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Chemical Regulation in the European Union: Registration, Evaluation, and Authorization of Chemicals [March 1, 2012]
From the Document: "On June 1, 2007, the European Union (EU) began to implement a new law governing chemicals in EU commerce: Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). It is intended to protect human health and the environment from hazardous chemicals while at the same time protecting the competitiveness of European industry. REACH evolved over eight years and reflects compromises reached among EU stakeholders. The final regulation reduces and coordinates EU regulatory requirements for chemicals new to the EU market and increases collection of such information for chemicals already in the EU market, thus potentially removing disincentives to innovation that existed under the former law. It also shifts responsibility for safety assessments from government to industry and encourages substitution of less toxic for more toxic chemicals in various chemical applications. Some U.S. chemical industry representatives believe that REACH is 'impractical,' in part due to the large number of chemicals and difficulties of identifying end uses of chemicals in many products. In contrast, some public-interest groups are urging U.S. legislators to adopt a similar legislative approach."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schierow, Linda-Jo
2012-03-01
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Federal Information Security and Data Breach Notification Laws [January 28, 2010]
From the Summary: "The following report describes information security and data breach notification requirements included in the Privacy Act, the Federal Information Security Management Act, Office of Management and Budget Guidance, the Veterans Affairs Information Security Act, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, the Federal Trade Commission Act, and the Fair Credit Reporting Act. Also included in this report is a brief summary of the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS), an industry regulation developed by VISA, MasterCard, and other bank card distributors. Information security laws are designed to protect personally identifiable information from compromise, unauthorized disclosure, unauthorized acquisition, unauthorized access, or other situations where unauthorized persons have access or potential access to such information for unauthorized purposes. Data breach notification laws typically require covered entities to implement a breach notification policy, and include requirements for incident reporting and handling and external breach notification."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Stevens, Gina Marie
2010-01-28
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Ballast Water Management to Combat Invasive Species [January 28, 2010]
From the Summary: "The 111th Congress may elect to consider legislation that has been introduced to amend and reauthorize the Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act of 1990 to establish vessel ballast water management standards and modify how ballast water is handled. In recent years, many people have become increasingly aware that the globalization of trade, the increased speed of travel, the massive volume of cargo shipments, and rising tourism have combined to increase the chance of accidental introductions of foreign species into the United States. Aquatic species arrive through a variety of mechanisms--unintentionally when attached to vessel hulls or carried in vessel ballast water and intentionally when imported for aquaria display, as live seafood for human consumption, or as a transplant to increase sport fishing opportunities. [...] This report provides background on various approaches to ballast water management and reviews current ballast water management laws and programs. This report will be updated as this issue evolves."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Buck, Eugene H.
2010-01-28
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Conducting Foreign Relations Without Authority: The Logan Act [January 20, 2010]
"The Logan Act, codified at 18 U.S.C. § 953, states: Any citizen of the United States, wherever he may be, who, without authority of the United States, directly or indirectly commences or carries on any correspondence or intercourse with any foreign government or any officer or agent thereof, in relation to any disputes or controversies with the United States, or to defeat the measures of the United States, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than three years, or both. This section shall not abridge the right of a citizen to apply, himself or his agent, to any foreign government or the agents thereof for redress of any injury which he may have sustained from such government or any of its agents or subjects. The Logan Act was intended to prohibit United States citizens without authority from interfering in relations between the United States and foreign governments. There appear to have been no prosecutions under the act in its more than 200 year history. However, there have been a number of judicial references to the act, and it is not uncommon for it to be used as a point of challenge concerning dealings with foreign officials. Although attempts have been made to repeal the act, it remains law and at least a potential sanction to be used against anyone who without authority interferes in the foreign relations of the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seitzinger, Michael V.
2010-01-20
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Hate Crime Legislation [January 15, 2010]
"This report provides an overview of the hate crime debate, with background on current law and hate crime statistics, and a legislative history of hate crime prevention bills in recent Congresses. This report does not analyze the constitutional or other legal issues that often arise as part of the hate crime debate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Krouse, William J.
2010-01-15
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Foreign Direct Investment: Current Issues [February 11, 2010]
From the Document: "The United States is the largest recipient of foreign direct investment in the world and the largest investor abroad. As a result of this dual role, the United States has led negotiations in various international forums to remove restrictions on foreign investment and other market-distorting measures to maximize the benefits of such investment. In 2006, foreign investors spent $184 billion investing in U.S. businesses and real estate, the highest amount foreign investors have spent since 2000. Within the economy, foreign direct investment is sparking a mixed reaction. Although the environment for foreign investors is still friendly, some Members of Congress and some in the public argue that the events of September 11, 2001, raise new concerns about the nation's economic security that challenges the traditionally open policy the United States has had toward foreign investment, particularly foreign investment in critical industries and in sectors that are vital to homeland security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-
2010-02-11
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Chemical Facility Security: Reauthorization, Policy Issues, and Options for Congress [February 16, 2010]
"The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has statutory authority to regulate chemical facilities for security purposes. This authority expires in October 2010. The 111th Congress is taking action to reauthorize this program, but the scope and details of its reauthorization remains an issue of congressional debate. Some Members of Congress support an extension, either shortor long-term, of the existing authority. Other Members call for revision and more extensive codification of chemical facility security regulatory provisions. The tension between continuing and changing the statutory authority is exacerbated by questions regarding its effectiveness in reducing chemical facility risk and the sufficiency of federal funding for chemical facility security. Key policy issues debated in previous Congresses have been considered during the reauthorization debate. These issues include the facilities that should be considered as chemical facilities; the appropriateness and scope of federal preemption of state chemical facility security activities; the availability of information for public comment, potential litigation, and congressional oversight; and the role of inherently safer technologies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shea, Dana A.
2010-02-16
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Job Loss and Infrastructure Job Creation: Spending During the Recession [January 21, 2010]
"After the long economic expansion that characterized much of the current decade, the nation entered its 11th postwar recession in December 2007. The subsequent decrease in jobs and comparison of the latest recession to the Great Depression intensified congressional interest in passing legislation early in 2009 aimed at encouraging creation of new jobs and warding off further loss of jobs. To mitigate all but one recession since the 1960s, Congress chose to increase federal spending on public works (infrastructure). (See CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report 92-939, Countercyclical Job Creation Programs.) Public works expenditures traditionally have gone to certain types of construction activities (e.g., building highways and bridges, dams and flood control structures) which indirectly increase demand in industries that supply their products to construction firms (e.g., manufacturing). Today, the definition of infrastructure has been expanded to include green economic activities (commonly referred to as green jobs), which include industries that utilize renewable resources (e.g., electricity generated by wind), produce energy-efficient goods and services (e.g., mass transit), and install energy-conserving products (e.g., retrofitting buildings with thermal-pane windows)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Levine, Linda (Linda H.)
2010-01-21
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Aviation and Climate Change [January 27, 2010]
Aircraft are a significant source of greenhouse gases--compounds that trap the sun's heat, with effects on the Earth's climate. In the United States, aircraft of all kinds are estimated to emit between 2.6% and 3.4% of the nation's total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, depending on whether one counts international air travel. The impact of U.S. aviation on climate change is perhaps twice that size when other factors are considered. These include the contribution of aircraft emissions to ozone formation, the water vapor and soot that aircraft emit, and the high altitude location of the bulk of aircraft emissions. Worldwide, aviation is projected to be among the faster-growing GHG sources. If Congress or the Administration decides to regulate aircraft GHG emissions, they face several choices. The Administration could use existing authority under Sections 231 and 211 of the Clean Air Act, administered by the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA has already been petitioned to do so by several states, local governments, and environmental organizations. Congress could address aviation or aviation fuels legislatively, through cap-and-trade or carbon tax proposals, or could require EPA to set emission standards. Among the legislative options, the cap-and-trade approach (setting an economy-wide limit on GHG emissions and distributing tradable allowances to emitters) has received the most attention. Most cap-and-trade bills, including the House-passed energy and climate bill, H.R. 2454, would include aviation indirectly, through emission caps imposed upstream on their source of fuel--the petroleum refining sector."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McCarthy, James E.
2010-01-27
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Fact Sheet on Leaders and Elections [January 28, 2010]
"This fact sheet tracks the current heads of government in Central and South America, Mexico, and the Caribbean. It provides the dates of the last and next elections for the head of government and the national independence date for each country."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Gomez, Julissa
2010-01-28
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Government Collection of Private Information: Background and Issues related to the USA PATRIOT Act Reauthorization [March 2, 2010]
"Congress enacted the USA PATRIOT Act soon after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The most controversial sections of the act facilitate the federal government's collection of more information, from a greater number of sources, than had previously been authorized in criminal or foreign intelligence investigations. The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA), the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA), and the national security letter (NSL) statutes were all bolstered. With the changes came greater access to records showing an individual's spending and communication patterns as well as increased authority to intercept e-mail and telephone conversations and to search homes and businesses. In some cases, evidentiary standards required to obtain court approval for the collection of information were lowered. Other approaches included expanding the scope of information subject to search, adding flexibility to the methods by which information could be collected, and broadening the purposes for which information may be sought. [...] Subsequent measures made most of the USA PATRIOT Act changes permanent. However, three authorities affecting the collection of foreign intelligence information are set to expire on February 28, 2011: the lone wolf, roving wiretap, and business record sections of FISA. The 111th Congress replaced an earlier expiration date with the 2011 date. Before that change was made, the impending expiration prompted legislative proposals which revisit changes made by the USA PATRIOT Act and related measures. [...] This report surveys the legal environment in which the legislative proposals arise."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bazan, Elizabeth B.; Doyle, Charles; Henning, Anna C. . . .
2010-03-02
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FEMA's Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program: Overview and Issues [February 18, 2010]
"Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM), as federal law and a program activity, began in 1997. Congress established a pilot program, which FEMA [Federal Emergency Management Agency] named 'Project Impact,' to test the concept of investing prior to disasters to reduce the vulnerability of communities to future disasters. P.L. 106-390, the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, authorized the PDM program in law as Section 203 of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act. [...] Authorization for the PDM program expires on September 30, 2010. In the 111th Congress, Representative Oberstar and other sponsors introduced H.R. 1746 to re-authorize the program for an additional three years at $250 million per year and to remove the sunset provision. The bill would also increase the minimum amount each state can receive from $500,000 to $575,000. [...] It is notable that the Administration's budget for FY2010 requested that the competitive process be dropped in favor of a risk-based assessment by FEMA. The Administration's budget for FY2011 does not contain any reference to a risk-based assessment by FEMA. However, Congress may wish to hear more regarding the risk-based allocation formula before enacting the authorizing legislation for the coming years. [...] This report will be updated as warranted by events."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McCarthy, Francis X.; Keegan, Natalie
2010-02-18
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Chile: Political and Economic Conditions and U.S. Relations [March 2, 2010]
"This report provides a brief historical background of Chile, examines recent political and economic developments, and addresses issues in U.S.-Chilean relations.[…].Chile has enjoyed close relations with the United States since its transition back to democracy. Both countries have emphasized similar priorities in the region, designed to strengthen democracy, improve human rights, and advance free trade. Chile and the United States have also maintained strong commercial ties, which have become more extensive since a bilateral free trade agreement between them entered into force in 2004. Additionally, U.S. officials have expressed appreciation for Chile's leadership and moderating influence in a region increasingly characterized by political unrest and anti-American populism."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Meyer, Peter J.
2010-03-02
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U.S. Trade Deficit, the Dollar, and the Price of Oil
"This report analyzes the relationship between the dollar and the price of oil and how the two might interact. While the data do not support a strong cause and effect relationship between the value of the dollar and the price of oil, there likely are various channels through which changes in the price of oil and in the value of the dollar may be indirectly correlated. The data also indicate that an increase in the demand for crude oil that exceeded the increase in the supply of oil and a laggardly pace in oil production capacity likely are among the main factors behind the sharp run up in the price of oil that occurred over the first seven months of 2008. The rise in oil prices also affected the U.S. trade deficit. That impact lessened as the price of oil plummeted and as a drop in economic activity reduced demand for oil imports. This report provides an assessment of the impact a range of prices of imported oil could have on the U.S. trade deficit."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-
2010-02-12
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Kenya: Current Conditions and the Challenges Ahead [February 4, 2010]
"On December 27, 2007, millions of Kenyans went to the polls in Kenya's fourth multi-party elections, with the hope of strengthening the institutions of democracy and, most important in the view of many observers, of bringing change. […] Nine candidates competed in the presidential election. The opposition reportedly made significant gains in the parliamentary elections. The ECK, however, hastily declared President Kibaki as the winner of the elections. Kibaki was quickly sworn in as president, while international and domestic election observers declared the elections as rigged and deeply flawed. Following the announcement of the election results, violence erupted in many parts of Kenya. More than 1,000 people have been killed and an estimated 350,000 reportedly displaced. […] In early February, the opposition and the government began negotiations under the leadership of former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan. The two parties agreed to work together to end the violence, improve humanitarian conditions, and to write a new constitution within a year. In late February, the government and the opposition reached a power-sharing arrangement. On March 18, 2008, the Kenya parliament unanimously approved the Agreement. On April 3, 2008, the parties agreed on a 40-member cabinet. But important reforms agreed to by the parties have yet to be implemented. […] The Obama Administration has repeatedly pressed the Government of Kenya to implement reforms agreed to by the parties in 2008. In September 2009, Assistant Secretary of State for Africa, Johnnie Carson, sent a letter to 15 Kenyan officials warning them that reforms must be implemented."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dagne, Theodore S.
2010-02-04
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Cuba: U.S. Restrictions on Travel and Remittances [January 25, 2010]
"Restrictions on travel to Cuba have been a key and often contentious component in U.S. efforts to isolate Cuba's communist government since the early 1960s. [...] Dating back to 2000, there have been numerous legislative efforts to ease restrictions on travel to Cuba in various ways. [...] During the 2008 electoral campaign, Barack Obama pledged to lift restrictions on family travel to Cuba as well as restrictions on Cuban Americans sending remittances to Cuba. In the aftermath of that election, the 111th Congress took action to ease some restrictions on travel to Cuba by including two provisions in the FY2009 omnibus appropriations measure (P.L. 111-8), which President Obama signed into law on March 11, 2009. [...] Several legislative initiatives have been introduced in the 111th Congress that would further ease Cuba travel restrictions: H.R. 874 /S. 428 and H.R. 1528 would prohibit restrictions on travel to Cuba; H.R. 188, H.R. 1530, and H.R. 2272, which would lift the overall embargo on Cuba, would also lift travel restrictions; H.R. 1531/ S. 1089, which would facilitate the export of U.S. agricultural products to Cuba, would also prohibit Cuba travel restrictions; H.R. 332 would ease restrictions on educational travel; S. 774, H.R. 1918, and S. 1517 would allow for travel related to hydrocarbon exploration and extraction activities. In contrast, H.Con.Res. 132 would call for the fulfillment of certain democratic conditions before the United States increases trade and tourism to Cuba."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2010-01-25
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Afghanistan and Pakistan Reconstruction Opportunity Zones: Issues and Arguments [January 22, 2010]
The Afghanistan-Pakistan Security and Prosperity Enhancement Act (H.R. 1318) and the Afghanistan and Pakistan Reconstruction Opportunity Zones Act (S. 496) would establish a unilateral U.S. trade preference program for Afghanistan and parts of Pakistan. In an effort to promote economic development in both countries, the legislation would permit certain goods produced in designated geographic areas called Reconstruction Opportunity Zones (ROZs) to be imported into the United States duty-free. ROZs would be a specific type of export processing zone, and thus part of a world-wide network of free trade zones. Free trade zones are typically fenced-in industrial parks. [...] Both Pakistan and Afghanistan are currently exporting certain goods to the United States dutyfree under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP). The ROZ program would offer additional tariff benefits to Afghanistan and Pakistan. In turn, it would place additional requirements on both countries. [...] The legislation appears to be of primarily political and symbolic importance for U.S. relationships with Afghanistan and Pakistan, and was specifically supported by President Obama in his March 27 announcement of a new U.S. strategy for Afghanistan and Pakistan. Proponents of the legislation see it as a way of promoting economic development in remote and restive areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan. On the other hand, there are those who point out restrictions: the limited possible locations for ROZ production in order to be eligible for tariff-free treatment; the limited range of products eligible for tariff-free treatment; the labor requirements in H.R. 1318; and security concerns.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bolle, Mary Jane
2010-01-22
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Berry Amendment: Requiring Defense Procurement to Come from Domestic Sources [January 29, 2010]
"Some policymakers believe that policies like the Berry Amendment contradict free trade policies, and that the presence and degree of such competition is the most effective tool for promoting efficiencies and improving quality. On the other hand, others believe that key U.S. sectors need the protections afforded by the Berry Amendment. The debate over the Berry Amendment raises several questions, among them: (1) If the U.S. does not produce a solely domestic item, or if U.S. manufacturers are at maximum production capability, should DOD restrict procurement from foreign sources, and (2) to what extent do U.S. national security interests and industrial base concerns justify waiver of the Berry Amendment? This report examines the original intent and purpose of the Berry Amendment and legislative proposals to amend the application of domestic source restrictions, as well as options for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grasso, Valerie Bailey
2010-01-29
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Japan-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress [February 24, 2010]
"The post-World War II U.S.-Japan alliance has long been an anchor of the U.S. security role in East Asia. The alliance facilitates the forward deployment of about 36,000 U.S. troops and other U.S. military assets in the Asia-Pacific, thereby undergirding U.S. national security strategy in the region. For Japan, the alliance and the U.S. nuclear umbrella provides maneuvering room in dealing with its neighbors, particularly China and North Korea. U.S.-Japan relations have been adjusting to the Democratic Party of Japan's (DPJ) landslide victory in the August 30, 2009 elections for the Lower House of Japan's legislature. The victory gave the DPJ, under party president Yukio Hatoyama, control of the government. While most members of the left-of-center DPJ are broadly supportive of the U.S.-Japan alliance and the general thrust of Japanese foreign policy, in the past the party has questioned and/or voted against several features of the alliance, including base realignment and Japan's financial payments for U.S. forces stationed in Japan. The Party has put forward a foreign policy vision that envisions greater 'equality' in Japan's relations with the United States, in part through deeper engagement with Asia and a more United Nations-oriented diplomacy. The DPJ's victory appears to mark the end of an era in Japan; it was the first time Japan's Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) was voted out of office. The LDP had ruled Japan virtually uninterrupted since 1955."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.; Chanlett-Avery, Emma; Cooper, William H., 1949-
2010-02-24
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Government Access to Phone Calling Activity and Related Records: Legal Authorities [February 2, 2010]
"Public interest in the means by which the government may collect telephone call records has been raised by ongoing revelations regarding alleged intelligence activity by the National Security Agency (NSA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). According to a USA Today article from May 11, 2006, the NSA allegedly sought and obtained records of telephone numbers called and received from millions of telephones within the United States from three telephone service providers; a fourth reportedly refused to provide such records. Additionally, a series of reports issued by the Department of Justice's Office of the Inspector General (DOJ OIG), most recently in January of 2010, indicate that, between 2002 and 2006, consumer records held by telephone companies had been provided to the FBI through the use of 'exigent letters' and other informal methods that fell outside of the national security letter (NSL) process embodied in statute and internal FBI policies." This report discusses several statutory provisions that relate to this case, including "'Pen Registers and Trap and Trace Devices for Foreign Intelligence and International Terrorism Investigations under FISA; Pen Registers or Trap and Trace Devices Generally, and for Use in an Ongoing Criminal Investigation; Access to Business Records for Foreign Intelligence and International Terrorism Investigations; Access to Stored Electronic Communications and Transactional Records;' and the 'Communications Act of 1934.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bazan, Elizabeth B.; Stevens, Gina Marie; Liu, Edward C.
2010-02-02
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National Commission on Children and Disasters: Overview and Issues [February 22, 2010]
"The National Commission on Children and Disasters (the Commission) is authorized under the provisions of the Kids in Disasters Well-being, Safety, and Health Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-161) and given federal advisory committee statutory authority under the Consolidated Security, Disaster Assistance, and Continuing Appropriations Act of 2009 (P.L. 110-329). The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Administration for Children and Families (ACF), provides financial and administrative support to the Commission, whose purpose is to assess the needs of children in the preparation for, response to, and recovery from natural disasters, acts of terrorism, and other man-made disasters.[...] The 111th Congress is currently considering amending the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act) to enhance disaster response, recovery, preparedness and mitigation capabilities (H.R. 3377). Congress is also considering legislation that would establish provisions for education, child care, emergency planning, and health care guidance to address the safety of children after a disaster (S. 2898). Issues Congress may wish to consider include expanding proposed legislation or introducing new legislation to amend the Stafford Act, or amending the Homeland Security Act, to include recommendations of the Commission. Additional issues Congress may wish to consider include what administrative options are available to implement the Commission recommendations and where there may be a need for congressional action."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Keegan, Natalie
2010-02-22
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Iraq Casualties: U.S. Military Forces and Iraqi Civilians, Police, and Security Forces [February 25, 2010]
"This report presents U.S. military casualties as well as governmental and nongovernmental estimates of Iraqi civilian, police, and security forces casualties. For several years, there were few estimates from any national or international government source regarding Iraqi civilian, police, and security forces casualties. Now, however, several Iraqi ministries have released monthly or total casualty statistics. The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) releases the monthly trend of Iraqi civilian, police, and security forces deaths. In addition, the United Nations Office for the Coordination for Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) has charted the trend of civilian casualties from August 2007 to April 2009, and the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI) reported on the number of deaths by suicide bombers in 2008. Nongovernmental sources also have released various estimates of Iraqi civilian, police, and security forces casualties. This report includes estimates from the Associated Press, the Brookings Institution, Iraq Body Count, the Iraq Coalition Casualty Count, Iraq Family Health Survey, the most recent study published in the Lancet, and the British survey firm, Opinion Research Business. Because the estimates of Iraqi casualties contained in this report are based on varying time periods and have been created using differing methodologies, readers should exercise caution when using them and should look to them as guideposts rather than as statements of fact. This report will be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fischer, Hannah
2010-02-25
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NAFTA Implementation: The Future of Commercial Trucking across the Mexican Border [February 1, 2010]
"NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement] set forth a schedule for implementing its trucking provisions that would have opened the border states to cross-border trucking competition in 1995 and all of North America in 2000, but full implementation has been stalled because of concern with the safety of Mexican trucks. Congress first addressed these concerns in the FY2002 Department of Transportation Appropriations Act (P.L. 107-87) which set 22 safety-related preconditions for opening the border to long-haul Mexican trucks. In November 2002, the U.S. Department of Transportation announced that all the preconditions had been met and began processing Mexican applications for U.S. long-haul authority. However, a suit over environmental compliance delayed implementation further. [...] With passage of the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veteran's Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007 (P.L. 110-28), Congress mandated additional requirements before the project could begin. After failing to defund the demonstration project in the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 110-161), Congress succeeded in terminating the demonstration project through a provision in the FY2009 Omnibus Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-8). Subsequently, Mexico announced it would retaliate by increasing import duties on 90 U.S. products. The Obama Administration has indicated it intends to propose a revamped program that will address the concerns of Congress. The FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117) passed in December 2009 did not preclude funds from being spent on a long-haul Mexican truck pilot program, provided the terms and conditions stipulated in section 350 of P.L. 107-87 and section 6901 of P.L. 110-28 were satisfied."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Frittelli, John
2010-02-01
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Immigration-Related Detention: Current Legislative Issues [January 27, 2010]
"There are many policy issues surrounding detention of aliens. The Illegal Immigrant Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA) increased the number of aliens subject to mandatory detention, and raised concerns about the justness of mandatory detention, especially as it is applied to asylum seekers arriving without proper documentation. [...] Another issue is the Attorney General's role in the detention of noncitizens. The creation of DHS moved the administration of detention of noncitizens from the Department of Justice's Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) to DHS's [Department of Homeland Security] Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Nonetheless, it can be argued that the language in the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296; HSA) has left the Attorney General with concurrent authority over immigration law, including the authority to arrest, detain, and release aliens. [...] In the 111th Congress, bills have been introduced covering a range of provisions and perspectives concerning the detention of noncitizens. Several bills--including S. 1505, H.R. 994, H.R. 2406, and H.R. 3308--would mandate that DHS increase the amount of detention space. In addition, other bills (e.g., H.R. 1215 and S. 1594) would codify certain policies at detention facilities, such as access to telephones and medical care, and expand the alternatives to detention program. Other bills, such as H.R. 264, would eliminate the mandatory detention of asylum seekers in expedited removal."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Siskin, Alison; Haddal, Chad C.
2010-01-27
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Federal Government Debt: Its Size and Economic Significance [February 3, 2010]
From the Document: "After several years of surpluses in the late 1990s, the federal budget has been in deficit since FY2001. Deficits represent the additional borrowing required in each year to bridge the gap between tax revenues and spending outlays. Each deficit adds to the already existing stock of outstanding federal debt. [...] In the long run, the relationship between the growth rate of the federal debt and the overall rate of economic growth is critical to economic stability. As long as the debt grows more rapidly than output, the ratio of debt to gross domestic product (GDP) will rise. Debt growth in excess of economic growth is ultimately unsustainable. Whether the debt-to-GDP ratio is on such a path depends on the size of the budget deficit, the rate of interest, and the rate of growth in GDP. What matters most, as far as economic stability is concerned, is what investors believe to be the long-run outlook for the debt-to-GDP ratio. If large deficits are expected to persist, or if the interest rate on the debt is expected to exceed the growth rate indefinitely, then at some point the federal government may begin to find it more difficult to sell new securities. Should the federal government be unable to find private sector buyers, the Federal Reserve might buy Treasury securities in order to sustain their marketability. Should it decide to do so, then the threat is no longer one of government insolvency, but rather of inflation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cashell, Brian
2010-02-03
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Al Qaeda and Affiliates: Historical Perspective, Global Presence, and Implications for U.S. Policy [February 5, 2010]
"Al Qaeda (AQ) has evolved into a significantly different terrorist organization than the one that perpetrated the September 11, 2001, attacks. At the time, Al Qaeda was composed mostly of a core cadre of veterans of the Afghan insurgency against the Soviets, with a centralized leadership structure, made up mostly of Egyptians. Most of the organization's plots either emanated from the top or were approved by the leadership. Some analysts describe pre-9/11 Al Qaeda as akin to a corporation, with Osama Bin Laden acting as an agile Chief Executive Officer issuing orders and soliciting ideas from subordinates. Some would argue that the Al Qaeda of that period no longer exists. Out of necessity, due to pressures from the security community, in the ensuing years it has transformed into a diffuse global network and philosophical movement composed of dispersed nodes with varying degrees of independence. [...] The Al Qaeda network today also comprises semi-autonomous or self radicalized actors, who often have only peripheral or ephemeral ties to either the core cadre in Pakistan or affiliated groups elsewhere. According to U.S. officials Al Qaeda cells and associates are located in over 70 countries. [...]. Understanding the origins of Al Qaeda, its goals, current activities, and prospective future pursuits is key to developing sound U.S. strategies, policies, and programs. [...]. The focus of this report is on the history of Al Qaeda, actions and capabilities of the organization and non-aligned entities, and an analysis of select regional Al Qaeda affiliates. This report may be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rollins, John
2010-02-05
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Metropolitan Transportation Planning [February 3, 2010]
"Federal law requires state and local governments to designate a metropolitan planning organization (MPO) in each urbanized area with a population of 50,000 or more to help plan surface transportation infrastructure and services. There are currently 381 MPOs nationwide. Despite some strengthening of their authority over the years, MPOs have generally remained subordinate to state departments of transportation (DOTs) in the planning and selecting ('programming') of projects using federal surface transportation funds. Moreover, it can be argued that at the metropolitan level MPOs are subordinate to local governments that own and operate many elements of the transportation system, and also control land use planning and zoning. […]. This report discusses several issues that Congress may want to consider: the authority of MPOs to plan and program funds; representation and participation in MPOs; MPO funding and technical capacity; and implementation of livability initiatives. It may also want to consider a number of issues having to do with planning requirements such as the need for a long-range plan, the proper scale of planning, and the incorporation of freight transportation interests. The report begins with a brief description of the metropolitan transportation planning process."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mallett, William
2010-02-03
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Cybersecurity: Current Legislation, Executive Branch Initiatives, and Options for Congress [January 12, 2010]
"Increasing focus on current cyber threats to federal information technology systems, nonfederal critical information infrastructure, and other nonfederal systems has led to numerous legislative cybersecurity proposals and executive branch initiatives. The proposed National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 (NDAA FY2010) and the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 (IIA FY2010) both contain provisions that would affect programs and funding for current and future cybersecurity-related programs. […]There is no single congressional committee or executive agency with primary responsibility over all aspects of cybersecurity; each entity involved pursues cybersecurity from a limited vantage point dictated by committee jurisdiction. Many different initiatives exist, but because of fragmentation of missions and responsibilities, 'stove-piping,' and a lack of mutual awareness between stakeholders, it is difficult to ascertain where there may be programmatic overlap or gaps in cybersecurity policy. Drawing from common themes found in the Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative (CNCI), a study by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) Commission for the 44th Presidency, and the proposed near-term action plan from the President's recent Cyberspace Policy Review, this report identifies cybersecurity policy issues that have been proposed for priority consideration. The report lists and synopsizes current legislation that has been developed to address various aspects of the cybersecurity problem. It then lists the current status of the legislation and compares legislation with existing executive branch initiatives. Finally, analysis of information contained in executive branch initiatives and congressional legislation is used to further highlight cybersecurity-related considerations for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rollins, John; Theohary, Catherine A.
2010-01-12
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Airport Passenger Screening: Background and Issues for Congress [April 23, 2009]
"Over the next several years, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) will likely face continuing challenges to address projected growth in passenger airline travel while maintaining and improving upon the efficiency and effectiveness of passenger screening operations. New initiatives to expand the role of TSA personnel beyond screening operations, as well as initiatives to improve screening efficiency and effectiveness through the deployment of new technologies, will likely require additional investment. […]. However, policymakers and aviation security planners have not yet agreed upon a well-defined strategy and plan for evolving airline passenger and baggage screening functions to incorporate new technologies, capabilities, and procedures to more effectively and efficiently detect potential threats to aviation security. Ongoing challenges to maintaining and improving upon screening functions include: addressing the potential impacts of projected airline passenger traffic growth on screening operations; optimizing screening efficiency and minimizing passenger wait times; addressing potential airport space constraints for screening checkpoints and equipment; improving the capability to detect explosives at passenger checkpoints; optimizing inline explosives detection systems for checked baggage; developing strategic plans for addressing screening technology and human factors needs; and defining the funding requirements to implement these strategic plans. A number of initiatives related to passenger and baggage screening are currently being evaluated by the TSA. These include tests of new passenger checkpoint layouts and field testing of next-generation checkpoint technologies for detecting explosives, including explosives chemical trace detection devices, whole body imaging systems, and advanced technology (AT) X-ray capabilities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elias, Bartholomew
2009-04-23
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Enforcing Immigration Law: The Role of State and Local Law Enforcement [March 11, 2009]
"Since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the enforcement of our nation's immigration laws has received a significant amount of attention. Some observers contend that the federal government does not have adequate resources to enforce immigration law and that state and local law enforcement entities should be utilized. Others, however, question what role state and local law enforcement agencies should have in light of limited state and local resources and immigration expertise. Congress defined our nation's immigration laws in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), which contains both criminal and civil enforcement measures. [...] Indeed, several jurisdictions have signed agreements (INA §287(g)) with the federal government to allow their respective state and local law enforcement agencies to perform new, limited duties relating to immigration law enforcement. Still, the enforcement of immigration laws by state and local officials has sparked debate among many who question what the proper role of state and local law enforcement officials should be in enforcing such laws. For example, many have expressed concern over proper training, finite resources at the local level, possible civil rights violations, and the overall impact on communities. Some communities have taken steps to define or limit the involvement of local authorities in the implementation of immigration law. This report examines some of the policy and legal issues that may accompany an increased role of state and local law officials in the enforcement of immigration law."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ester, Karma; Seghetti, Lisa M.; Garcia, Michael John
2009-03-11
