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Climate Change Legislation in the 108th Congress [Updated January 6, 2005]
"Climate change and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were an issue in the 108th Congress, as they were over the preceding decade. Bills directly addressing climate change issues ranged from those focused primarily on climate change research (H.R. 1578 and S. 1164) to comprehensive emissions cap and trading programs for all six greenhouse gases (S. 139 and H.R. 4067). Additional bills focused on GHG reporting and registries (H.R. 6 (Senate-passed), H.R. 1245, S. 17, and S. 194), or on power plant emissions of carbon dioxide (H.R. 2042, S. 139, S. 366, and S. 843). These climate change bills differed within and across categories. Among the climate change research bills, there were common and divergent research focuses. For example, a few bills, including S. 139 and S. 1164, would have directed research on historical instances of climate change to develop climate change models. Additional bills focused on research to examine vulnerabilities to climate change in the United States, particularly with respect to human health, environmental, and economic outcomes. Furthermore, some bills would have promoted research on political and technological options to reduce GHG emissions. […] This report briefly discusses basic concepts on which these bills were based, and compares major provisions of the bills in each of the following categories: climate change research, GHG reporting and registries, and cap and trade programs. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Yacobucci, Brent D.; Powers, Kyna
2005-01-06
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Defense: FY2006 Authorization and Appropriations [Updated November 17, 2005]
"The Senate resumed consideration of its version of the FY2006 defense authorization bill (S. 1042) on November 4 and passed the bill on November 14. A conference agreement on the defense appropriations bill (H.R. 2863) has been held up because the House has not formally appointed conferees, and the House leadership may want to use the defense bill as a must-pass vehicle for other measures such as an across-the-board spending cut. Since October 1, the Defense Department has been funded by a Continuing Resolution (H.J.Res. 68) that permits operations at the lower of the FY2005 or the House-passed level and allows no new program starts. […] On November 15, following extensive debates about Iraq policy and about tribunals to determine the status of military detainees, the Senate approved its version of the FY2006 defense authorization bill (S. 1042) by a vote of 98-0. A conference agreement on the defense appropriations bill (H.R. 2863) has been held up because the House has not formally appointed conferees. The House leadership appears to want to use the must-pass defense bill as a vehicle for other measures, including an across-the-board spending cut. Now it appears the defense bill, with or without additional measures, may come up before the Thanksgiving recess."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Daggett, Stephen
2007-11-17
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Defense: FY2009 Authorization and Appropriations [Updated August 1, 2008]
"The President's FY2009 federal budget request, released February 4, 2008, included $611.1 billion in new budget authority for national defense. This total included $515.4 billion in discretionary new budget authority for the base budget of the Department of Defense (DOD) -- i.e., activities not associated with combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. The budget included an additional $2.9 billion in mandatory spending for the DOD base budget and $22.8 billion for non-war-related defense costs of the Department of Energy and other agencies. In addition to the $541.1 billion requested for the base line (i.e., non-war cost) budget, the request also included $70 billion to cover war costs in the first part of FY2009. […] The House Defense Appropriations Subcommittee marked up its version of the FY2009 Defense Appropriations Bill on July 30, recommending a total of $487.7 billion, which the panel said was $4 billion less than the President requested for that bill. The full House Appropriations Committee will take up the bill in September. This report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Towell, Pat; Daggett, Stephen; Belasco, Amy
2008-08-01
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Cyprus: Reunification Proving Elusive [April 1, 2010]
"Attempts to resolve the Cyprus problem and reunify the island have undergone various levels of negotiation for almost 40 years. Prospects for a settlement that would end the political division of Cyprus appear to have reached a stalemate and may now enter a period of retrenchment possibly dominated by harder-line views by both sides and more difficult negotiations. Despite a positive and concerted effort over the past 18 months and through 60 meetings between Cypriot President Dimitris Christofias, a Greek Cypriot, and Turkish Cypriot leader Mehmet Ali Talat to reach some type of acceptable solution, time and politics appear to be no longer on either's side. On April 18, 2010, Turkish Cypriot leader Talat faces reelection as 'president' of northern Cyprus; by all accounts by observers of the Cyprus issue, he could have a difficult time winning. Polls taken in late March show Talat at least 15 percentage points behind his rival. His likely successor, Dervis Eroglu of the National Unity Party (UBP), while insisting that negotiations would continue, appears to have taken a harder-line posture toward a negotiated settlement, and there are even some in his party who are advocating a permanently divided island and international recognition for the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.
2010-04-01
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Causes of the Financial Crisis [April 9, 2010]
"The financial crisis that began in 2007 spread and gathered intensity in 2008, despite the efforts of central banks and regulators to restore calm. By early 2009, the financial system and the global economy appeared to be locked in a descending spiral, and the primary focus of policy became the prevention of a prolonged downturn on the order of the Great Depression. The volume and variety of negative financial news, and the seeming impotence of policy responses, has raised new questions about the origins of financial crises and the market mechanisms by which they are contained or propagated. Just as the economic impact of financial market failures in the 1930s remains an active academic subject, it is likely that the causes of the current crisis will be debated for decades to come. This report sets out in tabular form a number of the factors that have been identified as causes of the crisis. The left column of Table 1 below summarizes the causal role of each such factor. The next column presents a brief rejoinder to that argument. The right-hand column contains a reference for further reading. Where text is given in quotation marks, the reference in the right column is the source, unless otherwise specified."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jickling, Mark
2010-04-09
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Causes of the Financial Crisis [January 29, 2009]
"The financial crisis that began in 2007 spread and gathered intensity in 2008, despite the efforts of central banks and regulators to restore calm. By early 2009, the financial system and the global economy appeared to be locked in a descending spiral, and the primary focus of policy became the prevention of a prolonged downturn on the order of the Great Depression. The volume and variety of negative financial news, and the seeming impotence of policy responses, has raised new questions about the origins of financial crises and the market mechanisms by which they are contained or propagated. Just as the economic impact of financial market failures in the 1930s remains an active academic subject, it is likely that the causes of the current crisis will be debated for decades to come. This report sets out in tabular form a number of the factors that have been identified as causes of the crisis. The left column of Table 1 below summarizes the causal role of each such factor. The next column presents a brief rejoinder to that argument. The right-hand column contains a reference for further reading. Where text is given in quotation marks, the reference in the right column is the source, unless otherwise specified."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jickling, Mark
2009-01-29
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Costa Rica: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated February 10, 2005]
"Costa Rica is considered the most politically stable and economically developed nation in Central America with a tradition of political moderation and civilian government. The current president, Abel Pacheco of the Social Christian Unity Party (PUSC), was inaugurated in May 2002 to a four-year term. Costa Rican leaders across the political spectrum support liberalized trade, and Pacheco has been a leading advocate of the U.S.-Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Costa Rica has been an attractive environment for foreign investment. Relations with the United States have traditionally been good, although some friction arose during CAFTA negotiations. The U.S. Congress must still ratify the free trade agreement, with consideration expected in 2005 For additional information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL32322, 'Central America and the Dominican Republic in the Context of the Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) with the United States,' by K. Larry Storrs, and CRS Report RL31870, 'The United States-Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA): Challenges for Sub-Regional Integration,' by J.F. Hornbeck. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Veillette, Connie
2005-02-10
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Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues [April 14, 2009]
"This report discusses electric power transmission and related policy issues. Transmission is a prominent federal issue because of a perceived need to improve reliability and reduce costs, transmission's role in meeting national energy goals (such as increased use of renewable electricity), and the potential efficiency advantages of 'smart grid' modernization. Proposals before the 111th Congress for changing federal transmission law and regulations to meet these and other objectives include S. 539, the Clean Renewable Energy and Economic Development Act, introduced on March 5, 2009; and the March 9, 2009, majority staff transmission siting draft of the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee (the 'Senate Energy Majority Draft'). Transmission development and regulation are complex and sometimes contentious policy areas. In addition to an overview of the electric power system, this report reviews six major transmission policy topics: [1] Transmission planning. [2] Transmission permitting. [3] Financing and cost allocation. [4] System modernization and the smart grid. [5] Transmission system reliability. A concluding section summarizes the policy issues identified in the report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kaplan, Stan Mark
2009-04-14
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International Criminal Court Cases in Africa: Status and Policy Issues [April 2, 2010]
"The International Criminal Court (ICC), established in 2002, has to-date initiated investigations exclusively in Sub-Saharan Africa. The ICC Prosecutor has opened cases against 16 individuals for alleged crimes in northern Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, and the Darfur region of Sudan. In addition, the Prosecutor is investigating post-election violence in Kenya and analyzing situations--a preliminary step toward initiating a full investigation--in Guinea and several other African countries, as well as several countries outside of Africa. Congressional interest in the work of the ICC in Africa has arisen from concern over gross human rights violations on the African continent and beyond. […] This report provides background on ICC investigations in Africa and gives an overview of cases currently before the Court. The report also examines issues raised in Africa by the ICC's actions, including the ICC's possible role in deterring future abuses, and the potential impact of international prosecutions on African peace processes."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Arieff, Alexis; Margesson, Rhoda; Browne, Marjorie Ann
2010-04-02
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Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad, 1798-2009 [January 27, 2010]
"This report lists hundreds of instances in which the United States has used its armed forces abroad in situations of military conflict or potential conflict or for other than normal peacetime purposes. It was compiled in part from various older lists and is intended primarily to provide a rough survey of past U.S. military ventures abroad, without reference to the magnitude of the given instance noted. The listing often contains references, especially from 1980 forward, to continuing military deployments especially U.S. military participation in multinational operations associated with NATO or the United Nations. Most of these post-1980 instances are summaries based on Presidential reports to Congress related to the War Powers Resolution. A comprehensive commentary regarding any of the instances listed is not undertaken here."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2010-01-27
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Economic Implications of the Long-Term Federal Budget Outlook [January 4, 2010]
"The United States is projected to undergo a demographic shift as the aging of the baby boomers causes an unprecedented increase in the fraction of the population that is retired. Coupled with rising life expectancy, this means, under current policy, a steady increase in the portion of the population that is both out of the workforce and receiving social insurance benefits from the government. At the same time, the cost of health care has persistently outpaced income growth, and may continue to do so while an aging population is utilizing more health care. If left unattended, this situation poses serious challenges for the government's fiscal position and the economy as a whole. Following the financial crisis, the budget deficit reached 10% of GDP in 2009, a level that cannot be sustained in the long run. Concerns about long-term fiscal sustainability depend on the projected future path of the budget, absent future policy changes. While the recent growth in the budget deficit was due to short-term developments unrelated to entitlement spending on the elderly, the projected path of the budget in the long run primarily depends on the future path of entitlement spending.2 This report analyzes the long-run path of the federal budget; for a discussion of the current fiscal situation, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R40770, 'Economic Effects of a Budget Deficit Exceeding $1 Trillion.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Labonte, Marc
2010-01-04
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International HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria: Key Changes to U.S. Programs and Funding [August 25, 2008]
"The United States Leadership Against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Act of 2003 (P.L. [Public Law] 108-25) authorizes $15 billion for U.S. global efforts to combat HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), and malaria from FY2004 through FY2008. It also authorizes the Office of the Global AIDS Coordinator (OGAC) to oversee U.S. government efforts to combat HIV/AIDS internationally. These efforts to combat HIV/AIDS implement the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), a program proposed by President Bush in January 2003. President Bush requested $30 billion for the reauthorization of PEPFAR from FY2009 through FY2013, estimating it would support HIV/AIDS treatments for 2.5 million people, the prevention of more than 12 million new HIV infections, and care for more than 12 million HIV-affected people, including 5 million orphans and vulnerable children. On July 24, 2008, Congress reauthorized $48 billion for U.S. international HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria programs through FY2013 in H.R. 5501, the Tom Lantos and Henry J. Hyde United States Global Leadership Against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Reauthorization Act of 2008 (hereafter referred to as the Reauthorization Act). The President signed H.R. 5501 into law (P.L. 110-293) on July 30, 2008. [...] This report discusses changes in coordination and funding for HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria programs as directed in the Reauthorization Act. It provides background on PEPFAR implementation including results and funding through FY2008. It then discusses similarities and differences between H.R. 5501 as passed by the House on April 2, 2008, and H.R. 5501 as passed by the Senate on July 16, 2008. Finally, it details key outcomes in the legislation as enacted. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moss, Kellie
2008-08-25
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International Population Assistance and Family Planning Programs: Issues for Congress [June 6, 2006]
"Since 1965, United States policy has supported international population planning based on principles of volunteerism and informed choice that gives participants access to information on all methods of birth control. This policy, however, has generated contentious debate for over two decades, resulting in frequent clarification and modification of U.S. international family planning programs. In 1984, controversy arose over U.S. population aid policy when the Reagan Administration introduced restrictions, which became known as the 'Mexico City policy.' (Opponents of the policy also refer to it as the 'Global Gag Rule.') The Mexico City policy denied U.S. funds to foreign non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that perform or promote abortion as a method of family planning, regardless of whether the money came from the U.S. government. Presidents Reagan and Bush also banned grants to the U.N. Population Fund (UNFPA) because of its program in China, where coercive practices have been used. President Clinton resumed UNFPA funding and repealed the Mexico City policy in 1993. President George W. Bush, however, re-applied the Mexico City restrictions. Following a State Department investigation of family planning programs in China, the Administration suspended U.S. contributions to UNFPA on July 22, 2002, citing violations of the 'Kemp-Kasten' amendment. This provision bans U.S. assistance to organizations that support or participate in the management of coercive family planning programs. The suspension of U.S. contributions to UNFPA has continued through FY2005."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nowels, Larry Q.; Veillette, Connie
2006-06-06
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International Population Assistance and Family Planning Programs: Issues for Congress [January 26, 2009]
"Since 1965, the U.S. government has supported international population planning based on principles of volunteerism and informed choice that gives participants access to information on all methods of birth control. This policy has generated contentious debate for over two decades, resulting in frequent clarification and modification of U.S. international family planning programs. Given the divisive nature of this debate, U.S. funding of these programs will likely remain a point of contention during the 111th Congress. In 1984, controversy arose over U.S. population aid policy when the Ronald Reagan Administration introduced restrictions that became known as the 'Mexico City policy.' The Mexico City policy denies U.S. funds to foreign non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that perform or promote abortion as a method of family planning--even if the activities are undertaken with non-U.S. funds. Presidents Reagan and George H.W. Bush also banned grants to the U.N. Population Fund (UNFPA) due to evidence of coercive family planning practices in China, citing violations of the 'Kemp-Kasten' amendment, which bans U.S. assistance to organizations that support or participate in the management of coercive family planning programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchfield, Luisa
2009-01-26
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International Monetary Fund (IMF): Financial Reform and the Possible Sale of IMF Gold [September 21, 2007]
"The International Monetary Fund [IMF] faces a unique set of challenges in the current economic environment. With the continuing growth in the emerging market economies, the demand for IMF assistance has shrunk dramatically. In order to prevent a future need for an IMF-bailout, many emerging market countries are accumulating vast amounts of foreign exchange reserves. In 2006, IMF Managing Director Rodrigo de Rato created a panel of 'eminent persons'to advise the IMF about reform of its income model, given the lower demand for IMF lending. The panel proposed the creation of an endowment that would be funded either with quota resources or through the sale of gold from the IMF reserves. This has raised questions among Members of Congress about the benefits of selling IMF gold and the presumed need for reform of the IMF's income model. This report discusses these issues and will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.; Sanford, Jonathan E.
2007-09-21
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Copyright Protection of Digital Television: The 'Broadcast Flag' [April 5, 2005]
"This report addresses the adoption of a 'broadcast flag' system by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to protect digital television (DTV) broadcasts from unauthorized redistribution. The report also briefly addresses litigation and possible implications of the FCC's Report and Order concerning Digital Broadcast Content Protection."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lening, Carey
2005-04-05
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Community Services Block Grants (CSBG): Background and Funding [May 24, 2013]
"Community Services Block Grants (CSBG) provide federal funds to states, territories, and tribes for distribution to local agencies to support a wide range of community-based activities to reduce poverty. Smaller related programs--Community Economic Development (CED), Rural Community Facilities (RCF), and Individual Development Accounts (IDAs)--also support antipoverty efforts. CSBG and some of these related activities trace their roots to the War on Poverty, launched in the 1960s. Today, they are administered at the federal level by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). CSBG and related activities are funded in FY2013 under a continuing resolution (P.L. [Public Law] 113-6) that generally calls for discretionary programs to be funded at their FY2012 levels. However, for FY2013 those levels are reduced as a result of a sequestration ordered on March 1, 2013, and an across-the-board rescission determined necessary by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) to keep discretionary spending within statutory limits. HHS has announced that FY2013 funding levels for CSBG and related activities total $687 million, including $635 million for the block grant, $28 million for CED, $5 million for RCF, and almost $19 million for IDAs. This compares with a total of $732 million in FY2012, including $677 million for the block grant, $30 million for CED, $5 million for RCF, and $20 million for IDAs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Spar, Karen
2013-05-24
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501(c)(4)s and Campaign Activity: Analysis Under Tax and Campaign Finance Laws [May 17, 2013]
"The campaign activities of tax-exempt 501(c)(4) social welfare organizations continue to receive considerable attention. These groups operate with less restriction after the Supreme Court's decision in 'Citizens United v. FEC', which invalidated long-standing prohibitions in the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) on corporations and labor unions using their general treasury funds to make independent expenditures and electioneering communications. However, even after 'Citizens United', 501(c)(4) groups are still subject to regulation under FECA and the Internal Revenue Code (IRC). Under FECA, incorporated groups are prohibited from making political contributions and are still required to establish a political action committee (PAC) in order to do so. (In contrast to independent expenditures and electioneering communications, contributions are given to a candidate or political committee). Additionally, the claim is sometimes made that 501(c)(4) groups should be required to register as political committees under FECA. This is important because political committees must raise and spend funds subject to FECA contribution limits, source restrictions, and disclosure requirements. Under the IRC, a Treasury regulation requires that 501(c)(4) organizations have the promotion of social welfare as their primary purpose. This means two things: (1) campaign activity (along with any other non-exempt purpose activity) cannot be the organization's primary activity and (2) a group that primarily benefits private partisan interests may jeopardize its 501(c)(4) status. Questions abound about these two restrictions and how they are applied (e.g., how is campaign activity measured?), and the IRS has been criticized for failing to issue guidance in this area."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lunder, Erika; Whitaker, L. Paige
2013-05-17
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Clean Water Act Issues in the 109th Congress [Updated June 2, 2005]
"Legislative initiatives to comprehensively amend the Clean Water Act (CWA) have stalled for some time as interested parties have debated whether and exactly how to change the law. Congress has recently focused legislative attention on narrow bills to extend or modify selected CWA programs, rather than taking up comprehensive proposals. For example, the 108th Congress enacted one bill amending the CWA: legislation to reauthorize the National Estuary Program (H.R. 4731, P.L. 108-399). In the 109th Congress, a House committee has approved bills to reauthorize two Clean Water Act programs. H.R. 624 would provide $1.5 billion in grants over six years for sewer overflow projects, and H.R. 1359 would extend a pilot program for alternative water source projects. For several years, the most prominent legislative water quality issue has concerned financial assistance for municipal wastewater treatment projects. It is likely to be prominent in the 109th Congress as well. At issue is how the federal government will assist states and cities in meeting needs to rebuild, repair, and upgrade wastewater treatment plants, especially in light of capital costs that are projected to be as much as $390 billion over the next two decades. This issue received attention in the 108th Congress. In October 2004, the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee reported legislation to authorize $41.25 billion in funding for water infrastructure projects, including $20 billion for clean water facilities (S. 2550). In July 2003, a House Transportation and Infrastructure subcommittee also approved a water infrastructure financing bill (H.R. 1560). No further action on either bill occurred."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copeland, Claudia
2005-06-02
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El Salvador: Political, Economic, and Social Conditions and Relations with the United States [January 13, 2005]
"Tony Saca, a businessman from the conservative National Republican Alliance (ARENA) party, was inaugurated as president for a five-year term in June 2004. President Saca faces the challenges of restarting a stagnating economy, passing legislation in a polarized political environment, and combating gang violence. Although 70% of Salvadorans approve of his overall job performance, a majority disprove of his decision to maintain a contingent of 380 Salvadoran soldiers in Iraq. The United States is working with President Saca to combat narco-trafficking, to resolve immigration issues, and to promote free trade, possibly through the proposed United States- Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA). On December 17, 2004, El Salvador became the first country in Central America to ratify DR-CAFTA. On January 6, 2005, the U.S. government extended the Temporary Protected Status (TPS) of undocumented Salvadoran migrants living in the United States until September 9, 2006. This report will be updated as events warrant. For further information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL32322, 'Central America and the Dominican Republic in the Context of the Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) with the United States.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seelke, Clare Ribando
2005-01-13
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Deforestation and Climate Change [March 24, 2010]
"Forests exist at many latitudes. Many are concerned about the possible impacts of losing boreal and temperate forests, but existing data show little, if any, net deforestation, and their loss has relatively modest carbon consequences. In contrast, tropical deforestation is substantial and continuing, and releases large amounts of CO2, because of the carbon stored in the vegetation and released when tropical forests are cut down. There are many causes of tropical deforestation--commercial logging, large-scale agriculture (e.g., cattle ranching, soybean production, oil palm plantations), small-scale permanent or shifting (slash-and-burn) agriculture, fuelwood removal, and more. Often, these causes combine to exacerbate deforestation; for example, commercial logging often includes road construction, which in turn opens the forest for subsistence farmers. At times, tropical deforestation results from weak land tenure and/or weak or corrupt governance to protect the forests. Congress and international bodies are discussing various policies to reduce carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). Reducing deforestation in the tropics is likely to have additional benefits as well, such as preserving biological diversity and sustaining livelihoods for the rural poor and for indigenous communities and cultures. Proposals may be adapted to address local and regional causes of deforestation. Various forestry practices can reduce the impacts of deforestation, and several market approaches are evolving to compensate landowners for preserving their forests."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gorte, Ross W.; Sheikh, Pervaze A.
2010-03-24
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Small Business Administration and Job Creation [Updated June 15, 2020]
From the Summary: "The Small Business Administration (SBA) administers several programs to support small businesses, including loan guaranty programs, disaster loan programs, management and technical assistance training programs, and federal contracting programs. Congress has always been interested in these programs, primarily because they are viewed as a means to stimulate economic activity and create jobs. That interest has become acute in recent months due to the adverse economic impact of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the national economy, particularly on small businesses. For example, legislation has been enacted that has dramatically expanded the SBA's authority to provide loans to small businesses adversely affected by COVID-19. This report examines the economic research on net job creation to identify the types of businesses that appear to create the most jobs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dilger, Robert Jay, 1954-
2020-06-15
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Medicare: Insolvency Projections [Updated May 29, 2020]
From the Introduction: "Medicare is a federal insurance program that pays for covered health care services of qualified beneficiaries. It was established in 1965 under Title XVIII of the Social Security Act as a federal entitlement program to provide health insurance to individuals aged 65 and older, and it has been expanded over the years to include permanently disabled individuals under the age of 65. Medicare consists of four distinct parts, A through D. [...] The Medicare program has two separate trust funds--the Hospital Insurance (HI) trust fund and the Supplementary Medical Insurance (SMI) trust fund. The Part A program, which is financed mainly through payroll taxes levied on current workers, is accounted for through the HI trust fund. The Part B and Part D programs, which are funded primarily through general revenue and beneficiary premiums, are accounted for through the SMI trust fund. [...] From its inception, the HI trust fund has faced a projected shortfall and eventual insolvency. Because of the way it is financed, the SMI trust fund cannot become insolvent; however, the Medicare trustees continue to express concerns about the rapid growth in SMI costs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Davis, Patricia A.
2020-05-29
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Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Budget: Fact Sheet [Updated April 2, 2020]
From the Summary: "The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the safety of foods (including dietary supplements), cosmetics, and radiation-emitting products; the safety and effectiveness of drugs, biologics (e.g., vaccines), and medical devices; and public health aspects of tobacco products. [...] FDA's 'total program level,' the amount that FDA can spend, is composed of discretionary appropriations from two different sources: annual appropriations (i.e., discretionary budget authority, or BA) and user fees paid by the regulated industry (e.g., drug manufacturers). In FDA's annual appropriation, Congress sets both the total amount of appropriated funds and the amount of user fees that the agency is authorized to collect and obligate for that fiscal year. [...] The Administration's FY2021 budget request for a 'total program level' of $6.044 billion would be an increase of $123 million (+2%) over the FY2020-enacted amount ($5.921 billion). This report will be updated with information on FDA funding for FY2021 once legislative action on appropriations for the new fiscal year is completed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dabrowska, Agata; Green, Victoria R.
2020-04-02
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Personal Protective Equipment and Ventilators for COVID-19: FDA Regulation and Related Activities [April 2, 2020]
From the Document: "The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has affected the medical product supply chain both globally and domestically. Perhaps most salient has been the impact of COVID-19 on the availability of personal protective equipment (PPE), such as gowns and masks, for health care personnel, and respiratory devices, including ventilators, for patients. In the United States, respiratory devices and PPE used in the health care setting meet the definition of a medical device under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) and are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). This In Focus provides an overview of how these devices are regulated and summarizes the FDA response to mitigate reported PPE and ventilator shortages related to COVID-19."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dabrowska, Agata; Green, Victoria R.
2020-04-02
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Tax Treatment of Canceled Mortgage Debt [May 5, 2020]
From the Document: "Recent data indicate that the economy is weakening and that labor markets are under a great deal of strain as fallout from the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] outbreak continues. The corresponding drop in incomes is causing financial hardship for some homeowners as they struggle to make timely mortgage payments. Included in the broader third round of economic relief known as the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act (P.L. 116-136) were temporary forbearance for federally backed single-family and multifamily mortgages and a temporary foreclosure moratorium for federally backed single-family mortgages. [...] Once these temporary efforts to assist homeowners expire, there may be an increased number of home foreclosures, mortgage defaults, or mortgage modifications barring additional relief efforts. Attempts to resolve mortgage indebtedness concerns may result in cancellation of debt, which can have important tax consequences. This In Focus provides a brief overview of the tax treatment of canceled mortgage debt."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Keightley, Mark P.
2020-05-05
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COVID-19 and Direct Payments to Individuals: Considerations on Using Advanced Refundable Credits as Economic Stimulus [March 17, 2020]
From the Document: "In response to concerns about an economic slowdown stemming from the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019]pandemic, policymakers have been considering a broad array of policy options. Some are targeted directly toward the individuals and industries that may be most affected. Others would more broadly seek to stimulate the economy. Among this latter category of policies, some have suggested a payroll tax cut, while others have proposed direct cash payments--'recovery rebates'--to virtually all households. One mechanism to provide cash payments relatively quickly is to create a new refundable tax credit and then advance it to households before they would otherwise claim it on their income tax returns. A similar policy was enacted most recently in 2008. This Insight addresses some common questions about advanced refundable tax credits."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Crandall-Hollick, Margot L.
2020-03-17
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COVID-19-Related Suspension of Immigrant Entry [Updated June 24, 2020]
From the Document: "On June 22, President Trump issued a proclamation that, among other provisions, extends Proclamation 10014 issued April 22 suspending the entry into the United States of certain aliens (foreign nationals) who are seeking lawful permanent resident (LPR) status (i.e., immigrants). Both proclamations justify the suspension as protecting American workers from foreign labor market competition during a time of high domestic unemployment and reduced demand for workers caused by the coronavirus pandemic. Both proclamations rely on two immigration-related legal authorities. Under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), §212(f) (8 U.S.C. §1182(f)), the President may suspend immigration when it would harm U.S. interests. Under INA §215(a) (8 U.S.C. §1185(a)) the President may prescribe limitations and exceptions on who may enter or depart the country."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kandel, William
2020-06-24
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COVID-19 and Direct Payments to Individuals: How Did the 2008 Recovery Rebates Work? [Updated March 19, 2020]
From the Document: "In response to concerns about an economic slowdown stemming from the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic, policymakers have been considering a broad array of policy options. Some are targeted directly toward individuals and industries that may be most affected. Others would more broadly seek to stimulate the economy. Among this latter category of policies, some have proposed direct cash payments sent to virtually all U.S. households. In 2008 Congress enacted direct cash payments--the 2008 recovery rebates--that were tax credits advanced to households that had filed an income tax return. A portion of these credits were refundable and hence available to taxpayers with little to no income tax liability, including many low-income filers. [...] This Insight provides a brief overview of how those 2008 recovery rebates worked."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Crandall-Hollick, Margot L.
2020-03-19
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Consumer Credit Reporting, Credit Bureaus, Credit Scoring, and Related Policy Issues [Updated June 22, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report first provides background information on the consumer data industry and various specialty areas. The report examines one prominent specialty area--consumer scoring--and describes various factors used to calculate credit scores. Next, the report provides a general description of the current regulatory framework of the consumer data industry. Finally, the report discusses selected policy issues pertaining to consumer data reports. Specifically, the report addresses policy issues concerning (1) inaccurate or disputed consumer data provided in consumer data reports; (2) how long negative or derogatory information should remain in consumer data reports; (3) differences in billing and collection practices that can adversely affect consumer data reports, an issue of particular concern with medical billing practices; (4) consumers' rights; (5) whether uses of credit bureau data outside of the financial services, such as for employment decisions, adversely affect consumers and should be limited; (6) whether the use of 'alternative' consumer data or newer versions of credit scores may increase accuracy and credit access; and (7) how to address data protection and security issues in consumer data reporting. For each policy issue, the report addresses corresponding legislative and regulatory developments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cooper, Cheryl R.; Getter, Darryl E.
2020-06-22
