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• Constitutionality of Excluding Aliens from the Census for Apportionment and Redistricting Purposes [January 20, 2010]

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  "In the 2010 decennial census, the Census Bureau will attempt to count the total population of the United States. This includes, as in previous censuses, all U.S. citizens, lawfully present aliens, and unauthorized aliens. Some have suggested excluding aliens, particularly those who are in the country unlawfully, from the census count, in part so that they would not be included in the data used to apportion House seats among the states and determine voting districts within them. [...] From time to time, Congress has considered legislation that would exclude all aliens or only unauthorized aliens from being included in the census to apportion House seats among the states. Such legislation would have either amended the Census Clause of the Constitution or enacted or amended federal census statutes. In the 111th Congress, legislation has been introduced that uses both approaches. The Fairness in Representation Act would statutorily exclude aliens from the population count for apportionment purposes (H.R. 3797 and S. 1688). Under the above analysis, it would not appear to be constitutionally sufficient for Congress to amend the federal census statutes in such manner. Meanwhile, H.J.Res. 111 would take the other approach and amend the Constitution so that only U.S. citizens would be counted in the apportionment calculation. Other legislation in the 111th Congress would not raise the same constitutional issues since they would not appear to require the exclusion of any individuals for apportionment purposes. An amendment introduced by Senator Vitter to the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2010 (S.Amdt. 2635 to H.R. 2847), would have cut off funding for the census unless the census form included questions regarding citizenship and immigration status. The amendment was subsequently ruled to be non-germane. On the other side of the issue, the Every Person Counts Act (H.R. 3855) would prohibit the Census Bureau from asking about U.S. citizenship or immigration status."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lunder, Erika; Lee, Margaret Mikyung

  2010-01-20
• Asian Pacific Americans in the United States Congress [February 1, 2010]

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  "In the 111th Congress, a record 12 Asian Pacific Americans were elected to the United States Congress: 2 Senators, 8 Representatives, and 2 Delegates. Of the 40 Asian Pacific Americans who have served in Congress from 1903 to the present, there have been 5 Senators (3 of whom have also served in the House), 15 Representatives, 7 territorial Delegates, and 13 Resident Commissioners from the Philippine Islands. Resident Commissioners served from 1907-1946 while the Philippines was a U.S. territory and commonwealth (all were Philippine born). Of the 27 Asian Pacific Americans who were not resident commissioners, 18 were Democrats and 9 were Republicans. The ancestry of these Asian Pacific Americans has included Chinese, Chamorro, Filipino, Asian Indian, Japanese, Korean, Native Hawaiian, Samoan, and Vietnamese. They have represented California, Hawaii, Louisiana, Ohio, Oregon, Virginia, American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. They have served in leadership positions, including committee and subcommittee chairmanships. This report presents information on Senators, Representatives, and Delegates, including party affiliations, length and dates of service, and committee assignments. The bipartisan and bicameral Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus is also discussed in this report. It will be updated in each new Congress when information becomes available, or as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tong, Lorraine H.

  2010-02-01
• Social Networking and Constituent Communications: Member Use of Twitter During a Two-Month Period in the 111th Congress [February 3, 2010]

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  "This report examines Member use of one specific new electronic communication medium: Twitter. After providing an overview and background of Twitter, the report analyzes patterns of Member use of Twitter during August and September 2009. This report is inherently a snapshot in time of a dynamic process. As with any new technology, the number of Members using Twitter and the patterns of use may change rapidly in short periods of time. Thus, the conclusions drawn from this data can not be easily generalized nor can these results be used to predict future behavior. The data show that 205 Representatives and Senators are registered with Twitter (as of September 30, 2009) and issued a total of 7,078 'tweets' during the data collection period of August and September 2009. With approximately 38% of House Members and 39% of Senators registered with Twitter, Members sent an average of 116 tweets per day collectively. Members' use of Twitter can be divided into eight categories: position taking, policy, district or state activities, official congressional action, personal, media, campaign activities, and other. The data suggest that the most frequent type of tweets were district or state tweets (24%), followed by policy tweets (23%), media tweets (14%), and position-taking tweets (14%)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Glassman, Matthew; Straus, Jacob R.; Shogan, Colleen J., 1975-

  2010-02-03
• Campaign Finance Policy After 'Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission': Issues and Options for Congress [February 1, 2010]

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  "Following the Supreme Court's January 21, 2010, ruling in 'Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission', questions have emerged about which policy options could be available to Congress. This report provides an overview of selected campaign finance policy options that may be relevant. It also briefly comments on how Citizens United might affect political advertising. A complete understanding of how Citizens United will affect the campaign and policy environments is likely to be unavailable until at least the conclusion of the 2010 election cycle. [] Bills introduced as of this writing that may be relevant for legislative responses to Citizens United include, but are not necessarily limited to H.J.Res. 13, H.J.Res. 68, H.R. 158, H.R. 1826, H.R. 2056, H.R. 3859, H.R. 4487,H.R. 4511, H.R. 4517, H.R. 4522, H.R. 4523, H.R. 4527, H.R. 4537, H.R. 4540, S. 752, S. 2954, and S. 2959. Given the pace of developments since the ruling, this report is not intended to be exhaustive. Relevant legislation that has been introduced thus far is reflected through selected examples. Additional legislation will be included in future updates. This report is not intended to provide a legal analysis of Citizens United or of legal issues that might affect the policy options discussed here. CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R41045, 'The Constitutionality of Regulating Corporate Expenditures: A Brief Analysis of the Supreme Court Ruling in Citizens United v. FEC [Federal Election Commission]', by L. Paige Whitaker discusses legal aspects of the decision."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-

  2010-02-01
• Impeachment: An Overview of Constitutional Provisions, Procedure, and Practice [April 8, 2010]

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  "For the first time since the judicial impeachments of 1986-1989, the House of Representatives has impeached two federal judges. On June 19, 2009, the House voted to impeach U.S. District Judge Samuel B. Kent of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Texas. The impeachment trial of Judge Kent before the Senate was dismissed after Judge Kent resigned from office and the House indicated that it did not wish to pursue the matter further. [...] Under the Constitution, the Senate has the unique power to try an impeachment. The decision whether to convict on each of the articles must be made separately. A conviction must be supported by a two-thirds majority of the Senators present. A conviction on any one of the articles of impeachment brought against an individual is sufficient to constitute conviction in the trial of the impeachment. Should a conviction occur, then the Senate must determine what the appropriate judgment is in the case. The Constitution limits the judgment to either removal from office or removal and prohibition against holding any future offices of 'honor, Trust or Profit under the United States.' The precedents in impeachment suggest that removal may flow automatically from conviction, but that the Senate must vote to prohibit the individual from holding future offices of public trust, if that judgment is also deemed appropriate. A simple majority vote is required on a judgment. Conviction on impeachment does not foreclose the possibility of criminal prosecution arising out of the same factual situation. The Constitution does not permit the President to extend executive clemency to anyone in order to preclude his or her impeachment by the House or trial or conviction by the Senate."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bazan, Elizabeth B.; Henning, Anna C.

  2010-04-08
• Role of the Senate in Judicial Impeachment Proceedings: Procedure, Practice, and Data [April 9, 2010]

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  "This report examines the history, practice, and procedures of the Senate in fulfilling its constitutional obligation to try and to vote whether to convict and impose judgment upon judges impeached by the House of Representatives. The first section presents an overview of the impeachment process, including observations on parallels and contrasts between this institutional mechanism and the more familiar criminal judicial process. The second section discusses the rules used by the Senate to structure its proceedings. The third section describes the role of the Senate's Presiding Officer. The fourth section examines the use of Rule XI committees, otherwise known as impeachment trial committees. Special attention is given to the procedures of the committee during various stages of its proceedings. The fifth and sixth sections address deliberation and judgment by the full Senate, respectively. The seventh section provides a discussion of the length of Senate impeachment trials, examining in particular whether the use of impeachment trial committees have affected the length of Senate trials. The eighth and final section provides some concluding observations on Senate impeachment proceedings against judges. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Smelcer, Susan Navarro

  2010-04-09
• FY2011 Budget [March 9, 2010]

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  "This report provides an historical overview of the budget trends through the most recently completed fiscal year (2009). It discusses major budgetary challenges over the past several fiscal years given the current economic conditions and provides an in-depth discussion of the FY2011 budget process. Finally, it provides context for the issues facing the country's federal budget over the long term. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Levit, Mindy R.

  2010-03-09
• Iraq-U.S. Confrontation [Updated March 28, 2002]

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  "On January 29, 2002, in his State of the Union address, President Bush described Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as constituting 'an axis of evil.' Secretary of State Colin Powell told a Senate committee on February 5 that Iraq 'remains a significant threat to the [Middle East] region's stability.' He added that 'we have not ruled out other options' with respect to Iraq and went on to say that 'we believe strongly in regime change in Iraq.' Speaking of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, President Bush told reporters on March 13, 2002, that 'he is a problem. And we're going to deal with him.' On March 23, Vice President Dick Cheney told reporters that during his just-completed trip to the Middle East, he found regional leaders 'uniformly concerned about the situation in Iraq, in particular about Saddam Hussein's failure to live up to the U.N. Security Council's resolutions.' Meanwhile, in testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee on March 19, Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet said 'the jury's out' regarding any Iraqi involvement in the September 11 attacks but added that 'it would be a mistake to dismiss the possibility of state sponsorship, whether Iranian or Iraqi, and we'll see where the evidence takes us.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.; Katzman, Kenneth

  2002-03-28
• Iraq-U.S. Confrontation [Updated June 21, 2002]

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  "This issue brief covers the most recent U.S.-Iraqi confrontations, which began in the fall of 1998. It summarizes events that led to the crisis, the allied military build-up, military strikes against Iraq, international reactions, costs, and options for U.S. policy makers. It does not cover developments in the war in Afghanistan, except insofar as they may relate to the U.S.-Iraqi confrontation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.; Katzman, Kenneth

  2002-03-28
• Leaving Congress: House of Representatives and Senate Departures Data Since 1989 [September 24, 2010]

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  From the Document: "Members of Congress leave the House or Senate for a variety of reasons; these may include resignation, death, or chamber action during a Congress, and retirement, electoral defeat, or pursuit of another office at the end of a Congress. In the 101st Congress (1989-1990) through September 2010 of the 111th Congress (2009-2010), on average, two Senators and eight Members of the House of Representatives have left before the conclusion of a Congress. Over the same period, on average, 10 Senators and 55 Members of the House left Congress upon expiration of their terms of office. These figures include those Members who have announced an intention to retire at the completion of the 111th Congress. The data provided here may offer insight concerning the turnover of membership in each chamber, but any such conclusions should be drawn with care, as there appears to be no pattern to Member departures. This may be due in part to the individualized nature of congressional careers, which might include numerous events or actions that could affect Members' decisions to end their congressional service. This report will be updated at the conclusion of the 111th Congress. Detailed information regarding 111th Congress departures is available at http://crs.gov/resources/Pages/ Congress_111_departures.aspx."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Manning, Jennifer E.; Reynolds, Parker H.; Petersen, R. Eric

  2010-09-24
• Legislative Options After 'Citizens United v. FEC': Constitutional and Legal Issues [March 8, 2010]

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  From the Document: "In 'Citizens United v. FEC' [Federal Election Campaign], the Supreme Court invalidated two provisions of the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), finding that they were unconstitutional under the First Amendment. The decision struck down the long-standing prohibition on corporations using their general treasury funds to make independent expenditures, and Section 203 of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA), prohibiting corporations from using their general treasury funds for 'electioneering communications.' [...] In response to the Supreme Court's ruling, various proposals have been discussed and legislation has been introduced in the 111th Congress, including for example H.Con.Res. 13, H.J.Res. 13, H.J.Res. 68, H.J.Res. 74, H.R. 158, H.R. 1095, H.R. 1826, H.R. 2038, H.R. 2056, H.R. 3574, H.R. 3859, H.R. 4431, H.R. 4432, H.R. 4433, H.R. 4434, H.R. 4435, H.R. 4487, H.R. 4510, H.R. 4511, H.R. 4517, H.R. 4522, H.R. 4523, H.R. 4527, H.R. 4537, H.R. 4540, H.R. 4550, H.R. 4583, H.R. 4617, H.R. 4630, H.R. 4644, S.J.Res. 28, S. 133, S. 752, S. 2954, S. 2959, and S. 3004. This report provides an analysis of the constitutional and legal issues raised by several proposals, organized by regulatory topic: increasing disclaimer requirements, increasing disclosure for tax-exempt organizations, requiring shareholder notification and approval, restricting U.S. subsidiaries of foreign corporations, restricting political expenditures by government contractors and grantees, taxing corporate independent expenditures, and providing public financing for congressional campaigns. The report also addresses amending the Constitution."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Whitaker, L. Paige; Lunder, Erika; Manuel, Kate . . .

  2010-03-08
• Former Presidents: Pensions, Office Allowances, and Other Federal Benefits [March 21, 2013]

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  "The Former Presidents Act (FPA; 3 U.S.C. §102 note) charges the General Services Administration (GSA) with providing former Presidents a pension, support staff, office support, travel funds, and mailing privileges. The FPA was enacted to 'maintain the dignity' of the Office of the President. The act provides the former President--and his or her spouse--certain benefits to help him respond to post-presidency mail and speaking requests, among other informal public duties often required of a former President. Prior to enactment of the FPA in 1958, former Presidents leaving office received no pension or other federal assistance. Former Presidents currently receive a pension that is equal to pay for Cabinet Secretaries (Executive Level I), which is $199,700 in 2013. In addition to benefits provided pursuant to the FPA, former Presidents are also provided Secret Service protection and financial 'transition' benefits to assist their transition to post-presidential life. Pursuant to the FPA, former Presidents are eligible for benefits unless they hold 'an appointive or elective office or position in or under the Federal Government or the government of the District of Columbia to which is attached a rate of pay other than a nominal rate.' For FY2013, the President's budget requested $3,779,000 for expenditures for former Presidents, $108,000 (2.9%) more than the $3,671,000 appropriated for FY2012 (P.L. [Public Law] 112-74)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ginsberg, Wendy R.

  2013-03-21
• International Monetary Fund: Background and Issues for Congress [March 21, 2013]

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  "This report provides background information and potential policy issues for Congress concerning the International Monetary Fund (IMF, the Fund), which is the central multilateral organization for international monetary cooperation. The United States is the largest financial contributor to the IMF. Congressional interest in IMF activities has increased since the onset of the financial crisis in 2008. IMF lending has surged in recent years, including large loans to Greece, Ireland, and Portugal. Potential policy issues for Congress include the role of the IMF as a lender of last resort, the adequacy of IMF resources, and the effectiveness of IMF surveillance of financial and monetary conditions in its member countries and of the world economy."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Weiss, Martin A.

  2013-03-21
• National Broadband Plan Goals: Where Do We Stand? [March 19, 2013]

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  "On March 16, 2010, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) released 'Connecting America: The National Broadband Plan'. The National Broadband Plan (NBP) identified significant gaps in broadband availability and adoption in the United States, and in order to address those gaps and other challenges, the NBP set specific goals to be achieved by the year 2020. Goals were set for next generation broadband service; universal broadband service; mobile wireless broadband innovation and coverage; broadband access of Community Anchor Institutions; a nationwide, wireless, interoperable broadband public safety network; and broadband for tracking energy consumption. Three years after the rollout of the NBP, available data indicate that there has been progress towards reaching the 2020 goals."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kruger, Lennard G.

  2013-03-19
• Social Networking and Constituent Communications: Members' Use of Twitter and Facebook During a Two-Month Period in the 112th Congress [March 22, 2013]

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  "Communication between Members of Congress and their constituents has changed with the development of new online social networking services. Many Members now use e-mail, official websites, blogs, YouTube channels, Twitter, and Facebook pages to communicate with their constituents--technologies that were either non-existent or not widely available 20 years ago. Social networking services have arguably served to enhance the ability of Members of Congress to fulfill their representational duties by providing greater opportunities for communication between the Member and individual constituents. In addition, electronic communication technology has reduced the marginal cost of constituent communications; unlike postal letters, Members can reach large numbers of constituents for a fixed cost. This report examines Member adoption and use of two social networking services: Twitter and Facebook. The report analyzes data on Member use of Twitter and Facebook collected by an academic institution in collaboration with the Congressional Research Service during a two-month period between August and October 2011 and the adoption of both platforms as of January 2012."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Glassman, Matthew; Straus, Jacob R.; Shogan, Colleen J., 1975-

  2013-03-22
• Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance [Updated February 23, 2004]

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  "Operation Iraqi Freedom accomplished a long-standing objective, the overthrow and capture of Saddam Hussein, but replacing that regime with a stable, moderate, democratic political structure has run into difficulty. Past U.S. efforts to change the regime failed because of limited U.S. commitment, disorganization of the Iraqi opposition, and the efficiency and ruthlessness of Iraq's several overlapping security services. Previous U.S. Administrations had ruled out major U.S. military action to change Iraq's regime, believing such action would be risky and not necessarily justified by the level of Iraq's lack of compliance on WMD disarmament. In his 2002 and 2003 State of the Union messages, President Bush characterized Iraq as a grave potential threat to the United States because of its refusal to verifiably abandon its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs and the potential for it to transfer WMD to terrorist groups. In September 2002, the President told the U.N. General Assembly that unless Iraq fully disarmed in cooperation with United Nations weapons inspectors, the United States would lead a coalition to achieve that disarmament militarily, making clear that this would include the ouster of Iraq's President Saddam Hussein's regime. After a November 2002 - March 2003 round of U.N. inspections in which Iraq's cooperation was mixed, on March 19, 2003 the United States launched Operation Iraqi Freedom to disarm Iraq and change its regime. The regime fell on April 9, 2003."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2004-02-23
• Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance [Updated July 5, 2005]

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  "Operation Iraqi Freedom accomplished a long-standing U.S. objective, the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, but replacing his regime with a stable, moderate, democratic political structure has been complicated by a persistent Sunni Arab-led insurgency. The Bush Administration asserts that establishing democracy in Iraq will catalyze the promotion of democracy throughout the Middle East and would also likely prevent Iraq from becoming a sanctuary or incubator for terrorists, a key recommendation of the July 2004 report of the 9/11 Commission. The Bush Administration asserts that U.S. policy in Iraq is now showing substantial success, demonstrated by January 30, 2005, elections that chose a National Assembly, and progress in building Iraq's various security forces. The Administration says it expects that the current transition roadmap - including votes on a permanent constitution by October 31, 2005, and for a permanent government by December 15, 2005 - will be implemented. The Administration believes that it has largely healed a rift with some European countries over the decision to invade Iraq, and it points to NATO and other nations' contributions of training for Iraqi security forces and government personnel. The Administration has been working with the new Iraqi government to include more Sunni Arabs in the power structure; Sunnis were dominant during the regime of Saddam Hussein and now feel marginalized by the newly dominant Shiite Arabs and Kurds. Sunni Arabs form the core of the insurgency."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2005-07-05
• Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance [Updated May 16, 2005]

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  "Operation Iraqi Freedom accomplished a long-standing U.S. objective, the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, but replacing his regime with a stable, moderate, democratic political structure has been complicated by a persistent Sunni Arab-led insurgency. The Bush Administration asserts that establishing democracy in Iraq will catalyze the promotion of democracy throughout the Middle East. The desired outcome would also likely prevent Iraq from becoming a sanctuary for terrorists, a key recommendation of the 9/11 Commission report. The Bush Administration asserts that U.S. policy in Iraq is now showing substantial success, demonstrated by January 30, 2005 elections that chose a National Assembly, and progress in building Iraq's various security forces. The Administration says it expects that the current transition roadmap - including votes on a permanent constitution by October 31, 2005 and for a permanent government by December 15, 2005 - are being implemented. Others believe the insurgency is widespread, as shown by its recent attacks, and that the Iraqi government could not stand on its own were U.S. and allied international forces to withdraw from Iraq. Some U.S. commanders and senior intelligence officials say that some Islamic militants have entered Iraq since Saddam Hussein fell, to fight what they see as a new 'jihad' (Islamic war) against the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2005-05-16
• Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance [Updated January 7, 2004]

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  "Operation Iraqi Freedom accomplished a long-standing objective, the overthrow and capture of Saddam Hussein, but replacing that regime with a stable, moderate, democratic political structure has run into difficulty. Past U.S. efforts to change the regime failed because of limited U.S. commitment, disorganization of the Iraqi opposition, and the efficiency and ruthlessness of Iraq's several overlapping security services. Previous U.S. Administrations had ruled out major U.S. military action to change Iraq's regime, believing such action would be risky and not necessarily justified by the level of Iraq's lack of compliance on WMD disarmament. In his 2002 and 2003 State of the Union messages, President Bush characterized Iraq as a grave potential threat to the United States because of its refusal to verifiably abandon its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs and the potential for it to transfer WMD to terrorist groups. In September 2002, the President told the U.N. General Assembly that unless Iraq fully disarmed in cooperation with United Nations weapons inspectors, the United States would lead a coalition to achieve that disarmament militarily, making clear that this would include the ouster of Iraq's President Saddam Hussein's regime. After a November 2002 - March 2003 round of U.N. inspections in which Iraq's cooperation was mixed, on March 19, 2003 the United States launched Operation Iraqi Freedom to disarm Iraq and change its regime. The regime fell on April 9, 2003."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2004-01-07
• Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance [Updated April 5, 2005]

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  "Operation Iraqi Freedom accomplished a long-standing U.S. objective, the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, but replacing his regime with a stable, moderate, democratic political structure has been complicated by a persistent Sunni Muslim-led insurgency. The Bush Administration asserts that establishing democracy in Iraq will catalyze the promotion of democracy throughout the Middle East. The desired outcome would also likely prevent Iraq from becoming a sanctuary for terrorists, a key recommendation of the 9/11 Commission report (Chapter 12, Section 2). On the other hand, U.S. commanders and senior intelligence officials say that Islamic militants have entered Iraq since Saddam Hussein fell, to fight what they see as a new 'jihad' (Islamic war) against the United States. The Bush Administration asserts that U.S. policy in Iraq is now showing substantial success, demonstrated by January 30, 2005 elections that chose a National Assembly, a decline in the insurgency, and progress in building Iraq's various security forces. Plans are for votes on a permanent constitution by October 31, 2005, and for a permanent government by December 15, 2005. Others believe the insurgency is still widespread and that the Iraqi government could not stand on its own were U.S. and allied international forces to withdraw from Iraq."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2005-04-05
• Iraq: Weapons Threat, Compliance, Sanctions, and U.S. Policy [Updated September 27, 2002]

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  "In recent years, the United States has been unable to maintain an international consensus for strict enforcement of all applicable U.N. Security Council resolutions on Iraq, but it has largely succeeded in preventing Iraq from reemerging as an immediate strategic threat to the region. There is U.S. concern about the long-term threat posed by Iraq and, in the wake of the September 11 attacks, the Bush Administration has emphasized regime change as the cornerstone of U.S. policy. The exact means to implement that objective has not been announced, whether it be through international sanctions and diplomacy, military action, or covert action. The regime change policy is not openly supported by many other governments, particularly if it involves major military action, but many governments support U.S. action through the United Nations to enforce Security Council resolutions requiring Iraqi disarmament of its mass destruction weapons (WMD) programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2002-09-27
• Iraq: Former and Recent Military Confrontations with the United States [Updated October 16, 2002]

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  "Efforts by Iraq to impede U.N. weapons inspections since late 1997 and to challenge the allied-imposed no-fly zones over northern and southern Iraq have resulted in further confrontations with the United States and its allies. A decision by Iraq to ban almost all U.N. inspections on October 31, 1998, led the United States and Britain to conduct a 4-day air operation against Iraq on December 16-20, 1998 (Operation Desert Fox). The two allies launched approximately 415 missiles and dropped more than 600 bombs targeted at Iraqi military and logistical facilities. Since the December 1998 operation, the United States and Britain have carried out air strikes against Iraqi air defense units and installations on a frequent basis, in response to Iraqi attempts to target allied aircraft enforcing no-fly zones over northern and southern Iraq. On October 7, 2001, following the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States, the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations warned Iraq not to move against Iraqi opposition groups or attack its neighbors while the United States was involved in its campaign against terrorism."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2002-10-16
• Iraq: Divergent Views on Military Action [Updated October 3, 2002]

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  "Officials of the Bush Administration believe military action against Iraq may be necessary to eliminate threats posed by the Iraqi regime to the U.S. and international communities. President Bush has asked Congress to pass a joint resolution giving the President authority to use force if necessary to eliminate threats posed by Saddam Hussein's Iraq. Some Members of Congress, commentators, and analysts question the Administration's rationale for such action and its feasibility. This report summarizes arguments advanced by the Administration and by critics of the Administration's position. It will be updated as the situation continues to develop."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2002-10-03
• Iraq: Divergent Views on Military Action [Updated January 31, 2003]

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  "Officials of the Bush Administration believe military action against Iraq may be necessary to eliminate threats posed by the Iraqi regime to the U.S. and international communities. In October 2002, Congress passed a joint resolution (H.J.Res. 114) giving the President authority to use force if necessary to eliminate threats posed by Saddam Hussein's Iraq. Some Members of Congress, commentators, and analysts question the Administration's rationale for military action or favor delaying it to allow U.N. weapons inspectors more time to complete their findings in Iraq. This report summarizes arguments advanced by the Administration and by critics of the Administration's position. It will be updated as the situation continues to develop."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-01-31
• Cybercrime: Conceptual Issues for Congress and U.S. Law Enforcement [Janaury 9, 2013]

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  From the Summary: "Twenty-first century criminals increasingly rely on the Internet and advanced technologies to further their criminal operations. These criminals can easily leverage the Internet to carry out traditional crimes such as distributing illicit drugs and sex trafficking. In addition, they exploit the digital world to facilitate crimes that are often technology driven, including identity theft, payment card fraud, and intellectual property theft. Cybercrimes have economic, public health, and national security implications, among others. For over three decades, Congress has been concerned about cybercrime and its related threats. Today, these concerns often arise among a larger discussion surrounding the federal government's role in ensuring U.S. cyber security. Conceptualizing cybercrime involves a number of key elements and questions that include 'where' do the criminal acts exist in the real and digital worlds (and what technologies are involved in carrying out the crimes), 'why' are malicious activities initiated, and 'who' is involved in carrying out the malicious acts?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Finklea, Kristin M.; Theohary, Catherine A.

  2013-01-09
• Offshoring of Airline Maintenance: Implications for Domestic Jobs and Aviation Safety [December 21, 2012]

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  "The passenger airline industry in the United States has gone through significant changes since deregulation in 1978. In domestic operations, airlines now have almost total freedom to determine which markets to serve and what airfares to charge. Competitive forces, as well as higher fuel prices and changing travel patterns, have placed the industry under financial pressure, as evidenced by numerous mergers and bankruptcies. To stay competitive and profitable, many airlines have joined alliances to expand their global reach and achieve economies of scale. At the same time, price competition has forced airlines to contain costs. One of the practices aimed at keeping costs competitive is the outsourcing of aircraft maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO), either domestically or to foreign countries. The practice of outsourcing aircraft maintenance is not restricted to U.S. passenger airlines. Many foreign airlines and cargo carriers also send maintenance work to outside service providers. This report focuses on U.S. passenger airlines because their outsourcing of maintenance, especially to foreign countries such as China and El Salvador, has generated specific concern among Members of Congress. This report analyzes trends in MRO outsourcing and explains the major factors contributing to them. It then considers safety consequences, employment effects, and regulatory implications of increased foreign maintenance of U.S. passenger aircraft."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tang, Rachel; Elias, Bartholomew

  2012-12-21
• 'Fiscal Cliff': Macroeconomic Consequences of Tax Increases and Spending Cuts [January 9, 2013]

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  "A major policy concern for Congress has been when and whether to address the 'fiscal cliff,' a set of tax increases and spending cuts that would have substantially reduced the deficit in 2013. In projections made in March 2012 by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), this fiscal restraint, constituting 5.1% of output in 2013, would have reduced growth to 0.5% from 4.4%. Unemployment would increase by 2 million. In August, updated estimates projected growth at a 'negative' 0.5%. The American Taxpayer Relief Act (H.R. 8) eliminated part of the fiscal cliff. Policy choices with respect to the fiscal cliff are difficult because of the conflict between short-run and long-run economic and budgetary objectives. In the short run, the reduction in demand from the reduced budget deficits could damage an already fragile recovery. In the longer run, however, deficit reduction is needed to address a projected unsustainable debt level."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gravelle, Jane

  2013-01-09
• Army Corps Supplemental Appropriations: Recent History, Trends, and Policy Issues [January 17, 2013]

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  "Under its civil works program, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers plans, builds, operates, and maintains a wide range of water resources facilities. The Corps also plays a prominent role in responding to domestic natural disasters, in particular riverine and coastal flooding events. The Corps can assist in flood fighting at the discretion of its Chief of Engineers in order to protect life and property, principally when state resources are overwhelmed. The Corps is also authorized to protect and repair its own facilities in the event of flooding, and to operate a program, the Rehabilitation and Inspection Program (RIP), that funds the repair of participating nonfederal flood control works (e.g., levees, dams, dunes) damaged by flooding events. The Corps also undertakes a variety of other activities at the request of FEMA under the National Response Framework, which are outside the scope of this report. In recent years several natural disasters have required Corps response and repair activities with costs running into the billions. Congress provided most of these funds through supplemental appropriations. Over the 25-year period from 1987-2012, Congress appropriated $26.9 billion in supplemental funding to the Corps. Of this funding, $25.5 billion came through supplemental appropriations acts passed between 2003 and 2012. This funding was approximately half of the amount provided to the Corps for regular appropriations over this same period ($50 billion)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Stern, Charles V.; Carter, Nicole T.

  2013-01-17
• HIV/AIDS International Programs: Appropriations, FY2002 - FY2004 [Updated January 28, 2004]

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  "The Administration's FY2004 request for international HIV/AIDS programs totaled about $1.9 billion. The Consolidated Appropriations (P.L. 108-199), which was signed into law on January 23, 2004, would provide approximately $2.2 billion, including bilateral HIV/AIDS programs and contributions to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria. The bill would provide a total of approximately $2.4 billion for fighting HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases, particularly tuberculosis and malaria. Most international HIV/AIDS funding is included in the Foreign Operations Appropriations and the appropriations for the Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education. On May 27, 2003, the President signed into law H.R. 1298 (P.L. 108-25), the United States Leadership Against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Act of 2003, authorizing $3 billion per year for FY2004 through FY2008 (a total of $15 billion) to fight AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. Of this amount, up to $1 billion was authorized for the Global Fund in FY2004. The Administration had requested $200 million for the Global Fund, while H.R. 2673 would provide $550 million (pre-rescission)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2004-01-28
• HIV/AIDS International Programs: Appropriations, FY2002 - FY2004 [Updated July 29, 2004]

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  "The Administration's FY2004 request for international HIV/AIDS programs totaled about $1.9 billion. Appropriations bills that have passed the House would together provide approximately this amount, while legislation before the Senate would appropriate just over $2 billion. Most international HIV/AIDS funding is included in the Foreign Operations Appropriations (H.R. 2800/S. 1426) and the appropriations for the Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education (H.R. 2660/S. 1356). On May 27, 2003, the President signed into law H.R. 1298 (P.L. 108-25), the United States Leadership Against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria Act of 2003, authorizing $3 billion per year for FY2004 through FY2008 (a total of $15 billion) to fight the three diseases. Of this amount, up to $1 billion is authorized for the Global Fund in FY2004. The Administration has requested $200 million for the Global Fund, while House appropriations bills would provide $500 million and Senate bills $400 million."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2004-07-29