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• Arms Control and Nonproliferation: A Catalog of Treaties and Agreements [Updated March 18, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Arms control and nonproliferation efforts are two of the tools that have occasionally been used to implement U.S. national security strategy. Although some believe these tools do little to restrain the behavior of U.S. adversaries, while doing too much to restrain U.S. military forces and operations, many other analysts see them as an effective means to promote transparency, ease military planning, limit forces, and protect against uncertainty and surprise. Arms control and nonproliferation efforts have produced formal treaties and agreements, informal arrangements, and cooperative threat reduction and monitoring mechanisms."

  Woolf, Amy F.; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Kerr, Paul K.

  2019-03-18
• Recent Developments in U.S.-Russian Nonproliferation Cooperation [October 13, 2016]

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  "On October 3, 2016, Russian President Vladimir Putin issued a decree suspending participation in a bilateral U.S.- Russia weapons plutonium disposal agreement (the 2000 Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement, or PMDA). The next day, Russia suspended participation in a 2013 cooperative agreement on nuclear- and energy-related research and terminated a third from 2010 on exploring options for converting research reactors from weapons-usable fuel. These agreements are part of a suite of nonproliferation and nuclear security agreements the two countries concluded starting in the 1990s to prevent diversion of weapons-usable nuclear materials. Russia's recent steps contribute to a continuing decline in U.S.-Russian nonproliferation cooperation that accelerated in 2014 after Russia's invasion of Ukraine. At the same time, Russia has not suspended its participation in the New START arms control agreement that reduces nuclear warheads. [...] The Russian suspensions come at a time of increased tension in U.S.-Russia relations due to the collapse of a recent ceasefire agreement in Syria the two countries had brokered. The same day Russia suspended the PMDA, the State Department announced the United States was suspending its 'participation in bilateral channels with Russia' to sustain the Cessation of Hostilities in Syria, citing Russia's failure 'to live up to its own commitments.' In a statement on the PMDA suspension, the Russian Foreign Minister said Moscow's decision was 'a signal to Washington that it cannot use the language of force, sanctions and ultimatums with Russia while continuing to selectively cooperate with our country only when it benefits the U.S.'"

  Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Welt, Cory

  2016-10-13
• International Crises and Disasters: U.S. Humanitarian Assistance Response Mechanisms [August 1, 2013]

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  "The majority of humanitarian emergencies worldwide stem from natural disasters or from conflicts. Congress has consistently supported humanitarian efforts as a means of responding to crises in the short term, taking the lead, and promoting a U.S. presence. Intervention results in varying amounts of relief and recovery assistance and can have an important impact not only on the relief operation itself but on broader foreign policy issues. In the 113th Congress, international humanitarian and refugee assistance is expected to continue to have a strong measure of bipartisan support, with key policy issues focused on budget priorities, levels and types of funding, the sources of other support available worldwide, and the ways in which operational assistance is delivered. Factors that may impact decision-making include the type of humanitarian assistance required, the impact of conflict and refugee flows on stability in the region in question, and the role of neighboring countries in contributing to the relief effort. Examples of issues likely to remain of congressional interest include competing aid and budget priorities, reimbursing U.S. government agencies for their expenditures (to replenish the emergency accounts or other accounts that have been used to provide assistance), and civilian and military coordination, including the evolving role of the Department of Defense in humanitarian assistance. Other priorities may include an examination of the disparity between numbers of internally displaced persons and refugees worldwide and the available funding for these groups; physical protection of refugees and other vulnerable populations in addition to the protection of human rights; programs to address gender based violence; and the creation of durable solutions for displaced populations."

  United States. Department of Justice. Office of Legal Counsel

  Margesson, Rhoda

  2013-08-01
• International Crises and Disasters: U.S. Humanitarian Assistance Response Mechanisms [October 16, 2015]

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  "The majority of humanitarian emergencies worldwide stem from natural disasters or from conflicts. Congress has consistently supported humanitarian efforts as a means of saving lives, promoting stability, and furthering U.S. foreign policy objectives. Intervention results in varying amounts of relief and recovery assistance and can have an important impact not only on the relief operation itself but on broader foreign policy issues. In the 114th Congress, international humanitarian and refugee assistance is expected to continue to have a strong measure of bipartisan interest, with key policy issues focused on budget priorities, levels and types of funding, the sources of other support available worldwide, and the ways in which operational assistance is delivered. […] This report examines U.S. humanitarian assistance in international crises and disaster situations. It considers the sources and types of U.S. government aid, the response mechanisms of key U.S. agencies and departments, and possible issues for Congress--including competing aid and budget priorities, burdensharing and donor-fatigue, the transparency and efficacy of U.S. humanitarian assistance, consequences of such assistance, and potential links to broader U.S. foreign policy goals."

  United States. Department of Justice. Office of Legal Counsel

  Margesson, Rhoda

  2015-10-16
• 2017 Disaster Supplemental Appropriations: Overview [January 25, 2018]

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  "According to the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2017 was 'a historic year of weather and climate disasters' for the United States. A combination of deadly hurricanes and wildfires were among the 57 major disasters declared under the Stafford Act in 2017. The series of supplemental appropriations requested and provided in the wake of 2017's hurricanes and wildfires are the latest exercise of one congressional role in disaster situations--to exercise 'the power of the purse' to provide relief to state and local governments overwhelmed by disaster response and recovery needs, fund certain relief for individuals and small businesses, and to repair damage to federal facilities."

  2018-01-25
• National Nuclear Security Administration: Additional Actions Needed to Collect Common Financial Data, Report to Congressional Committees

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  "GAO [Government Accountability Office] has identified challenges in determining and comparing costs across NNSA's [National Nuclear Security Administration] eight sites. Congress needs this information to carry out its oversight responsibilities and make budgetary decisions. [...] This report examines the status of the effort to consolidate the business systems at Y12 [Y-12 National Security Complex] and Pantex [Pantex Plant] and the extent to which CNS [Consolidated Nuclear Security, LLC] and NNSA followed guidance and leading practices, and the steps NNSA has taken in implementing common financial reporting across all eight sites and the extent to which this effort follows leading practices."

  United States. Government Accountability Office

  2019-01
• Priority Open Recommendations: Department of Justice

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  From the Document: "The purpose of this letter is to provide an update on the overall status of the Department of Justice's (DOJ) implementation of GAO's [Government Accountability Office] recommendations and to call your personal attention to areas where open recommendations should be given high priority. In November 2018, we reported that on a government-wide basis, 77 percent of our recommendations made 4 years ago were implemented. DOJ's recommendation implementation rate was 86 percent. As of January 2019, DOJ had 112 open recommendations. Fully implementing these open recommendations could significantly improve DOJ's operations."

  United States. Government Accountability Office

  2019-04-10
• Analysis of Data Regarding Certain Individuals Identified Through Secure Communities: Updating the Previous Analysis with Citizenship Data [Memorandum for the House Judiciary Committee from the Congressional Research Service]

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  "This memorandum responds to your request that the Congressional Research Service (CRS) provide additional analysis of data provided to the House Judiciary Committee by the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). The data includes records (entries) regarding individuals who were identified through ICE's Secure Communities program between Octoer 27, 2008 and July 31, 2011, but who were not removed or taken into custody. This memorandum provides additional analysis to the July 10, 2012 CRS memorandum entitled 'Analysis of Data Regarding Certain Individuals Identified Through Secure Communities', and the July 13, 2012 CRS memorandum entitled 'Additional Analysis of Data Regarding Certain Individuals Identified Through Secure Communities: Other Crimes Category'."

  United States. Congress. House. Committee on the Judiciary

  2012-07-27
• Gangs and Crime in Latin America, Testimony of Detective First Class Kelly L. Smith, Before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, One Hundred and Ninth Congress, April 20, 2005

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  From the 'Timeline Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) Gang in Howard County' section: "As we have seen with many other immigrant communities, a small element of the population turns to criminal activity. Often they start out by preying on members of their own community. Much of this crime goes unreported. In the case of the Hispanic Community we have seen an increased presence of a gang known as Mara Salvatrucha or MS-13. We first began hearing about MS-13 around 1999 at area gang information sharing meetings. By 2000, we knew that MS-13 were prevalent in Northern Virginia and also in our bordering counties of Montgomery and Prince George's. In 2001, our first known MS-13 member was arrested in Howard County. The following year (2002) we began arresting multiple MS-13 members that we committing crimes within Howard County. In 2003, we handled our first graffiti case involving Mara Salvatrucha and the number of reports and arrests continued to increase. By 2004, we were investigating MS-13 members for major crimes including rape, robbery and assault. During the past four years we have documented 57 incidents and identified 55 MS-13 members that have either been arrested or involved in criminal activity within Howard County. We have also seen an increase in the number of MS-13 members living within our community."

  United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs

  2005-04-20
• Homeland Security: Coordinated Planning and Standards Needed to Better Manage First Responder Grants in the National Capital Region, Statement of William O. Jenkins, Jr. Director, Homeland Security and Justice Issues, Testimony Before the Committee on Government Reform, House of Representatives

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  Since the tragic events of, September 11, 2001, the National, Capital Region (NCR), comprising, jurisdictions including the District, of Columbia and surrounding, jurisdictions in Maryland and, Virginia, has been recognized as a, significant potential target for, terrorism. The General Accounting Office was asked to, report on (1) what federal funds, have been allocated to NCR, jurisdictions for emergency, preparedness; (2) what challenges, exist within NCR to organizing and, implementing efficient and, effective regional preparedness, programs; (3) what gaps, if any,, remain in the emergency, preparedness of NCR; and (4) what, has been the role of the, Department of Homeland Security, in NCR to date. LLIS Core Capability: Emergency Management; State and Local Executive Offices

  United States. General Accounting Office

  2004-06-24
• Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate: S. 793: Organization of American States Revitalization and Reform Act of 2013

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  "S. 793 would require the Secretary of State to develop a multiyear strategy to bolster the Organization of American States (OAS) and improve the OAS's processes for managing its budget and personnel. The act would require the Secretary to provide quarterly briefings to the Congress on the progress of implementing that strategy. CBO [Congressional Budget Office] estimates that implementing S. 793 would have discretionary costs of less than $500,000 each year and that total $1 million over the 2014-2018 period, assuming the availability of appropriated funds. Pay-as-you-go procedures do not apply to this legislation because it would not affect direct spending or revenues. S. 793 contains no intergovernmental or private-sector mandates as defined in the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act and would not affect the budgets of state, local, or tribal governments."

  United States. Congressional Budget Office

  2013-07-31
• Department of Energy: Performance Evaluations Could Better Assess Management and Operating Contractor Costs, Report to Congressional Requesters

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  "In fiscal years 2006 through 2016, the federal government spent almost $193 billion on DOE's [Department of Energy] M&O [Management and Operating] contracts--a form of contract that traces its origins to the Manhattan Project. Six DOE offices use M&O contracts to manage and operate federally owned sites that perform work to fulfill DOE's diverse missions, such as conducting scientific research and maintaining nuclear weapons. [...] This report examines, among other things, (1) how DOE offices evaluated M&O contractor performance in fiscal years 2006 through 2016; (2) the extent to which DOE's fiscal year 2016 M&O contractor PERs [Performance Evaluation Reports] provide information on contractors' technical, administrative, and cost performance; and (3) the results of DOE's M&O contractor performance evaluations for fiscal years 2006 through 2016."

  United States. Government Accountability Office

  2019-02
• Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate: H.R. 2097, Legacies of War Recognition and Unexploded Ordnance Removal Act

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  This is the Congressional Budget Office Cost Estimate as ordered reported by the House Committee on Foreign Affairs on July 17, 2019. From the Document: "H.R. 2097 would authorize the appropriation of $50 million each year over the 2020-2024 period for assistance to Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The amounts would be used to locate and clear unexploded weapons and to provide humanitarian assistance. The bill also would require the President to brief the Congress each year about that assistance. Using information about similar assistance currently being provided to those countries, CBO [Congressional Budget Office] estimates that implementing the bill would cost $132 million over the 2020-2024 period; such spending would be subject to appropriation of the specified amounts."

  United States. Congressional Budget Office

  2019-08-26
• Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority: Actions Needed to Strengthen Capital Planning and Track Preventive Maintenance Program, Report to Congressional Requesters

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  "GAO [Government Accountability Office] was asked to examine issues related to WMATA's [Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority] capital funding and maintenance practices. This report examines: how WMATA spent its capital funds from fiscal years 2011 through 2017, how WMATA's new capital planning process addresses weaknesses it identified in the prior process, and WMATA's progress toward its track preventive maintenance program's goals and how the program aligns with leading program management practices"

  United States. Government Accountability Office

  2019-01
• Final Report from the Republican Members of the Task Force on Denying Terrorists Entry to the United States

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  "Given the terrorism threat currently facing the United States, the House Homeland Security Committee established the Task Force on Denying Terrorists Entry into the United States (the Task Force) in February 2017. Chairman McCaul (R-TX) and Ranking Member Thompson (D-MS) appointed Rep. Mike Gallagher (R-WI) and Rep. Bonnie Watson Coleman (D-NJ) to lead a bipartisan group of lawmakers. In addition to following up on the work done by the Committee's previous bipartisan Task Force, this new Task Force was charged with: examining how terrorists might infiltrate the homeland; identifying challenges with current U.S. government information sharing and vetting procedures; reviewing the screening agencies' structure and bureaucracy; and providing substantive recommendations to fix any weaknesses in these systems. [...] The Task Force identified seven challenges in America's screening and vetting framework prior to an individual's arrival in the homeland [...] Therefore, as a result of its investigation, the Task Force has seven recommendations designed to close gaps in our defenses."

  United States. Congress. House. Committee on Homeland Security

  McCaul, Michael T.; Gallagher, Michael J.; Higgins, Clay . . .

  2017-12
• How to Safely Wear and Take Off a Cloth Face Covering

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  This guidance provides details on how to "wear your face covering correctly," "use the face covering to protect others," and "follow everyday health habits" amid the coronvirus disease 2019 pandemic.

  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.)

  2020-04-30
• Advanced Spectroscopic Portal Program: Background and Issues for Congress [September 03, 2009]

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  "The Domestic Nuclear Detection Office (DNDO) of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is charged with developing and procuring equipment to prevent a terrorist nuclear or radiological attack in the United States. At the forefront of DNDO's efforts are technologies currently deployed and under development whose purpose is to detect smuggled nuclear and radiological materials. These technologies include existing radiation portal monitors and nextgeneration replacements known as advanced spectroscopic portals (ASPs). Radiation portal monitors are used to detect radiation emitted from conveyances, such as trucks, entering the United States. Combined with additional equipment to identify the source of the emitted radiation, they provide for a detection and identification capability to locate smuggled nuclear and radiological materials. The ASPs currently under testing integrate these detection and identification steps into a single process. By doing this, DHS aims to reduce the impact of radiation screening on commerce while increasing its ability to detect illicit nuclear material. […]Laboratory and field tests of the ASPs, cost-benefit analyses, and other activities are under way to inform the Secretary's certification decision. Among the issues Congress faces are whether to further define the expected performance of the ASP systems through additional legislation; how to assess whether the ASP systems are technologically ready to be deployed; how to weigh the potential economic and security benefits of ASP deployment against its financial cost; and whether the certification process developed by DHS to establish a 'significant increase in operational effectiveness' is well founded."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Moteff, John D.; Shea, Dana A.; Morgan, Daniel (Daniel L.)

  2009-09-03
• Security Assistance Reform: 'Section 1206' Background and Issues for Congress [February 11, 2011]

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  "Section 1206 of the National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) for Fiscal Year 2006, as amended and regularly extended, provides the Secretary of Defense with authority to train and equip foreign military and foreign maritime security forces for two specified purposes. The Department of Defense (DOD) values this authority as an important tool to train and equip military partners. Funds may be obligated only with the concurrence of the Secretary of State. Thus far, the Department of Defense (DOD) has used Section 1206 authority primarily to provide counterterrorism (CT) support. In FY2010, Section 1206 funds were also used to provide significant assistance to train and equip foreign military forces for military and stability operations in which U.S. forces participate. […] Some Members of Congress are concerned with several issues related to Section 1206 authority, both narrow and broad. Specific current concerns include whether Section 1206 funds are being used appropriately and effectively, and whether the authority should be expanded to provide training not only to military forces but also to a wide range of foreign security forces. (Currently, Section 1206 limits security force training to maritime security forces.) An overarching issue is whether Congress should place Section 1206 train and equip (T&E) authority under the State Department with other T&E authorities. (Members have thus far refrained from codifying Section 1206 in permanent law, as requested by DOD.) A related issue is whether Congress should grant the State Department its own security assistance contingency fund with purposes that overlap Section 1206, as provided in the House-passed FY2010-FY2011 Foreign Relations Authorization Act (H.R. 2410, Section 841)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Serafino, Nina M.

  2011-02-11
• U.S.-Vietnam Relations in 2010: Current Issues and Implications for U.S. Policy [February 4, 2011]

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  "After communist North Vietnam's victory over U.S.-backed South Vietnam in 1975, the United States and Vietnam had minimal relations until the mid-1990s. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1995, overlapping security and economic interests have led the two sides to begin to form a strategic partnership of sorts. In 2010, the Obama Administration indicated its intent to take relations to 'the next level,' and cooperated with Vietnam to coordinate a multicountry diplomatic push back against perceived Chinese encroachment in the South China Sea. In the United States, voices favoring improved relations have included those reflecting U.S. business interests in Vietnam's reforming economy and U.S. strategic interests in expanding cooperation with a populous country--Vietnam has 88 million people--that has an ambivalent relationship with China and that is asserting itself on the regional stage. Others argue that improvements in bilateral relations should be conditioned upon Vietnam's authoritarian government improving its record on human rights. The population of more than 1 million Vietnamese Americans, as well as legacies of the Vietnam War, also drive continued U.S. interest. Vietnamese leaders have sought to upgrade relations with the United States in part due to the desire for continued access to the U.S. market and to worries about China's expanding influence in Southeast Asia. That said, Sino-Vietnam relations are Vietnam's most important bilateral relationship and Vietnamese leaders must tiptoe carefully along the tightrope between Washington and Beijing, such that improved relations with one capital not be perceived as a threat to the other."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Manyin, Mark E.

  2011-02-04
• Intelligence Issues for Congress [February 11, 2011]

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  "To address the challenges facing the U.S. intelligence community in the 21st century, congressional and executive branch initiatives have sought to improve coordination among the different agencies and to encourage better analysis. In December 2004, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. 108-458) was signed, providing for a Director of National Intelligence (DNI) with substantial authorities to manage the national intelligence effort. The legislation also established a separate Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Making cooperation effective presents substantial leadership and managerial challenges. The needs of intelligence 'consumers'--ranging from the White House to Cabinet agencies to military commanders--must all be met, using the same systems and personnel. Intelligence collection systems are expensive and some critics suggest there have been elements of waste and unneeded duplication of effort while some intelligence 'targets' have been neglected. The DNI has substantial statutory authorities to address these issues, but the organizational relationships remain complex, especially for intelligence agencies that are part of the Defense Department. Members of Congress will be seeking to observe the extent to which effective coordination is accomplished. International terrorism, a major threat facing the United States in the 21st century, presents a difficult analytical challenge, vividly demonstrated by the attempted bombing of a commercial aircraft approaching Detroit on December 25, 2009. Counterterrorism requires the close coordination of intelligence and law enforcement agencies, but there remain many institutional and procedural issues that complicate cooperation between the two sets of agencies. Particular challenges relate to the protection of civil liberties that surround collecting information about U.S. persons."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2011-02-11
• Foreign Aid: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy [February 10, 2011]

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  "Foreign assistance is a fundamental component of the international affairs budget and is viewed by many as an essential instrument of U.S. foreign policy. Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, foreign aid has increasingly been associated with national security policy. U.S. foreign aid policy has developed around three primary rationales: national security, commercial interests, and humanitarian concerns. These broad rationales are the basis for the myriad objectives of U.S. assistance, including promoting economic growth, reducing poverty, improving governance, expanding access to health care and education, promoting stability in conflictive regions, promoting human rights, strengthening allies, and curbing illicit drug production and trafficking. In FY2010, U.S. foreign assistance totaled $39.4 billion, or 1.1% of total budget authority. In real terms, this was the highest level of U.S. foreign assistance since 1985. The U.S. Agency for International Development and the State Department, the primary administrators of U.S. foreign assistance, provided $10.38 billion in security-related assistance; $10.93 billion for health, education, and social welfare programs; $3.64 billion for governance programs; $5.21 for economic growth activities; and $4.98 in humanitarian assistance. Assistance can take the form of cash transfers, equipment and commodities, infrastructure, or technical assistance, and, in recent decades, is provided almost exclusively on a grant rather than loan basis. Key foreign assistance trends in the past decade include growth in development and humanitarian aid, particularly global health programs, and, in the wake of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, increased security assistance directed toward U.S. allies in the anti-terrorism effort. […] This report provides an overview of the U.S. foreign assistance program by answering frequently asked questions on the subject."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tarnoff, Curt; Lawson, Marian Leonardo

  2011-02-10
• Earthquakes: Risk, Detection, Warning, and Research [February 8, 2011]

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  "A single large earthquake, however, can cause far more damage than the average annual estimate. The 1994 Northridge (CA) earthquake caused as much as $26 billion (in 2005 dollars) in damage and was one of the costliest natural disasters to strike the United States. One study of the damage caused by a hypothetical magnitude 7.8 earthquake along the San Andreas Fault in southern California projected as many as 1,800 fatalities and more than $200 billion in economic losses. An issue for the 112th Congress is whether existing federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). [...] Legislation was introduced during the 111th Congress (H.R. 3820) that would have made changes to the program and would have authorized appropriations totaling $906 million over five years for NEHRP. Ninety percent of the funding would have been designated for the USGS and NSF, and the remainder for FEMA and NIST. The bill passed the House but not the Senate. Similar legislation will likely be introduced in the 112th Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2011-02-08
• United Nations Human Rights Council: Issues for Congress [January 26, 2011]

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  "In March 2009, the Barack Obama Administration announced that it would run for a seat on the Council. The United States was elected as a Council member by the U.N. General Assembly on May 12, 2009, and its term began on June 19, 2009. The Administration stated that it furthers the United States' interest 'if we are part of the conversation and present at the Council's proceedings.' At the same time, however, it called the Council's trajectory 'disturbing,' particularly its 'repeated and unbalanced' criticisms of Israel. On November 5, 2010, the United States underwent the Council's universal periodic review process for the first time. Since its establishment, the Council has held 15 regular sessions and 14 special sessions. The regular sessions addressed a combination of specific human rights abuses and procedural and structural issues. Six of the 14 special sessions addressed the human rights situation in the Occupied Palestinian Territories and in Lebanon. Other special sessions focused on the human rights situations in Burma (Myanmar), Cote d'Ivoire, Darfur, Haiti, and Sri Lanka. Congress maintains an ongoing interest in the credibility and effectiveness of the Council in the context of both human rights and broader U.N. reform."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Blanchfield, Luisa

  2011-01-26
• Shutdown of the Federal Government: Causes, Processes, and Effects [February 18, 2011]

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  "When federal agencies and programs lack appropriated funding, they experience a funding gap. Under the Antideficiency Act, they must cease operations, except in emergency situations. Failure of the President and Congress to reach agreement on interim or full-year funding measures occasionally has caused government shutdowns, the longest of which lasted 21 days, from December 16, 1995, to January 6, 1996. Government shutdowns have necessitated furloughs of several hundred thousand federal employees, required cessation or reduction of many government activities, and affected numerous sectors of the economy. This report discusses the causes, processes, and effects of federal government shutdowns, including potential issues for Congress. For questions concerning congressional operations, see the contact information contained in the 'Key Policy Staff' table at the end of this report."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Brass, Clinton T.

  2011-02-18
• Africa: U.S. Foreign Assistance Issues [February 11, 2011]

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  "U.S. aid to Africa initially reached a peak in 1985, when global competition with the Soviet Union was at a high point. After the cold war ended, security assistance levels for Africa began to decline. In 1995, at the outset of the 104th Congress, substantial reductions in aid to Africa had been anticipated, as many questioned the importance of Africa to U.S. national security interests in the post-cold war era […] U.S. assistance reaches Africa through a variety of channels, including USAID-administered Development Assistance (DA) and GHCS programs, food aid programs, and refugee assistance. As of February 2010, the Peace Corps had an estimated 2,620 volunteers and trainers in 29 African countries. The U.S. African Development Foundation (ADF) makes small grants to cooperatives, youth groups, and self-help organizations and operates in 20 countries. The Obama Administration has requested $30 million for ADF for FY2011. U.S. security assistance, though still far below levels seen in the 1980s, has increased in recent years, primarily because of U.S. support for African peacekeeping and counter-terrorism initiatives. The World Bank's International Development Association (IDA) is the principal multilateral channel for U.S. aid, but the United States also contributes to the African Development Bank and Fund and to United Nations activities in Africa. Total U.S. foreign assistance to Africa for FY2009 was $8.2 billion. More than half of the FY2009 funding went to health-related programs. Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to receive an estimated $7.05 billion in FY2010. The Obama Administration has requested an estimated $7.6 billion for FY2011."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2011-02-11
• China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities-Background and Issues for Congress [February 3, 2011]

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  "The question of how the United States should respond to China's military modernization effort, including its naval modernization effort, has emerged as a key issue in U.S. defense planning. Admiral Michael Mullen, the Chairman of the Joints Chiefs of Staff, stated in June 2010 that 'I have moved from being curious to being genuinely concerned' about China's military programs. The question of how the United States should respond to China's military modernization effort is of particular importance to the U.S. Navy, because many U.S. military programs for countering improved Chinese military forces would fall within the Navy's budget. Decisions that Congress and the executive branch make regarding U.S. Navy programs for countering improved Chinese maritime military capabilities could affect the likelihood or possible outcome of a potential U.S.-Chinese military conflict in the Pacific over Taiwan or some other issue. Some observers consider such a conflict to be very unlikely, in part because of significant U.S.-Chinese economic linkages and the tremendous damage that such a conflict could cause on both sides. In the absence of such a conflict, however, the U.S.-Chinese military balance in the Pacific could nevertheless influence day-to-day choices made by other Pacific countries, including choices on whether to align their policies more closely with China or the United States. In this sense, decisions that Congress and the executive branch make regarding U.S. Navy programs for countering improved Chinese maritime military forces could influence the political evolution of the Pacific, which in turn could affect the ability of the United States to pursue goals relating to various policy issues, both in the Pacific and elsewhere."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2011-02-03
• Gun Control Legislation [February 3, 2011]

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  "Congress has debated the efficacy and constitutionality of federal regulation of firearms and ammunition, with strong advocates arguing for and against greater gun control. The tragic shootings in Tucson, AZ, on January 8, 2011, in which six people were killed and 13 wounded, including Representative Gabrielle Giffords, could prompt the 112th Congress to examine issues related to the shooter's mental illness and drug use and his use of large capacity ammunition feeding devices (LCAFDs) (see H.R. 308 and S. 32), as well as a proposal to ban firearms within the proximity of certain high-level federal officials (see H.R. 496). This report provides basic firearms-related statistics, an overview of federal firearms law, and a summary of legislative action in the 111th Congress and selected legislative action in the 110th Congress that involved issues revisited in the 111th Congress. The report concludes with a discussion of other salient issues that have generated significant congressional interest in the past, including the 1994-2004 LCAFD ban."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Krouse, William J.

  2011-02-03
• Nonstrategic Nuclear Weapons [February 2, 2011]

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  "During the Senate debate on the new U.S.-Russian Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START) in 2010, many Senators raised questions about Russian nonstrategic nuclear weapons and noted their absence from the treaty limits. The United States and Russia have not included limits on these weapons in past arms control agreements. Nevertheless, Congress may press the Administration to seek solutions to the potential risks presented by these weapons in the future. During the Cold War, the United States and Soviet Union both deployed nonstrategic nuclear weapons for use in the field during a conflict. While there are several possible ways to distinguish between strategic and nonstrategic nuclear weapons, most analysts consider nonstrategic weapons to be shorter-range delivery systems with lower yield warheads that the United States and Soviet Union/Russia might use to attack troops or facilities on the battlefield. They have included nuclear mines; artillery; short-, medium-, and long-range ballistic missiles; cruise missiles; and gravity bombs. In contrast with the longer-range 'strategic' nuclear weapons, these weapons had a lower profile in policy debates and arms control negotiations, possibly because they did not pose a direct threat to the continental United States. At the end of the 1980s, each nation still had thousands of these weapons deployed with their troops in the field, aboard naval vessels, and on aircraft."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woolf, Amy F.

  2011-02-02
• Panama: Political and Economic Conditions and U.S. Relations [February 2, 2011]

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  "With five successive elected civilian governments, the Central American nation of Panama has made notable political and economic progress since the 1989 U.S. military intervention that ousted the regime of General Manuel Noriega from power. Current President Ricardo Martinelli of the center-right Democratic Change (CD) party was elected in May 2009, defeating the ruling center-left Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD) in a landslide. Martinelli was inaugurated to a five-year term on July 1, 2009. Martinelli's s Alliance for Change coalition also captured a majority of seats in Panama's National Assembly that will increase the chances that the President will be able to secure enough votes to enact his legislative agenda. A significant challenge facing the Martinelli government has been dealing with the economic fallout stemming from the global economic recession, but while the growth of Panama's servicebased economy has slowed, it has avoided the economic contraction experienced by many Latin American economies. The Panama Canal expansion project has played a large role in stimulating economic growth. President Martinelli has called for a number of large public infrastructure projects, including a subway for Panama City, and the government has begun to move ahead on some of these projects. In March 2010, President Martinelli secured legislative approval of a tax reform measure that reduces corporate and individual income taxes while raising sales and other taxes that overall is expected to increase government revenue."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.

  2011-02-02
• Unconventional Gas Shales: Development, Technology, and Policy Issues [October 30, 2009]

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  "In the past, the oil and gas industry considered gas locked in tight, impermeable shale uneconomical to produce. However, advances in directional well drilling and reservoir stimulation have dramatically increased gas production from unconventional shales. The United States Geological Survey estimates that 200 trillion cubic feet of natural gas may be technically recoverable from these shales. Recent high natural gas prices have also stimulated interest in developing gas shales. Although natural gas prices fell dramatically in 2009, there is an expectation that the demand for natural gas will increase. Developing these shales comes with some controversy, though. The hydraulic fracturing treatments used to stimulate gas production from shale have stirred environmental concerns over excessive water consumption, drinking water well contamination, and surface water contamination from both drilling activities and fracturing fluid disposal. The saline 'flowback' water pumped back to the surface after the fracturing process poses a significant environmental management challenge in the Marcellus region. The flowback's high content of total dissolved solids (TDS) and other contaminants must be disposed of or adequately treated before discharged to surface waters. The federal Clean Water Act and state laws regulate the discharge of this flowback water and other drilling wastewater to surface waters, while the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulates deep well injection of such wastewater. Hydraulically fractured wells are also subject to various state regulations. Historically, the EPA has not regulated hydraulic fracturing, and the 2005 Energy Policy Act exempted hydraulic fracturing from SDWA regulation. Recently introduced bills would make hydraulic fracturing subject to regulation under SDWA, while another bill would affirm the current regulatory exemption."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Humphries, Marc; Andrews, Anthony; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

  2009-10-30