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USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005: A Legal Analysis [Updated December 21, 2006]
"Several sections of the USA PATRIOT Act and one section of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 were originally scheduled to expire on December 31, 2005. In July 2005, both Houses approved USA PATRIOT reauthorization acts, H.R. 3199 and S. 1389, and the conference committee filed a report, H.Rept. 109-333. A separate bill, the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act of 2006 (S. 2271), provided civil liberties safeguards not included in the conference report. Both H.R. 3199 and S. 2271 were signed into law (P.L. 109-177 and P.L. 109-178) by the President on March 9, 2006. This report describes the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005 (the Act) and, where appropriate, discusses the modifications to law made by the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act of 2006."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles; Yeh, Brian T.
2006-12-21
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U.S. Nuclear Cooperation With India: Issues for Congress [Updated December 22, 2006]
"On July 18, 2005, President Bush announced he would 'work to achieve full civil nuclear energy cooperation with India' and would 'also seek agreement from Congress to adjust U.S. laws and policies,' in the context of a broader, global partnership with India to promote stability, democracy, prosperity and peace. Administration officials have promoted nuclear cooperation with India as a way to reduce India's carbon dioxide emissions and its dependence on oil, bring India into the 'nonproliferation mainstream' and create jobs for U.S. industry. Nonproliferation experts have argued that the potential costs of nuclear cooperation with India to U.S. and global nonproliferation policy may far exceed the benefits. At a time when the United States has called for all states to strengthen their domestic export control laws and for tighter multilateral controls, U.S. nuclear cooperation with India would require loosening its own nuclear export legislation, as well as creating a NSG exception. This is at odds with nearly three decades of U.S. nonproliferation policy and practice. Some believe the proposed agreement undercuts the basic bargain of the NPT, could undermine hard-won restrictions on nuclear supply, and could prompt some suppliers, like China, to justify supplying other states outside the NPT regime, like Pakistan. Others contend that allowing India access to the international uranium market will free up its domestic uranium sources to make more nuclear weapons."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Squassoni, Sharon A.
2006-12-22
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U.S. Foreign Assistance to the Middle East: Historical Background, Recent Trends, and the FY2007 Request [Updated December 21, 2006]
"This report is an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to the Middle East from
FY2002 to FY2006, and of the FY2007 budget request. It includes a brief history of aid to the region, a review of foreign aid levels, a description of selected country programs, and an analysis of current foreign aid issues. It will be updated periodically to reflect recent developments. For foreign aid terminology and acronyms, please see the glossary appended to this report. Congress both authorizes and appropriates foreign assistance and conducts oversight of executive agencies' management of aid programs. As a region, the Middle East is the largest annual recipient of U.S. economic and military aid. With Iraq in need of long-term reconstruction assistance, many analysts expect Iraq to become a regular recipient of U.S. foreign aid."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2006-12-21
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U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel [Updated December 15, 2006]
"This report provides an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to Israel. It includes a review of past aid programs, data on annual assistance figures, and an analysis of current issues. The report will be updated annually to reflect developments over the previous year. Israel is the largest cumulative recipient of U.S. foreign assistance since World War II. From 1976-2004, Israel was the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance, having recently been supplanted by Iraq. Since 1985, the United States has provided nearly $3 billion in grants annually to Israel. Strong congressional support for Israel has resulted in Israel's receiving benefits that may not be available to other countries. For example, Israel can use U.S. military assistance both for research and development in the United States and for military purchases from Israeli manufacturers. In addition, all U.S. foreign assistance earmarked for Israel is delivered in the first 30 days of the fiscal year. Most other recipients normally receive their aid in staggered installments. The United States gives all Economic Support Funds (ESF) directly to the government of Israel as a cash transfer grant rather than allocating funds for specific development projects. The Administration requested $120 million in economic aid and $2.34 billion in military assistance for Israel in fiscal year 2007. With continued conflict on Israel's borders, the 110th Congress may address issues concerning U.S. foreign assistance to Israel. According to various Israeli media sources, the Israeli government may request that the United States increase the annual percentage of U.S. military aid used for weapons procurement within Israel. Additional funding also may be sought for joint U.S.-Israeli anti-missile and rocket systems to counter Hezbollah and Hamas rockets attacks against Israeli cities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2006-12-15
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U.S. and Coalition Military Operations in Afghanistan: Issues for Congress [Updated December 11, 2006]
"The U.S. military has been involved in Afghanistan since the fall of 2001 when Operation Enduring Freedom toppled the Taliban regime and attacked the Al Qaeda terrorist network hosted by the Taliban. A significant U.S. military presence in the country could continue for many years as U.S., North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Coalition, and Afghan National Army (ANA) forces attempt to stabilize the country by defeating the insurgency, facilitating reconstruction, and combating Afghanistan's illegal drug trade. Despite NATO's assumption of command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), the United States will remain the largest troop contributing nation and will continue Operation Enduring Freedom, intended to locate and destroy insurgents and terrorists operating in Afghanistan. Recent NATO combat operations have resulted in a request for an additional 2,000 to 2,500 NATO troops as well as a call for NATO nations to rescind national caveats on how their forces may be employed in Afghanistan. Insurgent activity continues to evolve, with some of the tactics and techniques being used by Afghan insurgents reportedly similar to those employed in Iraq. Reports suggest that instead of building a 70,000 soldier Afghan National Army as agreed to in the 2002 Bonn Conference, the Administration intends to support a 50,000 soldier force, while some Afghan officials suggest that a 150,000 man Afghan National Army will be needed to insure both internal and external security. Senior U.S. officials have also stated that the Afghan National Army needs to be significantly better equipped if it is to become an effective security force."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2006-12-11
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U.S.-India Nuclear Cooperation: A Side-By-Side Comparison of Current Legislation [Updated December 8, 2006]
"In March 2006, the Bush Administration proposed legislation to create an exception for India from certain provisions of the Atomic Energy Act to facilitate a future nuclear cooperation agreement. After hearings in April and May, the House International Relations Committee and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee considered bills in late June 2006 to provide an exception for India to certain provisions of the Atomic Energy Act related to a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement. On July 26, 2006, the House passed its version of the legislation, H.R. 5682, by a vote of 359 to 68. On November 16, 2006, the Senate incorporated the text of S. 3709, as amended, into H.R. 5682 and passed that bill by a vote of 85 to 12. The Senate insisted on its amendment, and a conference committee produced a conference report on December 7, 2006. This report provides a thematic side-by-side comparison of the provisions of the conference report with H.R. 5682 as passed by the House and by the Senate, and compares them with the Administration's initially proposed legislation, H.R. 4974/S. 2429. The report concludes with a list of CRS resources that provide further discussion and more detailed analysis of the issues addressed by the legislation summarized in the table. This report will be updated as necessary."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2006-12-08
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United Nations Regular Budget Contributions: Members Compared, 1989-2005 [Updated December 14, 2006]
"Starting January 1, 2001, the United States was assessed to pay 22% of the annual United Nations regular budget. For calendar year 2005, 22% of the U.N. regular budget amounted to $439,611,612. Prior to January 1, 2001, the assessment level for the United States was 25%. This report shows, for the years 1989 through 2005, the assessment level, actual payment, and total outstanding contributions for the United States and each of the other U.N. members assessed at 1% or higher. For 2004 and 2005, a new category was added: the eight countries with assessments at 0.5% or larger but less than 1%. Three of these countries had, at some time since 1989, been assessed at 1%. Aggregated figures are provided for the rest of the U.N. membership. In 2005, the United States and 16 other nations were assessed to pay 86.408% of the U.N. budget. Contributors in the middle category were collectively assessed to pay 5.986%. In 2005, of the top 17 assessed countries, Brazil and the United States failed to pay their entire assessment and maintained unpaid or outstanding contributions. The matter of U.S. funding to the United Nations has been a high-profile congressional issue for a number of years. This report is updated annually, as the U.N. document upon which the data is based is published."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Browne, Marjorie Ann; Blanchfield, Luisa
2006-12-14
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Unmanned Vehicles for U.S. Naval Forces: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated December 13, 2006]
"Unmanned vehicles (UVs) are viewed as a key element of the effort to transform U.S. military forces. The Department of the Navy may eventually acquire every major kind of UV. This document examines the issues for Congress related to the Navy and Marine Corps UV programs. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2006-12-13
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U.S. Arms Sales: Agreements with and Deliveries to Major Clients, 1998-2005 [December 15, 2006]
"This report provides background data on United States arms sales agreements with and deliveries to its major purchasers during calendar years 1998-2005. In a series of data tables, it lists the total dollar values of U.S. arms sales agreements with its top five purchasers in five specific regions of the world for three specific periods: 1998-2001, 2002-2005, and 2005 alone, and the total dollar values of U.S. arms deliveries to its top five purchasers in those same regions for the periods 1998-2001, 2002-2005, and for 2005 alone. In addition, the report provides data tables listing the total dollar values of U.S. arms agreements with and deliveries to its top 10 purchasers worldwide for the periods 1998-2001, 2002-2005, and for 2005 alone. This report is prepared in conjunction with the annual CRS report for Congress entitled: Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1998-2005 (CRS Report RL33696), by Richard Grimmett. That report details both U.S. and foreign arms transfer activities globally, and provides analysis of arms trade trends. The intent here is to complement that elaborate worldwide treatment of the international arms trade by providing only the dollar values of United States arms sales agreements with and delivery values to its leading customers, by geographic region, for the calendar years 1998-2001, 2002-2005, and 2005. Unlike CRS Report RL33696, this report focuses exclusively on U.S. arms sales, provides the specific names of the major U.S. arms customers, by region, together with the total dollar values of their arms purchases or deliveries."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2006-12-15
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USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005 (H.R. 3199): A Legal Analysis of the Conference Bill [January 17, 2006]
"The USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005, H.R. 3199, as reported by the Conference Committee, H.Rept. 109-333 (2005), consists of seven titles. Among other things, Title I makes permanent 14 USA PATRIOT Act sections scheduled to expire on February 3, 2006 as well as the terrorism support amendments scheduled to expire on December 31, 2006. It amends and postpones until December 31, 2009 the expiration of the acts sections 206 and 215 relating to Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) orders for roving wiretaps and access to business records. It extends the temporary FISA 'lone wolf' provision to the same date. It clarifies and amends the 'National Security Letter' statutes in a manner designed to ensure their constitutional viability and for other purposes. It authorizes court orders approving wiretapping in the course of investigations of a number of terrorism-related offenses. As for other proposals reported out of conference, Title II revives the death penalty as a sentencing option for air piracy murders committed between 1974 and 1994, permits certain terrorists to be sentenced to a lifetime of supervision following their release from prison, and eliminates the redundant capital punishment procedures found in the Controlled Substances Act. It does not include the other capital punishment adjustments found in the bill which the House sent to conference. Title III carries forward the anti-terrorism, anti-crime proposals found in a separate freestanding seaport protection bill. Title IV reflects in modified form House and Senate suggestions for amending federal confiscation laws and other money laundering adjustments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles; Yeh, Brian T.
2006-01-17
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U.S. Policy Regarding the International Criminal Court [Updated April 26, 2006]
"One month after the International Criminal Court (ICC) officially came into existence on July 1, 2002, the President signed legislation that limits U.S. government support and assistance to the ICC; curtails certain military assistance to many countries that have ratified the Rome Statute establishing the ICC; regulates U.S. participation in United Nations (U.N.) peacekeeping missions commenced after July 1, 2003; and, most controversially among European allies, authorizes the President to use 'all means necessary and appropriate to bring about the release' of certain U.S. and allied persons who may be detained or tried by the ICC. The provision withholding military assistance under the programs for Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and International Military Education and Training (IMET) from certain States Parties to the Rome Statute came into effect on July 1, 2003. The 109th Congress reauthorized the Nethercutt Amendment as part of the FY2006 Consolidated Appropriations Act (H.R. 3057/P.L. 109-102). Unless waived by the President, it bars Economic Support Funds (ESF) assistance to countries that have not agreed to protect U.S. citizens from being turned over to the ICC for prosecution...This report outlines the main objections the United States has raised with respect to the ICC and analyzes the American Servicemembers' Protection Act (ASPA), enacted to regulate the U.S. cooperation with the ICC. The report concludes with a discussion of the implications for the United States, as a non-ratifying country, as the ICC begins to take shape, as well as the Administration's efforts to win immunity from the ICC's jurisdiction for Americans."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elsea, Jennifer
2006-04-26
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U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions [Updated May 12, 2006]
"When President George W. Bush announced his principles for immigration reform in January 2004, he included an increase in permanent immigration as a key component. President Bush has stated that immigration reform is a top priority of his second term and has prompted a lively debate on the issue. Bills to revise permanent admissions are being introduced, but only one has had legislative action thus far in the 109th Congress. A provision in P.L. 109-13 (H.R. 1268, the emergency FY2005 supplemental appropriation) makes up to 50,000 employment-based visas available for foreign nationals coming to work as medical professionals...Four major principles underlie current U.S. policy on permanent immigration: the reunification of families, the admission of immigrants with needed skills, the protection of refugees, and the diversity of admissions by country of origin. These principles are embodied in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). The INA specifies a complex set of numerical limits and preference categories that give priorities for permanent immigration reflecting these principles. Legal permanent residents (LPRs) refer to foreign nationals who live lawfully and permanently in the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2006-05-12
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U.S. Disposal of Chemical Weapons in the Ocean: Background and Issues for Congress [May 24, 2006]
"The U.S. Armed Forces disposed of chemical weapons in the ocean from World War I through 1970. At that time, it was thought that the vastness of ocean waters would absorb chemical agents that may leak from these weapons. However, public concerns about human health and environmental risks, and the economic effects of potential damage to marine resources, led to a statutory prohibition on the disposal of chemical weapons in the ocean in 1972. For many years, there was little attention to weapons that had been dumped offshore prior to this prohibition. However, the U.S. Army completed a report in 2001 indicating that the past disposal of chemical weapons in the ocean had been more common and widespread geographically than previously acknowledged. The Army cataloged 74 instances of disposal through 1970, including 32 instances off U.S. shores and 42 instances off foreign shores. The disclosure of these records has renewed public concern about lingering risks from chemical weapons still in the ocean today."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bearden, David M.
2006-05-24
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U.S. Space Programs: Civilian, Military, and Commercial [Updated June 13, 2006]
"The 109th Congress is addressing a broad range of civilian, military, and commercial space issues. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducts the most visible space activities. For FY2006, NASA received $16.623 billion when adjusted for two rescissions and an augmentation for hurricane recovery. The FY2007 request is $16.792 billion. The future of the U.S. human space flight program is dominating debate about NASA. The space shuttle returned to flight in July 2005 after a two and one-half year hiatus following the 2003 Columbia tragedy, but the next launch has been indefinitely postponed because of a foam-shedding event during that launch similar to what led to the loss of Columbia. Pursuant to the 'Vision for Space Exploration' announced by President Bush in January 2004, the shuttle program is to be terminated in 2010. The Vision directs NASA to focus its activities on returning humans to the Moon by 2020 and eventually sending them to Mars. The Vision has broad implications for the agency, especially since most of the money to implement it is expected to come from other NASA activities. Congress is debating the many issues raised by the Vision, including what the balance should be among NASA's various space and aeronautics activities, and whether the United States should end the shuttle program before a replacement is available. The Department of Defense (DOD) has a less visible but equally substantial space program. Tracking the DOD space budget is extremely difficult since space is not identified as a separate line item in the budget."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Behrens, Carl E.; Figliola, Patricia Moloney; Morgan, Daniel (Daniel L.)
2006-06-13
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U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions [Updated April 17, 2006]
"Four major principles underlie U.S. policy on permanent immigration: the reunification of families, the admission of immigrants with needed skills, the protection of refugees, and the diversity of admissions by country of origin. These principles are embodied in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). The INA specifies a complex set of numerical limits and preference categories that give priorities for permanent immigration reflecting these principles. Legal permanent residents (LPRs) refer to foreign nationals who live lawfully and permanently in the United States...Significant backlogs are due to the sheer volume of aliens eligible to immigrate to the United States. By the end of FY2004, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) reported 4.1 million immigrant petitions pending. Citizens and LPRs often wait several years for the relatives' petitions to be processed. After USCIS processes the petitions, the relatives of U.S. citizens and LPRs then wait for a visa to become available through the numerically limited categories. The brothers and sisters of U.S. citizens are now waiting 12 years. Unmarried adult sons and daughters of U.S. citizens who filed petitions five years ago are now eligible for visas. Prospective LPRs from the Philippines have the most substantial waiting times; consular officers are now considering the petitions of the brothers and sisters of U.S. citizens from the Philippines who filed more than 22 years ago."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2006-04-14
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U.S. Army's Modular Redesign: Issues for Congress [Updated May 5, 2006]
"In what the Army describes as the 'most significant Army restructuring in the past 50 years,' it is redesigning its current 10 active duty division force to a 42 or 43 brigade combat team (BCT) force by FY2007. The Army National Guard and Army Reserves will also redesign their forces in a similar fashion. The planned addition of active duty brigades and the conversion of Army National Guard brigades could provide a larger force pool of deployable combat units to ease the burden on units presently deployed, and possibly to shorten the length of time that units are deployed on operations. The Army has three other concurrent initiatives underway that it considers inextricably linked to its brigade-centric redesign: rebalancing to create new 'high demand' units; stabilizing the force to foster unit cohesion and enhance predictability for soldiers and their families; and cyclical readiness to better manage resources and to ensure a ready force for operations. These initiatives involve substantial cultural, policy, organizational, and personnel changes."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2006-05-05
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U.S. Public Diplomacy: Background and the 9/11 Commission Recommendations [Updated May 1, 2006]
"While the 9/11 terrorist attacks rallied unprecedented support abroad for the United States initially, they also heightened the awareness among government officials and terrorism experts that a significant number of people, especially within Muslim populations, harbor enough hatred for America so as to become a pool for terrorists. Over time it became clear that for the global war on terrorism to succeed, sustained cooperation from around the world would be required. In the years prior to September 11th, both Congress and the various administrations downplayed the importance of funding public diplomacy activities, and in 1999 abolished the primary public diplomacy agency - the U.S. Information Agency (USIA). Public diplomacy often was viewed as less important than political and military functions and, therefore, was seen by some legislators as a pot of money that could be tapped for funding other government activities. Even prior to the 2001 attacks, a number of decisions by the Bush Administration, including refusing to sign onto the Kyoto Treaty, the International Criminal Court, the Chemical Weapons Ban, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, damaged foreign opinion of the United States. After the decision to go to war with Iraq, much foreign opinion of the United States fell sharply, not only in the Arab and Muslim world, but even among some of America's closest allies. Some foreign policy and public diplomacy experts believe that using public diplomacy to provide clear and honest explanations of why those decisions were made could have prevented some of the loss of support in the war on terrorism."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2006-05-01
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Venezuela: Political Conditions and U.S. Policy [Updated December 22, 2006]
"Under the populist rule of President Hugo Chávez, […] most recently re-elected to a six-year term in early December 2006, Venezuela has undergone enormous political changes, with a new constitution, a new unicameral legislature, and even a new name for the country, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. U.S. officials and human rights organizations have expressed concerns about the deterioration of democratic institutions and threats to freedom of speech and press […]. As a result [of the benefit from the rise in oil prices], Chávez has been able to increase government expenditures on anti-poverty and other social programs associated with his populist agenda. […] U.S. officials have expressed concerns about President Chávez's plans for military arms purchases, his relations with such countries as Cuba and Iran, and his efforts to export his brand of populism to other Latin American countries. A dilemma for U.S. policymakers has been how to press the Chávez government to adhere to democratic principles […]. In the 109th Congress, the FY2006 Foreign Operations appropriations measure (P.L. 109-102) provided $2 million in Democracy Funds for Venezuela, and $2.2 million in assistance under the Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI). […]. Two resolutions on Venezuela were approved in the 109th Congress. H.Con.Res. 400 (Burton), approved July 26, 2006, condemned Venezuela's failures to stem the flow of narcotics through its territory and called for steps to restore cooperation between Venezuela and the Drug Enforcement Administration. S.Res. 607 (Bunning), approved by unanimous consent on December 6, 2006, condemned President Chávez's anti-American rhetoric […]."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2006-12-22
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U.S.-Vietnam Relations: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated January 3, 2007]
"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen for over 15 years. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship has been virtually normalized. Congress played a significant role in this process, which has been controversial. Some argue that improvements in bilateral relations should be conditioned upon Vietnam's authoritarian government improving its record on human rights, particularly in the Central Highlands region. Voices favoring improved relations have included those reflecting U.S. business interests in Vietnam's reforming economy and U.S. strategic interests in expanding cooperation with a populous country - Vietnam has around 85 million people - that has an ambivalent relationship with China."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.
2007-01-03
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U.S. and International Responses to the Global Spread of Avian Flu: Issues for Congress [Updated January 4, 2007]
"This report provides an up-to-date account of global H5N1-related human infections and deaths, outlines U.S. global avian flu programs, and presents some foreign policy issues for Congress. This report will be updated should Congress provides additional funds for global purposes, and then only if H5N1 becomes effectively transmissible from person-to-person. For information on U.S. domestic preparedness efforts, agricultural issues, and anti-avian flu efforts of overseas governments, see CRS Report RL33145, Pandemic Influenza: Domestic Preparedness Efforts; CRS Report RS21747, Avian Influenza: Agricultural Issues; and CRS Report RL33349, International Efforts to Control the Spread of the Avian Influenza (H5N1) Virus: Affected Countries' Responses."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji
2007-01-04
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United Nations System Funding: Congressional Issues [Updated December 28, 2006]
"The congressional debate over United Nations funding focuses on several questions, including (1) What is the appropriate level of U.S. funding for U.N. system operations and programs? (2) What U.S. funding actions are most likely to produce a positive continuation of U.N. system reform efforts? The U.N. system includes the United Nations, a number of specialized or affiliated agencies, voluntary and special funds and programs, and U.N. peacekeeping operations. Participating states finance the system with assessed contributions to the budgets of the United Nations and its specialized agencies. In addition, voluntary contributions are made both to those agencies and to the special programs and funds they set up and manage. For more than 60 years, the United States has been the single largest financial contributor to the U.N. system, supplying in recent years 22% of most U.N. agency budgets. (See Appendix B for an organizational chart that illustrates the components of the U.N. system.) Both Congress and the executive branch have sought to promote their policy goals and reform of the United Nations and its system of organizations and programs, especially to improve management and budgeting practices. In the 1990s, Congress linked payment of U.S. financial contributions and its arrears to reform. This report, which will be updated, tracks the process by which Congress provides the funding for U.S. assessed contributions to the regular budgets of the United Nations, its agencies, and U.N. peacekeeping operation accounts as well for U.S. voluntary contributions to U.N. system programs and funds. It includes information on the President's request and the congressional response as well as congressional initiatives during this legislative process. Basic information is provided to help the reader understand this process."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Browne, Marjorie Ann
2006-12-28
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U.S. Disposal of Chemical Weapons in the Ocean: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated January 3, 2007]
"The U.S. Armed Forces disposed of chemical weapons in the ocean from World War I through 1970. At that time, it was thought that the vastness of ocean waters would absorb chemical agents that may leak from these weapons. However, public concerns about human health and environmental risks, and the economic effects of potential damage to marine resources, led to a statutory prohibition on the disposal of chemical weapons in the ocean in 1972. For many years, there was little attention to weapons that had been dumped offshore prior to this prohibition. However, the U.S. Army completed a report in 2001 indicating that the past disposal of chemical weapons in the ocean had been more common and widespread geographically than previously acknowledged. The Army cataloged 74 instances of disposal through 1970, including 32 instances off U.S. shores and 42 instances off foreign shores. The disclosure of these records has renewed public concern about lingering risks from chemical weapons still in the ocean today. The risk of exposure to chemical weapons dumped in the ocean depends on many factors, such as the extent to which chemical agents may have leaked into seawater and been diluted or degraded over time. Public health advocates have questioned whether contaminated seawater may contribute to certain symptoms among coastal populations, and environmental advocates have questioned whether leaked chemical agents may have affected fish stocks and other marine life. There also has been public concern that chemical weapons could wash ashore or be accidentally retrieved during activities that disturb the seabed, such as dredging and trawl fishing. Although such incidents have occurred domestically and abroad, they are rare relative to the thousands of weapons dumped in the ocean. Assessing the degree of risks is difficult because of a lack of information."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bearden, David M.
2007-01-03
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War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [Updated December 21, 2006]
"For over three decades, war powers and the War Powers Resolution have been an issue in U.S. military actions in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Central America, and Europe. War powers have been at issue in former Yugoslavia/Bosnia/Kosovo, Iraq, Haiti, and in military actions responding to terrorist attacks against the United States after September 11, 2001. After combat operations against Iraqi forces ended on February 28, 1991, the use of force to obtain Iraqi compliance with U.N. resolutions remained a War Powers issue, until the enactment of P.L. 107-243, in October 2002, which explicitly authorized the President to use force against Iraq, an authority he exercised in March 2003, and continues to exercise for military operations in Iraq. A longer-term issue is whether the War Powers Resolution is an appropriate and effective means of assuring congressional participation in actions that might get the United States involved in war. Proposals have been made to strengthen, change, or repeal the resolution. None have been enacted to date. This report replaces Issue Brief IB81050 of the same name. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2006-12-21
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U.S. Assistance to the Former Soviet Union [Updated January 4, 2007]
"Since 1992, the United States has provided more than $28 billion in assistance to the 12 states of the former Soviet Union (FSU). It continues to provide nearly $ billion annually. This report describes the broad framework of U.S. assistance programs and policies in the region and then focuses on the FREEDOM Support Act (FSA) account under the foreign operations budget which, encompassing all U.S. objectives in the region, has often been the means by which Congress has expressed its views and sought to influence policy. Three objectives have been most prominent in the U.S. assistance program to the region - facilitating the transition from authoritarianism to democracy, promoting the introduction and growth of free market economies, and fostering security by controlling the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons and expertise. More recently, a fourth objective, very much encompassing the other three, has emerged - supporting the war on terror. A fifth objective of U.S. assistance, humanitarian relief, was mostly applied in the early 1990s in response to countries experiencing food shortages."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tarnoff, Curt
2007-01-04
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U.S.-Latin America Trade: Recent Trends [Updated January 10, 2007]
"Since congressional passage of Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) in August 2002 P.L. 107-210), the U.S.-Chile free trade agreement (FTA) and the Dominican Republic- Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) have been implemented. The United States has also concluded trade negotiations with Peru, Colombia, and Panama. Talks on the region-wide Free Trade Area of the Americas FTAA), by contrast, have stalled. Trade agreements cannot enter into force until Congress approves them and passes implementing legislation as defined in Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) legislation, and it is likely that the 110th Congress will consider implementing legislation for one or all of the bilateral FTAs. This report supports the congressional role in trade-policy making by providing an analytical overview of U.S.-Latin American trade data and trends. It will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)
2007-01-10
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U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress [Updated August 20, 2007]
"This CRS Report discusses policy issues regarding military-to-military contacts with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and provides a record of major contacts since 1993. The United States suspended military contacts with China and imposed sanctions on arms sales in response to the Tiananmen Crackdown in 1989. In 1993, the Clinton Administration began to re-engage the PRC leadership up to the highest level and including China's military, the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Renewed military exchanges with the PLA have not regained the closeness reached in the 1980s, when U.S.-PRC strategic cooperation against the Soviet Union included U.S. arms sales to China. Improvements and deteriorations in overall bilateral relations have affected military contacts, which were close in 1997-1998 and 2000, but marred by the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait crisis, mistaken NATO bombing of a PRC embassy in 1999, and the EP-3 aircraft collision crisis in 2001. Since 2001, the Bush Administration has continued the policy of engagement with China, while the Pentagon has skeptically reviewed and cautiously resumed a program of military-to-military (mil-to-mil) exchanges. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, in 2002, resumed the Defense Consultative Talks (DCT) with the PLA (first held in 1997) and, in 2003, hosted General Cao Gangchuan, a Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) and Defense Minister. General Richard Myers (USAF), Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, visited China in January 2004, as the highest-ranking U.S. military officer to do so since November 2000."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kan, Shirley
2007-08-20
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Water Infrastructure Needs and Investment: Review and Analysis of Key Issues [Updated June 13, 2007]
"Policymakers are giving increased attention to issues associated with financing and investing in the nation's drinking water and wastewater treatment systems, which take in water, treat it, and distribute it to households and other customers, and later collect, treat, and discharge water after use. The renewed attention is due to a combination of factors. These include financial impacts on communities of meeting existing and anticipated regulatory requirements, the need to repair and replace existing infrastructure, and concerns about paying for security-related projects. The federal government has a long history of involvement with wastewater and drinking water systems, with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) having the most significant role, both in terms of regulation and funding. The U.S. Department of Agriculture also plays an important role in rural communities through its water and wastewater loan and grant programs. These programs have been popular; however, states, local communities, and others have asserted that various program gaps and limitations may be diminishing their potential effectiveness. They also point to the emergence of new infrastructure needs and issues. A number of interest groups and coalitions have issued reports on infrastructure funding needs and related policy issues, as have EPA and the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). They present a range of estimates and scenarios of future investment costs and gaps between current spending and future costs. EPA and CBO, in particular, caution that projections of future costs are highly uncertain, and that funding gaps are not inevitable."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary; Copeland, Claudia
2007-06-13
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U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions [Updated June 25, 2007]
"When President George W. Bush announced his principles for immigration reform in January 2004, he included an increase in permanent immigration as a key component. President Bush has stated that immigration reform is a top priority of his second term and has prompted a lively debate on the issue. Thus far in the 110th Congress, a variety of bills (H.R. 75, H.R. 938, H.R. 1645, S. 1348, and S. 1639) would revise categories for permanent admissions. The bipartisan compromise proposal for comprehensive immigration reform was introduced in the Senate on May 21, 2007, as S.Amdt. 1150 to S. 1348, the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007. A modified version of that compromise (S. 1639) is expected to come to the Senate floor as early as June 26. During the 109th Congress, the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act (S. 2611) would have substantially increased legal immigration and would have restructured the allocation of these visas. S. 2611 would have doubled the number of family-based and employment-based immigrants admitted over the next decade, as well as expanded the categories of immigrants who may come without numerical limits. The Senate passed S. 2611 on May 25, 2006. The major House-passed immigration bill (H.R. 4437) did not revise family-based and employment-based immigration. Proposals to alter permanent admissions were included in several other immigration proposals (S. 1033/H.R. 2330, S. 1438, H.R. 3700, H.R. 3938, S. 1919)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2007-06-25
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U.S.-Vietnam Relations: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated August 22, 2007]
"After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, U.S.-Vietnam relations remained essentially frozen for over 15 years. Since then, bilateral ties have expanded remarkably, to the point where the relationship has been virtually normalized. Congress played a significant role in this process, and continues to influence the state of bilateral relations. Some argue that improvements in bilateral relations should be conditioned upon Vietnam's authoritarian government improving its record on human rights, particularly in the Central Highlands region. Voices favoring improved relations have included those reflecting U.S. business interests in Vietnam's reforming economy and U.S. strategic interests in expanding cooperation with a populous country-Vietnam has around 85 million people-that has an ambivalent relationship with China. In recent years, Vietnamese leaders have sought to upgrade relations with the United States, perhaps because of worries about China's expanding influence in Southeast Asia and the need for U.S. support for Vietnam's ultimately successful bid to enter the World Trade Organization (WTO). Many argue, however, that there is little evidence that Hanoi seeks to balance Beijing's rising power. Also, some Vietnamese remain suspicious that the United States' long-term goal is to end the Vietnamese communist party's monopoly on power through a 'peaceful evolution' strategy. Economic ties are perhaps the most mature aspect of the bilateral relationship. Since the United States extended conditional normal trade relations (NTR) to Vietnam in 2001, bilateral trade-primarily imports from Vietnam-has increased more than sixfold, to the point where the United States is now Vietnam's largest export market."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.
2007-08-22
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U.S.-China Military Contacts: Issues for Congress [December 14, 2010]
"This CRS [Congressional Research Service] report, updated as warranted, discusses policy issues regarding military-to-military (mil-to-mil) contacts with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and provides a record of major contacts and crises since 1993. The United States suspended military contacts with China and imposed sanctions on arms sales in response to the Tiananmen Crackdown in 1989. In 1993, the Clinton Administration re-engaged with the top PRC leadership, including China's military, the People's Liberation Army (PLA). Renewed military exchanges with the PLA have not regained the closeness reached in the 1980s, when U.S.-PRC strategic cooperation against the Soviet Union included U.S. arms sales to China. Improvements and deteriorations in overall bilateral relations have affected military contacts, which were close in 1997-1998 and 2000, but marred by the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait crisis, mistaken NATO bombing of a PRC embassy in 1999, the EP- 3 aircraft collision crisis in 2001, and aggressive naval confrontations (including in 2009). [...] Policymakers could review the approach to mil-to-mil contacts, given concerns about crises. U.S. officials have reported inadequate cooperation from the PLA, including denials of port visits at Hong Kong and aid to U.S. Navy ships in distress (Thanksgiving 2007). The PLA has tried to use its suspensions of exchanges while blaming U.S. 'obstacles' (including arms sales to Taiwan, legal restrictions on contacts, and the Pentagon's reports to Congress on the PLA). The PRC's harassment of U.S. surveillance ships (in 2009) and increasing assertiveness in maritime areas have shown the limits to mil-to-mil talks and PLA restraint. Still, at the Strategic and Economic Dialogue in July 2009, President Obama called for military contacts to diminish disputes with China. The NDAA [National Defense Authorization Act] for FY2010 (P.L. 111-84) amended P.L. 106-65 for the report on PRC military power to expand the focus to security developments involving the PRC, add cooperative elements, and fold in another report on mil-to-mil contacts. The two sides held a round of the DCT in December 2010, and the PLA belatedly invited Secretary Gates to visit in January 2011."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kan, Shirley
2010-12-14
