "Many developing countries have long argued that they deserve an increase in the influence that they wield at the International Monetary Fund (IMF). They point out that after years of sustained economic growth, their representation does not reflect their current economic position in the world economy. Proposed changes would give these emerging economies as well as poor borrowers and countries that do not significantly contribute to funding IMF operations greater say in order to enhance the perceived legitimacy and effectiveness of the institution. At the spring 2006 IMF meetings, IMF Managing Director Rodrigo de Rato presented a loosely fleshed out proposal that would provide for a two-step process. In the first step, there would be a so-called ad hoc quota increase that would immediately raise the representation of a few select countries who it is commonly agreed are under-represented at the Fund and follow with fundamental reform of the IMF quota system. […] The Bush Administration has supported this proposal. In testimony and speeches throughout 2006, Administration officials explained that they are willing to support an ad-hoc increase for a few countries, but only if it is tied to fundamental reform of the IMF governance system. Depending on which course of action IMF members choose, action may be required by the 110th Congress. Congress must give its consent by law before the United States may agree to participate in any new IMF funding agreements that change the U.S. quota, require additional contributions from the United States, amend the IMF Articles of Agreement, or dispose of any gold currently held by the IMF. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2007-01-17
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German Unification [November 6, 1990]
From the Summary: "In less than a year, East Germany underwent a remarkable political transformation. A combination of massive emigration to the West and huge street demonstrations in cities throughout East Germany led to the collapse of the hard-line regime of Erich Honecker on October 18, 1989. The opening of the border between the two Germanys on November 9 and continuing deep public mistrust of the government provoked an accelerated exodus of East Germans to the West. Political debate in the country quickly shifted from how to reform East Germany to how and when East Germany should be reunited with West Germany. […] In February 1990, West Germany agreed to a 'Two-plus-Four' (the two Germanys and the four victorious allies from World War II) formula for discussing the international ramifications of unification. On September 12, 1990, these talks yielded a treaty restoring full sovereignty to a united Germany. Among the principal provisions of the treaty were agreement that a united Germany would remain in NATO, would make no future border claims, and would remain a non-nuclear state. In addition, in the event of a conventional arms agreement for Europe, Germany will radically reduce its armed forces, and Soviet forces will withdraw from eastern Germany by the end of 1994. The President sent the Treaty to the U.S. Senate on September 26, 1990. On October 10, the Senate gave its advice and consent to the Treaty."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gallis, Paul E.; Woehrel, Steven J.
1990-11-06
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Foreign Service and a New Worldwide Compensation System [Updated November 16, 2006]
From the Summary: "The George W. Bush Administration seeks to change the federal personnel system, which it characterizes as a 'one-size fits all,' longevity-based personnel and pay system, to what it describes as a market sensitive, performance-based pay system. Removing federal employees at the Departments of Defense and of Homeland Security from the General Schedule (GS) to separate performance-based systems was the first major step taken and, if fully implemented, will cover more than half of all non-uniformed federal employees. The Administration also sent to the House and the Senate the Working for America Act (WFAA), as a model for legislation to create a new Federal Schedule for the remaining federal civil service employees. (To date, WFAA has not been introduced as legislation.) […] This report, which will be updated as events unfold, discusses (1) the background leading to a proposal to change the compensation system from both an Administration perspective and labor perspective, (2) the current Foreign Service (FS) System as established in the Foreign Service Act of 1980 (P.L. [Public Law] 96-465) and why the Foreign Service views its personnel system as already a performance-based system, (3) the outlines of a new system being proposed in both bills based upon the commonalities in the bills, (4) the major difference between the two legislative proposals, and (5) a cost estimate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nakamura, Kennon H.
2006-11-16
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Techniques for Preventing a Budget Sequester [Updated March 8, 2002]
From the Summary: "For the past 17 fiscal years, beginning with FY1986, the budgetary decisions of Congress and the President have been guided in part by specific goals in statute enforced by a process known as sequestration. The statutory goals initially took the form of deficit targets, but later were changed to limits on discretionary spending (first effective for FY1991) and a 'pay-as-you-go' [PAYGO] requirement for direct spending and revenue legislation (first effective for FY1992). Five sequesters were triggered during years in which Congress and the President did not adhere to these statutory goals. No sequester has occurred, however, since FY1991. In many of the years since FY1991, Congress and the President were able to avoid a sequester by ensuring that it did not enact spending or revenue legislation in violation of the statutory goals. At times, Congress and the President had to take advantage of flexibility in the procedures, such as the ability to designate certain spending as 'emergency requirements,' in order to achieve this outcome. In other instances, however, Congress and the President prevented a sequester that otherwise would have occurred by enacting into law provisions that intervened in the normal operation of the process. […] In the remaining three cases, the statutory intervention resulted in the removal from the PAYGO scorecard of costs that would have led to a $10.5 billion sequester for FY2001 and a $130.279 billion sequester for FY2002, and that might lead to future-year sequesters. In all three instances, the legislative vehicles were annual appropriations acts considered toward the very end of the session (the Consolidated Appropriations Acts for FY2000 and FY2001 and the Defense Appropriations Act for FY2002)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Keith, Robert
2002-03-08
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Homeland Security: Evolving Roles and Missions for United States Northern Command [Updated November 16, 2006]
From the Summary: "In 2002, the Department of Defense (DOD) established United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM). Four years later, the organization continues to mature and adapt to evolving National Homeland Security Policy. Current issue areas for Congress include DOD reorganization, formalizing interagency processes and an increasing reliance on Reserve Component forces. This report will be updated as events dictate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Crowhurst, James; Bowman, Steve
2006-11-16
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Evolutionary Acquisition and Spiral Development in DOD Programs: Policy Issues for Congress [Updated May 17, 2006]
From the Summary: "The Department of Defense (DOD) in 2001 adopted a new approach for developing major weapon systems, called evolutionary acquisition with spiral development (EA/SD), as its preferred standard. EA/SD is intended to make DOD's acquisition system more responsive to rapid changes in military needs. EA/SD poses potentially important challenges for Congress in carrying out its legislative functions, particularly committing to and effectively overseeing DOD weapon acquisition programs. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Pagliano, Gary J.; O'Rourke, Ronald
2006-05-17
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Trafficking in Persons Report, June 2021
From the Document: "The COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic is a health crisis with unprecedented repercussions for human rights and economic development globally, including in human trafficking. COVID-19 generated conditions that increased the number of people who experienced vulnerabilities to human trafficking and interrupted existing and planned anti-trafficking interventions. Governments across the world diverted resources toward the pandemic, often at the expense of anti-trafficking efforts, resulting in decreased protection measures and service provision for victims, reduction of preventative efforts, and hindrances to investigations and prosecutions of traffickers. At the same time, human traffickers quickly adapted to capitalize on the vulnerabilities exposed and exacerbated by the pandemic. Despite the significant disruptions to efforts to combat this crime, the anti-trafficking community found ways to adapt and forged new relationships to overcome the challenges. Some governments and organizations conducted in-depth assessments to identify the changing trends. Others leveraged technology to drive innovative solutions. Many aligned policies and practices to current realities. Nonetheless, the challenges uncovered by COVID-19 are monumental and may be long lasting, requiring sustained collaboration among governments, civil society organizations, private sector leaders, survivor leaders, and other anti-trafficking actors to adjust and respond aptly to overcome these challenges. As a result, this year's TIP [Trafficking in Persons] Report introduction highlights human trafficking issues related to COVID-19, with special focus on how anti-trafficking stakeholders adapted in rapidly changing environments."
United States. Department of State
2021-06
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Walter Reed Army Medical Center (WRAMC) and Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-76: Implications for the Future [Updated October 10, 2007]
From the Summary: "This report examines the issues surrounding the recent Walter Reed public-private competition conducted under OMB [Office of Management and Budget] Circular A-76 and its potential impact on future Department of Defense competitions. Circular A-76 is a policy and a process first initiated in 1966 that was designed to determine whether federal employees or private sector contractors are best to perform activities deemed commercial. A series of articles that first appeared in the 'Washington Post' chronicled the dilapidated conditions and the substandard medical treatment afforded to returning veterans. Media reports surrounding the competition have suggested that one possible contributing factor to the Walter Reed controversy was the decision to privatize base support services. […] Some have suggested that constrained Army resources, due to a convergence of events, may have caused and/or contributed to the problems in the competition, and may have led to the attrition of skilled base support services staff. Other factors which may have affected the process were the entry of the United States into combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, a 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommendation for the consolidation of Army and Navy military medical services into a single tertiary hospital at the campus of the Bethesda Naval Hospital (effectively closing the Walter Reed campus), a surge in the number of outpatient medical care visits for veterans returning from the war; and the Army's push to achieve the Bush Administration's competitive sourcing goals. The Walter Reed A-76 competition is a case where a lot of things went wrong. Some assert that for some types of settings (like military medical facilities) conducting A-76 competitions may not be the most appropriate vehicle for saving money. Congress may want to act so that what happened at Walter Reed not happen elsewhere. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grasso, Valerie Bailey
2007-10-10
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AIDS in Africa [Updated February 2, 2008]
From the Summary: "Sub-Saharan Africa ('Africa' hereafter) has been more severely affected by AIDS than any other world region. In 2007, the United Nations reports, there were about 22.5 million HIV-positive persons in Africa, which has nearly 12% of the world's population but about 68% of the global total of infected persons. The adult rate of infection in Africa in late 2005 was 6.1%, compared with 1% worldwide, but had dropped to 5% by 2007, compared to .8% worldwide. Nine southern African countries have infection rates above 10%. In 2007, 35% of all people living globally with HIV lived in Southern Africa, where 32% of all global new HIV infections and AIDS deaths occurred. About 90% of infected children globally live in Africa, where about 61% of infected adults are women. As many as 30 million Africans may have died of AIDS since 1982, including 1.6 million who died in 2007, accounting for about 76% of global AIDS deaths in 2007. AIDS has surpassed malaria as the leading cause of death in Africa. It kills many more Africans than does war. […] Congress is likely to re-authorize PEPFAR [President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief], which expires after FY2008, or create a successor program. Other bills in the 110th Congress that focus on AIDS in Africa include S. 805 (Durbin), H.R. 3812 (Lee), H.R. 1713 (Lee), S. 2415 (Clinton), and S.Con.Res.31. Global AIDS appropriations are discussed in other CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports cited within this report, which will be updated periodically."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cook, Nicolas
2008-02-02
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U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions [Updated December 13, 2006]
From the Summary: "When President George W. Bush announced his principles for immigration reform in January 2004, he included an increase in permanent immigration as a key component. President Bush has stated that immigration reform is a top priority of his second term and has prompted a lively debate on the issue. Bills to revise permanent admissions are being introduced, but only one was enacted in the 109th Congress. A provision in P.L. [Public Law] 109-13 (H.R. 1268, the emergency FY2005 supplemental appropriation) makes up to 50,000 employment-based visas available for foreign nationals coming to work as medical professionals. The 110th Congress is expected to consider immigration reform. During the 109th Congress, the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act (S. 2611) would have substantially increased legal immigration and would have restructured the allocation of these visas. Title V of S. 2611 would have doubled the number of family-based and employment-based immigrants admitted over the next decade, as well as expanded the categories of immigrants who may come without numerical limits. The Senate passed S. 2611 on May 25, 2006. The major House passed immigration bill (H.R. 4437) did not revise family-based and employment based immigration. Proposals to alter permanent admissions were included in several other comprehensive immigration proposals (S. 1033/H.R. 2330, S. 1438, H.R. 3700, H.R. 3938, S. 1919). Four major principles underlie current U.S. policy on permanent immigration: the reunification of families, the admission of immigrants with needed skills, the protection of refugees, and the diversity of admissions by country of origin."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2006-12-13
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Immigration: Policy Considerations Related to Guest Worker Programs [Updated April 21, 2005]
"At present, the United States has two main programs for temporarily importing low-skilled workers, sometimes referred to as guest workers. Agricultural guest workers enter through the H-2A program and other guest workers enter through the H-2B program. Employers interested in importing workers under either program must first apply to the U.S. Labor Department for a certification that U.S. workers capable of performing the work are not available and that the employment of alien workers will not adversely affect the wages and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers. Other requirements of the programs differ. Bills before the 109th Congress propose to make changes to the H-2A program (S. 359/H.R. 884) and the H-2B program (S. 278, S. 352/H.R. 793). S. 359/H.R. 884 also would establish a mechanism for certain foreign agricultural workers to become U.S. legal permanent residents (LPRs). Other guest worker legislation is expected to be introduced later in this Congress. Various guest worker measures were introduced in the 108th Congress, but they saw no action beyond committee referrals. President George W. Bush proposed a new expanded guest worker program in January 2004 when he announced his principles for immigration reform. The President featured his proposal in his 2004 and 2005 State of the Union addresses. The current discussion of guest worker programs takes place against a backdrop of historically high levels of unauthorized migration to the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2005-04-21
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Immigration: Terrorist Grounds for Exclusion of Aliens [Updated May 26, 2005]
"The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) spells out a strict set of admissions criteria and exclusion rules for all foreign nationals, whether coming permanently as immigrants (i.e., legal permanent residents) or temporarily as nonimmigrants. Notably, any alien who has engaged in or incited terrorist activity, is reasonably believed to be carrying out a terrorist activity, or is a representative or member of a designated foreign terrorist organization is inadmissible. After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the INA was broadened to deny entry to representatives of groups that endorse terrorism, prominent individuals who endorse terrorism, and spouses and children of aliens who are removable on terrorism grounds (on the basis of activities occurring within the previous five years). The INA also contains grounds for inadmissibility based on foreign policy concerns. Provisions of the REAL ID Act (P.L. 109-13, Division B), enacted on May 11, 2005, further expand the terror-related grounds for inadmissiblity and deportation. The report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission) concluded that the key officials responsible for determining alien admissions (consular officers abroad and immigration inspectors in the United States) were not considered full partners in counterterrorism efforts prior to September 11, 2001, and as a result, opportunities to intercept the September 11 terrorists were missed. The 9/11 Commission's monograph, 9/11 and Terrorist Travel, underscored the importance of the border security functions of immigration law and policy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Garcia, Michael John
2005-05-26
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Immigration Policy for Intracompany Transfers (L Visa): Issues and Legislation [Updated October 24, 2005]
"Concerns are growing that the visa category that allows executives and managers of multinational corporations to work temporarily in the United States is being misused. This visa category, commonly referred to as the L visa, permits multinational firms to transfer top-level personnel to their locations in the United States for five to seven years. The number of L visas issued has increased by 363.5% over the past 25 years. The U.S. Department of State (DOS) issued only 26,535 L visas in FY1980. L visa issuances began increasing in the mid-1990s and peaked at 122,981 in FY2005. Some are now charging that firms are using the L visa to transfer 'rank and file' professional employees rather than limiting these transfers to top-level personnel, thus circumventing immigration laws aimed at protecting U.S. employees from the potential adverse employment effects associated with an increase in the number of foreign workers. Proponents of current law maintain that any restrictions on L visas would prompt many multinational firms to leave the United States, as well as undermine reciprocal agreements that currently permit U.S. corporations to transfer their employees abroad. Legislation in the 108th Congress that would have amended the L-1 visa was introduced (H.R. 2154, H.R. 2702, S. 1635, H.R. 2849/ S. 1452, H.R. 4415 and H.R.4166). All of these bills had provisions aimed at restricting the outsourcing of L-1 visa holders."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2005-10-24
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Immigration Legalization and Status Adjustment Legislation [Updated August 22, 2001]
"Although President George Bush has said he opposes broad legalization for unauthorized migrants, there have been reports that the President will recommend legislation to legalize an estimated 3 million Mexicans working in the United States without legal authorization. President Bush and Mexican President Vicente Fox have established a Cabinet-level working group to develop 'an orderly framework for migration that ensures humane treatment and legal security, and dignifies labor conditions.' Initial speculation that the President would unveil a legalization proposal in early September has been tempered by recent reports that he will recommend a more gradual series of proposals. On August 2, Congressional Democrats announced a set of principles that will guide broad immigration legislation they intend to propose, and among those principles is a plan for 'earned legalization.' Their proposal would not be limited to nationals of any one country and would focus on 'longtime, hard-working residents of good moral character, with no criminal problems . . . who are otherwise eligible to become U.S. citizens.' While supporters characterize legalization provisions as fair treatment of aliens who have been living and working here for years as good neighbors and dedicated employees, opponents describe such proposals as an unfair reward to illegal aliens who violated the law to get into the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2001-08-22
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Dominican Republic: Political and Economic Conditions and Relations with the United States [Updated April 17, 2007]
From the Summary: "President Leonel Fernández of the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), who served as president previously (1996-2000), took office on August 16, 2004. President Fernández has presided over a period of rapid economic growth (an estimated 10% in 2006), enjoys continued popular support, and has a majority in both legislative chambers. He has restored investor confidence in the Dominican economy and enacted some fiscal reforms, but struggled to resolve the country's ongoing problems with corruption and electricity shortages. Fernández seeks to maintain close ties with the United States and to improve relations with neighboring Haiti. His government has been criticized, however, for its mistreatment of undocumented Haitian migrants and Dominicans of Haitian descent. Fernández will seek re-election in May 2008 but is likely to face tough competition from within his own party and from several opposition candidates. Also, on March 1, 2007, the Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) entered into force in the Dominican Republic after a series of delays. This CRS [Congressional Research Service] report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seelke, Clare Ribando
2007-04-17
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Effects on U.S. Farm Workers of an Agricultural Guest Worker Program [Updated March 9, 2006]
From the Summary: "Guest worker programs are meant to assure employers (e.g., fruit, vegetable, and horticultural specialty growers) of an adequate supply of labor when and where it is needed while not adding permanent residents to the U.S. population. They include mechanisms, such as the H-2A program's labor certification process, intended to avoid adversely affecting the wages and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers. If amendment of the H-2A program or initiation of a new agricultural guest worker program led growers to employ many more aliens than is now the case, the effects of the Bracero program might be instructive: although the 1942-1964 Bracero program succeeded in expanding the farm labor supply, studies estimate that it also harmed domestic farm workers as measured by their reduced wages and employment. The magnitudes of these adverse effects might differ today depending upon how much the U.S. farm labor and product markets have changed over time, but their direction likely would be the same. This report will be updated as warranted."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Levine, Linda (Linda H.)
2006-03-09
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Immigration: Diversity Visa Lottery [April 22, 2004]
"The diversity visa lottery offers an opportunity for immigration to nationals of countries that do not have high levels of immigration. Aliens from eligible countries had until noon on December 30, 2003 to submit their applications for the FY2005 diversity visa lottery. Aliens who are selected through the lottery, if they are otherwise admissible under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), may become legal permanent residents of the United States. Participation in the diversity visa lottery is limited annually to 55,000 aliens from countries that are under-represented among recent immigrant admissions to the United States. In FY2001, over 8 million aliens from around the world sent in applications for the FY2003 lottery. Of the diversity visas awarded in FY2002, European immigrants comprised 39.4% of the diversity visa recipients and African immigrants received 38.1%. This report does not track legislation and will not be regularly updated. The purpose of the diversity visa lottery is, as the name suggests, to encourage legal immigration from countries other than the major sending countries of current immigration to the United States. The law weighs allocation of immigrant visas heavily towards aliens with close family in the United States and, to a lesser extent, aliens who meet particular employment needs. The diversity immigrant category was added to the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) by the Immigration Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-649) to stimulate "new seed" immigration, i.e. to foster new, more varied, migration from other parts of the world. The current diversity lottery began in FY1995 following 3 transitional years with temporary lotteries."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Ester, Karma
2004-04-22
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India-U.S. Relations [Updated October 2, 2007]
"Long considered a 'strategic backwater' from Washington's perspective, South Asia has emerged in the 21st century as increasingly vital to core U.S. foreign policy interests. India, the region's dominant actor with more than one billion citizens, is now recognized as a nascent major power and 'natural partner' of the United States, one that many analysts view as a potential counterweight to China's growing clout. Washington and New Delhi have since 2004 been pursuing a 'strategic partnership' based on shared values such as democracy, pluralism, and rule of law. Numerous economic, security, and global initiatives, including plans for 'full civilian nuclear energy cooperation,' are underway. This latter initiative, launched by President Bush in July 2005 and provisionally endorsed by the 109th Congress in 2006 (P.L. 109-401, the 'Hyde Act'), reverses three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy. It requires, among other steps, conclusion of a peaceful nuclear agreement between the United States and India, which would itself enter into force only after a Joint Resolution of Approval by Congress. Also in 2005, the United States and India signed a ten-year defense framework agreement that calls for expanding bilateral security cooperation. Since 2002, the two countries have engaged in numerous and unprecedented combined military exercises. The issue of major U.S. arms sales to India may come before the 110th Congress. The influence of a growing and relatively wealthy Indian- American community of more than two million is reflected in Congress's largest country-specific caucus. Further U.S. interest in South Asia focuses on ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan rooted in unfinished business from the 1947 Partition, competing claims to the Kashmir region, and, in more recent years, 'cross-border terrorism' in both Kashmir and major Indian cities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan
2007-10-02
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India-U.S. Relations [Updated June 26, 2007]
"Long considered a 'strategic backwater 'from Washington's perspective, South Asia has emerged in the 21st century as increasingly vital to core U.S. foreign policy interests. India, the region's dominant actor with more than one billion citizens, is now recognized as a nascent major power and 'natural partner ' of the United States, one that many analysts view as a potential counterweight to China's growing clout. Washington and New Delhi have since 2004 been pursuing a 'strategic partnership ' based on shared values such as democracy, pluralism, and rule of law. Numerous economic, security, and global initiatives, including plans for 'full civilian nuclear energy cooperation, ' are underway. This latter initiative, launched by President Bush in July 2005 and provisionally endorsed by the 109th Congress in late 2006 (P.L. 109- 401, the 'Hyde Act '), reverses three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy. It would require, among other steps, conclusion of a peaceful nuclear agreement between the United States and India, which would itself enter into force only after a Joint Resolution of Approval by Congress. Also in 2005, the United States and India signed a ten-year defense framework agreement that calls for expanding bilateral security cooperation. Since 2002, the two countries have engaged in numerous and unprecedented combined military exercises. The issue of major U.S. arms sales to India may come before the 110th Congress. The influence of a growing and relatively wealthy Indian-American community of more than two million is reflected in Congress's largest country-specific caucus. Further U.S. interest in South Asia focuses on ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan, a problem rooted in unfinished business from the 1947 Partition, competing claims to the Kashmir region, and, in more recent years, 'cross-border terrorism ' in both Kashmir and major Indian cities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kronstadt, K. Alan
2007-06-26
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Electronic Rulemaking in the Federal Government [October 16, 2007]
"Electronic rulemaking, or 'e-rulemaking,' began in the federal government within individual agencies in the mid-to-late 1990s, but current government-wide initiatives can be traced to both congressional and presidential sources. For example, the E-Government Act of 2002 requires federal agencies, 'to the extent practicable,' to accept public comments on their rules electronically and to ensure that one or more federal websites contains those comments and other materials normally maintained in rulemaking dockets. E-rulemaking is also one of about two dozen e-government initiatives launched as part of the George W. Bush Administration's President's Management Agenda. In the first phase of the initiative, the Administration established a website through which the public can identify all federal rules that are open for comment and provide comments on those rules. The second phase involves the creation of a government-wide docket system that can allow the public to review rulemaking materials (e.g., agencies' legal and cost-benefit analyses for their rules) and the comments of others. E-rulemaking has been described as a way to increase democratic legitimacy, improve regulatory policy decisions, decrease administrative costs, and increase regulatory compliance. However, the implementation of e-rulemaking in the federal government has been controversial. Although the migration of agencies into the government-wide docket was originally planned for 2004, that migration is currently not expected to be completed until 2008. Congress has objected to how e-rulemaking and several other e-government projects have been funded (through appropriations transfers or reimbursements to the projects' 'managing partner' agencies), and has voiced other concerns about the overall management and appropriateness of the initiatives."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copeland, Curtis W.
2007-10-16
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Conventional Warheads for Long-Range Ballistic Missiles: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated October 12, 2007]
"The United States has deployed long-range ballistic missiles in its strategic offensive nuclear forces for more than 40 years. Recently, some have proposed that the United States deploy conventional warheads on these missiles. This would provide the United States with the ability to strike promptly anywhere in the world, regardless of the presence of overseas bases or nearby naval forces. The Air Force and Navy have both studied the possible deployment of conventional warheads on their long-range ballistic missiles. […] Many have expressed concerns about the possibility that other nations, such as Russia or China might misinterpret the launch of a conventionally-armed ballistic missile and conclude that they are under attack with nuclear weapons. The Air Force has outlined a number of measures that might reduce this risk. It plans to base these missiles along the U.S. coast, far from bases with nuclear-armed ballistic missiles. It also would use consultations, notifications, and inspections to inform others of the difference between conventional and nuclear ballistic missiles. But, although these measures could address some of the concerns, they are not likely to eliminate the risks of misunderstandings, particularly if the United States used these missiles on short notice in a crisis. The Navy would not segregate its conventional missiles, but would deploy them on submarines that also carry nuclear warheads, but it could still notify Russia or other nations to mitigate the possibility of misunderstandings."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woolf, Amy F.
2007-10-12
