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Aging Infrastructure: Dam Safety [Updated August 9, 2007]
"While dams have multiple benefits (balanced against financial and environmental costs), they can also present a risk to public safety and economic infrastructure. This risk stems from two sources: the possibility of a dam failure and the damage it would cause. Although dam failures are infrequent, age, construction deficiencies, inadequate maintenance, and seismic or weather events contribute to the possibility. To reduce the risk, regular inspections are necessary to identify potential problems. Corrective action can then be taken to remedy those deficiencies. Congress is often called upon to fund remedial actions, as a way to prevent the larger catastrophes. The 110th Congress will likely see proposals for improving dam safety and may oversee existing safety programs. To identify deficiencies that could cause dam failures, the federal government established inspection requirements for the nation's federal dams. Once deficiencies are identified, most agencies finance repairs through their operation and maintenance accounts. Funding mechanisms vary for larger rehabilitation activities. At the Bureau of Reclamation, for example, most larger repairs are conducted with annual appropriations to its dam safety program. At some other agencies, dam rehabilitation must compete with other construction projects for funding. The federal agencies with dam safety responsibilities include the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), and the Departments of Agriculture, Defense, Energy, the Interior, Labor, and State. At nonfederal dams, safety is generally a state responsibility, though some federal assistance has been provided."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lane, Nic
2007-08-09
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Enforcing Immigration Law: The Role of State and Local Law Enforcement [Updated October 13, 2005]
"Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the enforcement of our nation's immigration laws has received a significant amount of attention. Some observers contend that the federal government does not have adequate resources to enforce immigration law and that state and local law enforcement entities should be utilized. Several proposals introduced in the 109th Congress would enhance the role of state and local officials in the enforcement of immigration law, including the Save America Comprehensive Immigration Act of 2005 (H.R. 2092); Clear Law Enforcement for Criminal Alien Removal Act of 2005 (H.R. 3137); Homeland Security Enhancement Act of 2005 (S. 1362); Comprehensive Enforcement and Immigration Reform Act of 2005; Rewarding Employers that Abide by the Law and Guaranteeing Uniform Enforcement to Stop Terrorism Act of 2005 (H.R. 3333); Scott Gardner Act (H.R. 3776); and the Enforcement First Immigration Reform Act of 2005 (H.R. 3938). This proposed shift has prompted many to question what role state and local law enforcement agencies should have in the enforcement of immigration law, if any. Congress defined our nation's immigration laws in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) (8 U.S.C. §§1101 et seq.), which contains both criminal and civil enforcement measures. Historically, the authority for state and local law enforcement officials to enforce immigration law has been construed to be limited to the criminal provisions of the INA; by contrast, the enforcement of the civil provisions, which includes apprehension and removal of deportable aliens, has strictly been viewed as a federal responsibility, with states playing an incidental supporting role."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ester, Karma; Seghetti, Lisa M.; Viña, Stephen R.
2005-10-13
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Canada-U.S. Relations [Updated May 15, 2007]
"During the 1980s, the United States and Canada generally enjoyed very good relations. The early 1990s brought new governments to Ottawa and Washington, and although Canada's Liberal Party emphasized its determination to act independently of the United States when necessary, relations between the two countries continued to be generally cordial. Canada's new Conservative government, under Prime Minister Stephen Harper, is regarded as more philosophically in tune with the Bush Administration than the Liberals were; some observers believe that this compatibility may facilitate bilateral cooperation. The two North American countries continue to cooperate extensively in international security and political issues, both bilaterally and through numerous international organizations. Canada's foreign and defense policies are usually in harmony with those of the United States. Areas of contention are relatively few, but sometimes sharp, as has been the case in policy toward Iraq. Since September 11, the United States and Canada have cooperated extensively on efforts to combat terrorism, particularly in Afghanistan...This report provides a short overview of Canada's political scene, its economic conditions, and its recent security and foreign policy, focusing particularly on issues that may be relevant to U.S. policymakers. This brief country survey is followed by several summaries of current bilateral issues in the political, trade, and environmental arenas. The report is updated annually."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ek, Carl
2007-05-15
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Latin America: Energy Supply, Political Developments, and U.S. Policy Approaches [October May 8, 2007]
"Western Hemisphere countries supply the United States with almost 50% of its imported oil and petroleum products. Three countries in the hemisphere: Canada, Mexico, and Venezuela, account for the lion's share. Other significant oil producers in the region include Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago, and Argentina...This report examines Latin America's current political environment and its apparent effect on energy production in the region. It also examines regional integration efforts, including Venezuela's oil programs offering oil to many Latin American and Caribbean countries on a preferential basis, the Mexico-led Meso-American Energy Integration Program, and the proposed South American natural gas pipeline. The report also examines policy approaches that have been proposed for increased hemispheric energy cooperation, congressional interest in the topic of hemispheric energy security, and related legislative initiatives."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.; Seelke, Clare Ribando
2007-05-08
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Lebanon [Updated September 4, 2007]
"The United States and Lebanon continue to enjoy good relations. Prominent current issues between the United States and Lebanon include progress toward a Lebanon-Israel peace treaty, U.S. aid to Lebanon, and Lebanon's capacity to stop Hezbollah militia attacks on Israel. The United States supports Lebanon's independence and favored the end of Israeli and Syrian occupation of parts of Lebanon. Israel withdrew from southern Lebanon on May 23, 2000, and Syria completed withdrawing its forces on April 26, 2005. Regional tensions increased in mid-2006, however, as clashes between Israel and Palestinian militants in the Gaza territory spread to Lebanon. In July, Hezbollah rocket attacks against Israel and capture of two Israeli soldiers prompted large-scale Israeli bombing of Hezbollah positions and Lebanese infrastructure. On August 11, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 1701, which ended the fighting and created an expanded international peacekeeping force in Lebanon. Sectarian and political factionalism has continued, however, with periodic escalation of tension. […] On May 30, 2007, a divided U.N. Security Council voted to establish a special tribunal outside Lebanon to try suspects in the Hariri case. Meanwhile, in late May 2007, frictions between the Lebanese Army and a splinter Palestinian faction known as Fatah al-Islam, based in a refugee camp in northern Lebanon, led to an outbreak of fighting and exacerbated already existing internal tensions. To help Prime Minister Siniora deal with current challenges, the Bush Administration requested a large increase in U.S. assistance, ultimately contained in H.R. 2206 (P.L. 110-28). Meanwhile, a radical Palestinian group mounted further challenges to the government of Prime Minister Siniora."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.
2007-09-04
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State E-Government Strategies: Identifying Best Practices and Applications [July 23, 2007]
"This report is based on research conducted under contract by the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs as a Policy Research Project (PRP). For this project, graduate students in the Masters of Public Affairs program at the LBJ School of Public Affairs undertook a two semester research program in 2005-2006 to identify some of the best practices in e-government strategies and management being carried out by state governments. Surveys were sent to all 50 states and the District of Columbia, yielding 38 completed surveys. The study also included site visits to six case study states: California, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Texas, Utah, and Washington. A set of core questions was used for each case study interview along with state-specific questions. Based on the results of the surveys and interviews, the students identified several critical factors that influence state e-government programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2007-07-23
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Immigration-Related Document Fraud: Overview of Civil, Criminal, and Immigration Consequences [Updated September 5, 2006]
"In order to enter or remain in the United States and be eligible for various immigration-related benefits, non-citizens (aliens) must comply with a number of document requirements under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). Attempts to circumvent these requirements are generally prohibited. Under the INA, an alien who uses, acquires, or produces fraudulent documents for immigration-related purposes may be subjected to civil penalties and denied certain immigration benefits. Additionally, certain fraudulent actions may carry criminal penalties under both the INA or the United States Criminal Code. This report discusses the primary civil, criminal, and immigration-related penalties associated with immigration-related document fraud. It also briefly discusses two notable proposals introduced in the 109th Congress that would heighten the consequences of immigration-related document fraud: H.R. 4437, the Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005, which was introduced by Representative James Sensenbrenner on December 6, 2005 and passed the House as amended on December 16, 2005 by a vote of 239-to-182 and S. 2611, the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, which was introduced by Senator Arlen Specter on April 7, 2006, and passed the Senate as amended on May 25, 2006, by a vote of 62-to-36."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garcia, Michael John
2006-09-05
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Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [Updated September 5, 2007]
"According to the Administration's 'National Security Strategy' document released on March 16, 2006, the United States 'may face no greater challenge from a single country than Iran.' That perception continues, generated primarily by Iran's nuclear program and intensified by Iran's military assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan and to Lebanese Hezbollah. In part to direct regional attention to that view but also to engage Iran on an Iraq solution, the Administration attended regional conferences on Iraq on March 10, 2007, and May 3-4, 2007, both attended by Iran (and Syria), and subsequently held bilateral meetings with Iran in Baghdad on May 28 and July 24, agreeing in the latter meeting to form a working group on Iraq security issues, which met for the first time on August 6. The Bush Administration is pursuing several approaches to attempt to contain the potential threat posed by Iran, but the U.S. emphasis is now on multilateral economic sanctions on Iran. Iran has not complied with repeated U.N. Security Council deadlines since August 2006 to cease uranium enrichment. […] To strengthen its diplomacy, the Administration has added components to efforts to contain Iran, including a consistent large naval presence in the Persian Gulf; arrests of Iranian agents in Iraq. The Administration strongly denies it is planning on military action against Iran, but has refused to rule it out."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2007-09-05
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Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies: FY2008 Appropriations [July 20, 2007]
"This report monitors actions taken by the 110th Congress for the FY2008 Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies (CJS) appropriations bill. For FY2008, the Administration has requested $53.355 billion for Departments of Commerce and Justice, certain "science" agencies, and related agencies, or about a 1.0% increase over the comparable amount appropriated by Congress for the current fiscal year ($52.843 billion). The request includes $6.596 billion for the Department of Commerce (a 0.4% decrease compared to the FY2007 enacted level), $22.252 billion for the Department of Justice (a 4.1% decrease), $23.744 billion for science agencies (a 6.9% increase), and $762.5 million for related agencies (a 4.8% decrease)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2007-07-20
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Export Administration Act: Evolution, Provisions, and Debate [Updated August 31, 2007]
"The 110th Congress may consider legislation to renew, modify, or reauthorize the Export Administration Act (EAA). On August 3, 2007, S. 2000 (Dodd) was introduced and referred to the Senate Banking Committee. The bill would revise the EAA, especially in the areas of penalties and enforcement. Through the EAA, Congress delegates to the executive branch its express constitutional authority to regulate foreign commerce by controlling exports. The EAA provides the statutory authority for export controls on sensitive dual-use goods and technologies: items that have both civilian and military applications, including those items that can contribute to the proliferation of nuclear, biological, and chemical weaponry. The EAA, which originally expired in 1989, periodically has been reauthorized for short periods of time, with the last incremental extension expiring in August 2001. At other times and currently, the export licensing system created under the authority of EAA has been continued by the invocation of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA). EAA confers upon the President the power to control exports for national security, foreign policy or short supply purposes. It also authorizes the President to establish export licensing mechanisms for items detailed on the Commerce Control List (CCL), and it provides some guidance and places certain limits on that authority. The CCL currently provides detailed specifications for about 2,400 dual-use items including equipment, materials, software, and technology (including data and know-how) likely requiring some type of export license from the Commerce Department's Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS). BIS administers the Export Administration Regulations (EAR), which, in addition to the CCL, describe licensing policy and procedures such as commodity classification, license applications, and interagency dispute resolution procedures."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Fergusson, Ian F.
2007-08-31
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Animal Waste and Water Quality: EPA Regulation of Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) [Updated August 31, 2007]
From the Summary: "According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the release of waste from animal feedlots to surface water, groundwater, soil, and air is associated with a range of human health and ecological impacts and contributes to degradation of the nation's surface waters. The most dramatic ecological impacts are massive fish kills. A variety of pollutants in animal waste can affect human health, including causing infections of the skin, eye, ear, nose, and throat. Contaminants from manure can also affect human health by polluting drinking water sources. […] This report provides background on the revised environmental rules, the previous Clean Water Act rules and the Clinton Administration proposal, and perspectives of key interest groups on the proposal and final regulations. It also identifies several issues that could be of congressional interest as implementation of the revised rules proceeds. Issues include adequacy of funding for implementing the rules, research needs, oversight of implementation of the rules, and possible need for legislation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copeland, Claudia
2007-08-31
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Federal Prison Industries [Updated July 13, 2007]
"UNICOR, the trade name for Federal Prison Industries, Inc. (FPI), is a government-owned corporation that employs offenders incarcerated in correctional facilities under the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP). UNICOR manufactures products and provides services that are sold to executive agencies in the federal government. FPI was created to serve as a means for managing, training, and rehabilitating inmates in the federal prison system through employment in one of its industries. The question of whether UNICOR is unfairly competing with private businesses, particularly small businesses, in the federal market has been and continues to be an issue of debate. The debate has been affected by tensions between competing interests that represent two social goods -- the employment and rehabilitation of offenders and the need to protect jobs of law abiding citizens. At the core of the debate is UNICOR's preferential treatment over the private sector. UNICOR's enabling legislation and the Federal Acquisition Regulation require federal agencies, with the exception of the Department of Defense (DOD), to procure products offered by UNICOR, unless authorized by UNICOR to solicit bids from the private sector. While federal agencies are not required to procure services provided by UNICOR they are encouraged to do so. It is this 'mandatory source clause' that has drawn controversy over the years and is the subject of current legislation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
James, Nathan
2007-07-13
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Immigration-Related Document Fraud: Overview of Civil, Criminal, and Immigration Consequences [Updated December 7, 2005]
"In order to enter or remain in the United States and be eligible for various immigration-related benefits, non-citizens (aliens) must comply with a number of document requirements under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). Attempts to circumvent these requirements are generally prohibited. Under the INA, an alien who uses, acquires, or produces fraudulent documents for immigration-related purposes may be subjected to civil penalties and denied certain immigration benefits. Additionally, certain fraudulent actions may carry criminal penalties under both the INA and the United States Criminal Code. This report discusses the primary civil, criminal, and immigration-related penalties associated with immigration-related document fraud. It also briefly discusses a recent proposal introduced in the 109th Congress, H.R. 4437, the Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005, introduced by Representative James Sensenbrenner on December 6, 2005, that would heighten the consequences of immigration-related document fraud. Reliable documents that accurately indicate the status and identity of the bearer are critical to the effective administration of immigration law. A range of documents, including immigrant and nonimmigrant visas, permits, border crossing cards, and alien registration receipt cards, may enable an alien to enter the United States and/or be eligible for various benefits for the duration of his or her stay. The integrity of the immigration system depends on the genuineness of the documents indicating the eligibility of a non-citizen (alien) to enter and remain in the United States or receive certain benefits and the records and papers submitted to obtain such documents."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garcia, Michael John
2005-12-07
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Air Quality: EPA's 2006 Changes to the Particulate Matter (PM) Standard [Updated May 14, 2007]
"On October 17, 2006, the EPA published its final revisions to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter (particulates, or PM). The EPA reviewed more than 2,000 scientific studies and found that the evidence continued to support associations between exposure to particulates in ambient air and numerous significant health problems, including aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis, reduced lung function, heart attacks, and premature death in people with heart or lung disease. Based on several analytical approaches, the EPA estimated that compliance with the new NAAQS will prevent 1,200 to 13,000 premature deaths annually, as well as substantial numbers of hospital admissions and missed work or school days due to illness. Although a tightening of the standards, the new particulates NAAQS are not as stringent as recommended by EPA staff or the independent scientific advisory committee (Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, or CASAC) mandated under the Clean Air Act. The new particulates NAAQS strengthen the pre-existing (1997) standard for 'fine' particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter (PM2.5) by lowering the allowable daily concentration of PM2.5 in the air. The new daily standard averaged over 24-hour periods is reduced from 65 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3) to 35 µg/m3. However, the annual PM2.5 standard, which is set in addition to the daily standard to address human health effects from chronic exposures to the pollutants, is unchanged from the 1997 standard of 15 µg/m3, although the CASAC had recommended a tighter annual standard in the range of 13 to 14 µg/m3."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McCarthy, James E.; Esworthy, Robert
2007-05-14
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Farm Labor Shortages and Immigration Policy [Updated September 5, 2007]
"The connection between farm labor and immigration policies is a longstanding one, particularly with regard to U.S. employers' use of workers from Mexico. The Congress is revisiting the issue as it debates a broad-based guest worker program, increased border enforcement, and employer sanctions to curb the flow of unauthorized workers into the United States. Two decades ago, the Congress passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA, P.L. 99-603) to reduce illegal entry into the United States by imposing sanctions on employers who knowingly hire individuals who lack permission to work in the country. In addition to a general legalization program, IRCA included legalization programs specific to the agricultural industry that were intended to compensate for the act's expected impact on the farm labor supply and encourage the development of a legal crop workforce. These provisions of the act, however, have not operated in the offsetting manner that was intended: substantial numbers of unauthorized aliens have continued to join legal farm workers in performing seasonal agricultural services (SAS). A little more than one-half of the SAS workforce is not authorized to hold U.S. jobs. Perishable crop growers contend that their sizable presence implies a shortage of native-born workers willing to undertake seasonal farm jobs. Grower advocates argue that farmers would rather not employ unauthorized workers because doing so puts them at risk of incurring penalties. Farm worker advocates counter that crop growers prefer unauthorized workers because they are in a weak bargaining position with regard to wages and working conditions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Levine, Linda (Linda H.)
2007-09-05
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Long-Range Ballistic Missile Defense in Europe [June 22, 2007]
"Successive U.S. administrations have urged the creation of an anti-missile system to protect against threats from rogue states. The Bush Administration believes that North Korea and Iran are strategic threats and questions whether they can be deterred by conventional means. The Administration has built long-range missile defense bases in Alaska and California to protect against North Korean missiles. The system has been tested, with mixed results, and questions have been raised about its effectiveness. The Administration has proposed deploying a ground-based mid-course defense (GMD) element of the larger Ballistic Missile Defense System (BMDS) in Europe to defend against the threat of long-range missiles from Iran. The system would include 10 interceptors in Poland, a fixed radar installation in the Czech Republic, and another forward deployed radar elsewhere in the region, but closer to Iran. Deployment of the European GMD capability is scheduled to be completed by 2013 at a cost of $4.04 billion. The proposed U.S. system has encountered resistance in some European countries and beyond. Critics in Poland and the Czech Republic assert that neither country currently faces a notable threat from Iran, but that if American GMD facilities were installed, both countries might be targeted by missiles from rogue states - and possibly from Russia."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hildreth, Steven A.; Ek, Carl
2007-06-22
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Changes to the SBA Disaster Loan Program: Proposed Legislation in the 110th Congress [Updated June 22, 2007]
"Members of the House of Representatives and Senate have introduced bills in the 110th Congress (H.R. 1361 and S. 163, respectively) to modify the Small Business Administration's (SBA) response to major disasters. The bills agree on certain fundamental questions, but differ in the details. Both bills address ways to improve SBA's response to large disasters. There is some congressional concern that following an exceptionally large disaster SBA staff may not be large enough to be able to respond as rapidly as Congress might wish. Both bills would increase disaster staffing and both would augment SBA's staff by allowing certain private lenders to either make loans on behalf of SBA or make loans that SBA would guarantee in a manner similar to SBA's other loan programs. Other provisions would allow for closer congressional oversight of SBA disaster responses. Under both bills, SBA would continue to make disaster loans to households and businesses. The maximum personal real property limit of $40,000 and the real personal property limit of $200,000 would not change. The maximum size of disaster loans to businesses would increase from $1.5 million to $3 million (House) or $2 million (Senate). Both bills would allow economic impact disaster loans to be made to nonprofits for the first time. Under both bills SBA would make smaller, quickly approved loans that could be folded into a larger permanent loan. The House would set a maximum for the expedited business loans of $25,000. The Senate leaves the maximum to SBA."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2007-06-22
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Access to Government Information in the United States [June 13, 2007]
"The Constitution of the United States makes no specific allowance for any one of the co-equal branches to have access to information held by the others and contains no provision expressly establishing a procedure for, or a right of, public access to government information. Nonetheless, Congress has legislated various public access laws. These include two records access statutes -- the Freedom of Information Act (FOI Act or FOIA; 5 U.S.C. § 552) and the Privacy Act (5 U.S.C. § 552a) -- and two meetings access statutes -- the Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA; 5 U.S.C. App.) and the Government in the Sunshine Act (5 U.S.C. § 552b). Moreover, due to the American separation of powers model of government, interbranch conflicts over the accessibility of information are neither unexpected nor necessarily destructive. The federal courts, historically, have been reluctant to review and resolve 'political questions' involving information disputes between Congress and the executive branch. Although there is considerable interbranch cooperation, such conflicts probably will continue to occur on occasion."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
2007-06-13
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Abu Sayyaf: Target of Philippine-U.S. Anti-Terrorism Cooperation [Updated July 26, 2007]
"From January 2002 until July 31, 2002, the United States committed nearly 1,300 troops to the Philippines to assist Philippine armed forces (AFP) in operations against the Abu Sayyaf terrorist group in the southern Philippines, on the island of Basilan southwest of Mindanao. From 2005 into 2007, the U.S. committed up to 450 military personnel to western Mindanao and Jolo island south of Basilan These U.S. non-combat, support operations were in response to Philippine President Arroyo's strong support of the United States following the September 11 Al Qaeda attack on the United States. […] Philippine government policy has been to apply military pressure on Abu Sayyaf. Operations have been constrained by several factors including difficult terrain, inadequate Philippine military equipment, avoiding clashing with the MILF and MNLF, and reportedly high level of corruption in the Philippine military. U.S. military support, however, did achieve successes. […] In 2005, U.S. forces began direct support missions for the Philippine military in western Mindanao against Abu Sayyaf, and U.S. military personnel began joint training exercises with the AFP in MILF areas of Mindanao. U.S. officials expressed concern over the presence of JI on Mindanao and links among JI, Abu Sayyaf, and the MILF. The Bush Administration supported the ongoing peace talks between the Philippine government and the MILF as the best means of eroding the MILF-JI linkage. However, coordination among Abu Sayyaf, JI, and elements of the MILF present the threat of a wider terrorist war in the Philippines and could confront the Bush Administration with decisions for greater U.S. involvement."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Niksch, Larry A.
2007-07-26
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China-U.S. Trade Issues [Updated August 20, 2007]
"U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past several years. Total U.S.-China trade, which totaled only $5 billion in 1980, rose to $343 billion in 2006. China is also now the 2nd largest U.S. trading partner, its 2nd largest source of U.S. imports, and its 4th largest export market. With a huge population and a rapidly expanding economy, China is a potentially huge market for U.S. exporters. However, economic relations have become strained over a number of issues, including China's large and growing trade surpluses with the United States; its failure to fully implement its World Trade Organization (WTO)commitments (especially in regards to protection of intellectual property rights), its refusal to adopt a floating currency system, its use of industrial policies and other practices deemed unfair and/or harmful to various U.S. economic sectors, and its failure to halt exports of unsafe food and consumer products to the United States. The Bush Administration has come under increasing pressure from Congress to take a more aggressive stance against various Chinese economic and trade practices. It has recently filed a number of trade dispute resolution cases against China in the WTO, including over China's failure to protect IPR and afford market access for IPR-related products, discriminatory regulations on imported auto parts, and import and export subsidies to various industries in China. In addition, the Administration recently reversed a long-standing policy that countervailing cases (dealing with government subsidies) could not be brought against non-market economies (such as China) when it brought against certain imported Chinese glossy paper products."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morrison, Wayne M.
2007-08-20
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FEMA Reorganization Legislation in the 109th Congress [September 1,2006]
"Members of Congress have introduced legislation in both the House and Senate to alter federal emergency management organizational structures and responsibilities, amend authorities that guide federal action, impose emergency management leadership qualification requirements, and make other changes. The proposals are based upon investigations conducted on the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and other entities in the response to Hurricane Katrina in the fall of 2005. Some observers reduce the matter to one basic question: 'Should FEMA remain within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), or should the agency regain their independent status it had before the creation of DHS?'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bea, Keith; Hogue, Henry B.
2006-09-01
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Immigration: Policy Considerations Related to Guest Worker Programs [Updated December 11, 2006]
"At present, the United States has two main programs for temporarily importing low-skilled workers, sometimes referred to as guest workers. Agricultural guest workers enter through the H-2A visa program, and other guest workers enter through the H-2B visa program… The current discussion of guest worker programs takes place against a backdrop of historically high levels of unauthorized migration to the United States. Supporters of a large-scale temporary worker program argue that such a program would help reduce unauthorized immigration by providing a legal alternative for prospective foreign workers. Critics reject this reasoning and instead maintain that a new guest worker program would likely exacerbate the problem of illegal migration. The consideration of any proposed guest worker program raises various issues, including the following: how new program requirements would compare with those of the H-2A and H-2B programs; how the eligible population would be defined; whether the program would include a mechanism for participants to obtain LPR status; how family members of eligible individuals would be treated; what labor market test, if any, the program would employ; whether the program would be numerically limited; how the rules and requirements of the program would be enforced; and what security-related provisions, if any, would be included."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2006-12-11
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Federal R&D Funding Under a Continuing Resolution [March 13, 2007]
"On February 15, 2007 President Bush signed into law P.L. 110-5 (H.J.Res 20), which provides funding for the nine outstanding regular appropriations bills through September 30, 2007.The 109th Congress passed two appropriations bills, the Department of Defense (P.L. 109-289, H.Rept. 109-676) and the Department of Homeland Security (P.L. 109-295, H.Rept. 109-699). P.L. 110-5 will fund most agencies at FY2006 levels through September 30, 2007. However, P.L. 110-5 contains some exceptions to those guidelines, including the centerpiece of the President's proposed FY2007 R&D budget, the American Competitiveness Initiative (ACI). Agencies are required to report their estimated FY2007 R&D funding levels to Congress by March 15, 2007."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Davey, Michael E. (Michael Earl), 1947-
2007-03-13
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Special Access Programs and the Defense Budget: Understanding the 'Black Market' [Updated October 24, 1989, Archived]
"It us generally accepted that there is a security advantage to be gained by exploiting a technology militarily and keeping potential adversaries from learning about its application and military usefulness. However, in an open, democratic system society where constitutional checks and balances are fundamental to the system of government, a natural tension exists between those who want access to information to facilitate decision -making and oversight and those who want enhanced protection to prevent military secrets from falling into adversaries' hands…The Senate version of the FY90-91 defense authorization bill (S. 1352) established additional reporting requirements pertaining to the reclassification of special access program data. The arguments made by those in favor of these changes reflect their concern about Pentagon motives, the practice of restricting information from some Members of Congress, and the need for an informed debate of program issues and costs. The arguments made by those who oppose proposed legislative innovations reflect their fear of inadvertently exposing the programs and budgets of the intelligence agencies and a general concern about making certain sensitive information more accessible to foreign intelligence interests. It is DOD's position that additional legislation was not and continues not to be required."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
1989-10-24
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Strategic Airlift Modernization [Updated March 16, 2007]
"The ability to project military power over great distances is a central tenet of the U.S. national military strategy and the massive military buildup before Operation Desert Storm (the 1991 war with Iraq) highlighted the value of strategic airlift. U.S. aircraft moved over 500,000 troops and 543,548 tons of cargo. Strategic airlift has also played a key role in recent conflicts. On April 10, 2003, the U.S. Transportation Command reported that it had exceeded its Operation Desert Storm airlift operations by flying 16,213 missions for the most recent war in Iraq, Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF)...Despite its importance, today's U.S. strategic airlift system is under stress. Over the past 10 years, the United States has reduced its Cold War infrastructure and closed two-thirds of its forward bases. Therefore, to maintain the same level of global engagement, U.S. forces must deploy more frequently and over greater distances. Even prior to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and resulting conflicts, the Air Force estimated that it deployed four times more frequently than when it enjoyed the larger, Cold War infrastructure. General Charles T. Robertson, former Commanding General of the U.S. Transportation Command, testified that 'Bottom line: This nation's number one defense transportation shortfall is its ailing and numerically inadequate strategic airlift fleet.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bolkcom, Christopher C.
2007-03-16
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Pakistan: Significant Recent Events [April 9, 2007]
"In recent months, militant attacks on government and civilian targets in Pakistan have escalated. This report documents major events that occur daily in the country of Pakistan and reflect on Pakistan's evolving relationships with the United States as well as with neighboring countries. Sources include Pakistani news outlets, reports by the U.S. government, and international resources. For a substantive review, see CRS Report RL33498, Pakistan-U.S. Relations, by K. Alan Kronstadt. This report will be updated as warranted."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Chesser, Susan G.
2007-04-09
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Manipulating Molecules: Federal Support for Nanotechnology Research [Updated August 2, 2007]
From the Document: "The Bush Administration requested $1.447 billion for nanotechnology research in FY2008, a $56 million increase over the estimated $1.391 billion for FY2007. (See Table 1.) Nanotechnology is a newly emerging field of science where scientists and engineers are beginning to manipulate matter at the molecular and atomic levels in order to obtain materials and systems with significantly improved properties. Ten nanometers is equal to one-ten thousandth the diameter of a human hair. Proponents of this technology argue that nanotechnology will lead to a new industrial revolution in the 21st century. Scientists note that nanotechnology is still in its infancy, with large scale practical applications 10 to 30 years away. Congressional concerns include the distribution of Program Component Area funding levels, the potential environmental and health concerns associated with the development and deployment of nanotechnology, and the role of the Food and Drug Administration as nano products move into the marketplace. As indicated in Table 1, the Administration requested $1,447 billion for nanotechnology research in FY2008, a 4% increase over the FY2007 estimated funding level of $1.391billion. Nanotechnology is the creation and utilization of materials, devices, and systems with novel properties and functions through the control of matter atom by atom, or molecule by molecule. Such control takes place on a scale of a fraction of a nanometer to tens of nanometers. Ten nanometers is equal to one-ten thousandth the diameter of a human hair."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Davey, Michael E. (Michael Earl), 1947-
2007-08-02
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Publications of Congressional Committees: A Summary [Updated March 28, 2007]
"House and Senate committees publish a variety of documents dealing with legislative and other policy issues, investigations, and internal committee matters. These include committee hearings; legislative, investigative, conference committee, and committee activity reports; calendars; and committee prints. These publications are usually available from the issuing committee, the House or Senate document rooms, and increasingly, from committee websites as well. For more information on legislative process, see [http://www.crs.gov/products/guides/guidehome.shtml]."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Glassman, Matthew
2007-03-28
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Kosovo and U.S. Policy: Background and Current Issues [Updated March 27, 2007]
"In 1998 and 1999, the United States and its NATO allies attempted to put an end to escalating violence between ethnic Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav/Serb forces in Yugoslavia's Kosovo province in southern Serbia. These efforts culminated in a 78-day NATO bombing campaign (Operation Allied Force) against Serbia from March until June 1999, when then-Yugoslav leader Slobodan Milosevic agreed to withdraw his forces from the province. Since then, Kosovo has been governed by a combination of U.N. and local Kosovar interim governing structures. Under the terms of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1244, the U.N. Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) retained ultimate political authority in the province. A NATO-led peacekeeping force, KFOR, was charged with providing a secure environment. […]The United States, in concert with other members of the international contact group and the U.N. Security Council, has taken a leading role in international policy on Kosovo. The United States has committed peacekeeping troops to KFOR since 1999 and has upheld an "in together, out together" policy with respect to keeping some U.S. forces in Kosovo along with the European allies. The U.S. Administration had strongly pushed for the status question to be resolved by the end of 2006, and officials have frequently emphasized the desirability of a swift status settlement. In Congress, U.S. involvement in the 1999 Kosovo war was controversial; after extensive debate, Congress neither explicitly approved nor blocked U.S. participation in NATO air strikes against Serbia."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie; Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-03-27
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Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Pipelines for Carbon Sequestration: Emerging Policy Issues [Updated April 19, 2007]
"Congress is examining potential approaches to reducing man-made contributions to global warming from U.S. sources. One approach is carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) - capturing CO2 at its source (e.g., a power plant) and storing it indefinitely (e.g., underground) to avoid its release to the atmosphere. A common requirement among the various techniques for CCS is a dedicated pipeline network for transporting CO2 from capture sites to storage sites. In the 110th Congress, a number of bills include aspects of CCS, but do not discuss in any detail proposals for pipeline infrastructure to transport captured CO2 from sources to storage sites. Many bills that mention some form of CCS focus on incentives for enhancing CO2 capture and/or on characterizing geologic reservoirs. Some bills, such as S. 962 and H.R. 931, include sections on promoting the development of technologies needed to separate and capture CO2 at its source, often as part of research and development provisions. Other bills, such as H.R. 1267 and S. 731, call for enhancing or expanding the national capability to assess potential U.S. capacity for safe and long-term CO2 storage in geologic reservoirs. In addition to these issues, Congress may examine how CO2 pipelines fit into the nation's overall strategies for energy supply and environmental protection. If policy makers encourage continued consumption of fossil fuels under CCS, then the need to foster the other energy options may be diminished - and vice versa. Thus, decisions about CO2 pipeline infrastructure could have consequences for a broader array of energy and environmental policies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Parfomak, Paul W.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)
2007-04-19
