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After Brexit: A Diminished or Enhanced EU? [June 29, 2016]
"On June 23, 2016, the United Kingdom (UK) held a public referendum on whether to remain a member of the European Union (EU). Voters favored leaving by 51.9% to 48.1%. This decision is unprecedented and will have significant political and economic repercussions for both the UK and the EU. The UK is the second-largest economy in the 28-member EU and a key diplomatic and military power. A British exit (dubbed 'Brexit') raises serious questions about the future shape and character of the European integration project.[…]The EU is generally regarded as a cornerstone of European security, stability, and prosperity. Over the last few years, however, the EU has faced sluggish growth and persistently high unemployment. Economic dissatisfaction, antiestablishment sentiments, and fears about immigration and globalization have fueled the rise of anti-EU or 'euroskeptic' political parties. These issues have complicated the EU's ability to deal with simultaneous challenges, from the Greek debt crisis to increased migrant flows to a resurgent Russia and a heightened terrorism threat. Two key pillars of the European integration project--the eurozone (the 19 members of the EU that use the euro as their currency) and the Schengen area of free movement (in which internal passport checks have been abolished among 22 EU countries and four others)--have come under considerable pressure. While these challenges have all threatened EU solidarity, the UK's decision to leave the bloc may be the most profound setback to the European integration project in its more than 60-year history."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2016-06-29
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European Union Efforts to Counter Disinformation [December 1, 2016]
From the Document: "The European Union (EU) is increasingly concerned about the use of propaganda by both state and non-state actors and has sought to devise new strategies to combat disinformation. On November 23, the European Parliament (EP) adopted a resolution entitled 'EU Strategic Communication to Counteract Anti-EU Propaganda by Third Parties.' In passing this non-binding resolution (by a vote of 304 to 179, with 208 abstentions), the EP added its support to European Union efforts to counter what Brussels believes are propaganda and disinformation campaigns against the EU and its member states by Russia and non-state actors such as the Islamic State terrorist organization. In adopting the resolution, Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) expressed the view that propaganda and disinformation campaigns seek to distort the truth, incite fear, provoke doubt, discredit the EU institutions, divide the EU and its North American partners, and paralyze decision-making. According to the main author of the resolution, MEP Anna Fotyga (from Poland), even the preparation of the text was a target of hostile propaganda."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.; Archick, Kristin
2016-12-01
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia [November 28, 2018]
"Sanctions are considered by many to be a central element of U.S. policy to counter Russian malign behavior, including Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2014, election interference and cyberattacks, human rights abuses, illicit trade with North Korea, support to the government of Syria, and use of a chemical weapon. The United States also employs sanctions in an effort to deter further objectionable activities by Russia (e.g., expanding the war in Ukraine or launching new attacks in neighboring countries). Most Members of Congress support a robust use of sanctions amid concerns about Russia's international behavior and geostrategic intentions. Most Russia-related sanctions implemented by the United States have been levied in response to Russia's 2014 invasion of Ukraine. These sanctions are based on national emergency authorities granted the office of the President in the National Emergencies Act (NEA; P.L. 94-412; 50 U.S.C. 1621) and International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA; P.L. 95-223; 50 U.S.C. 1701) and were exercised by President Barack Obama in 2014 in a series of executive orders (EOs 13660, 13661, 13662, and 13685). The Obama and Trump Administrations have used these EOs to impose sanctions on approximately 650 Russian individuals and entities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Archick, Kristin; Nelson, Rebecca M. . . .
2018-11-28
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Global Trends in Democracy: Background, U.S. Policy, and Issues for Congress [October 17, 2018]
"For decades U.S. policymakers have connected U.S. national security and other core interests with the spread of democracy around the world. Reflecting this, the promotion of democracy has been along standing and multifaceted element of U.S. foreign policy,and one often interrelated with U.S. efforts to promote human rights. Congress has often played an important role in supporting and institutionalizing U.S. democracy promotion by passing key legislation, appropriating funds for foreign assistance programs and other democracy promoting activities, and conducting over sight of aspects of U.S. foreign policy relevant to democracy promotion. Widespread concern sexist among analysts and policymakers over the current trajectory of democracy around the world and multiple hearings in the 115th Congress reflected bipartisan concern over this issue."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weber, Michael A.
2018-10-17
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International Law and Agreements: Their Effect Upon U.S. Law [September 19, 2018]
"International law consists of 'rules and principles of general application dealing with the conduct of states and of international organizations and with their relations inter se, as well as with some of their relations with persons, whether natural or juridical.' While the United States has long understood international legal commitments to be binding upon it both internationally and domestically since its inception, the role of international law in the U.S. legal system often implicates complex legal principles. The United States assumes international obligations most frequently when it makes agreements with other nations or international bodies that are intended to be legally binding upon the parties involved. Such legal agreements are made through treaty or executive agreement. The U.S. Constitution allocates primary responsibility for such agreements to the executive branch, but Congress also plays an essential role. First, in order for a treaty (but not an executive agreement) to become binding upon the United States, the Senate must provide its advice and consent to treaty ratification by a two-thirds majority. Secondly, Congress may authorize executive agreements. Thirdly, the provisions of many treaties and executive agreements may require implementing legislation in order to be judicial enforceable in U.S. courts."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2018-09-19
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European Union: Ongoing Challenges and Future Prospects [December 3, 2018]
"The European Union (EU) is a unique partnership in which member states have pooled sovereignty in certain policy areas and harmonized laws on a wide range of economic and political issues. The EU is the latest stage in a process of European integration begun after World War II, initially by six Western European countries, to promote peace, security, and economic development. The EU currently consists of 28 member states, including most of the formerly communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The EU is largely viewed as a cornerstone of European stability and prosperity. For much of the last decade, however, many EU countries have faced considerable economic difficulties. Despite an improved economic situation in the EU since 2017, economic pressures and societal changes have contributed to the rise of populist and antiestablishment political parties, at least some of which harbor anti-EU or 'euroskeptic' sentiments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2018-12-03
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United States and the 'World Court'
"The Trump Administration recently announced plans to reevaluate the United States' role before the International Court of Justice (ICJ)--commonly called the 'World Court.' This year, Iran and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO, designated as 'Palestine' or 'State of Palestine' within the U.N. system) initiated separate proceedings against the United States at the international tribunal. After the ICJ made a preliminary determination, over the United States' objections, that it had jurisdiction to hear Iran's claims, the Trump Administration announced that the United States will withdraw from the treaties on which both the Iran and PLO cases are based. The Administration also stated that it will review all other international agreements 'that may still expose the United States' to ICJ jurisdiction."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2018-10-17
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Global Human Rights: Multilateral Bodies & U.S. Participation [November 23, 2018]
"Congress has guided and shaped the U.S role in the current international human rights architecture, which grew out of the atrocities and destruction of World War II. The United Nations (U.N.) Charter, signed in 1945, included broad expressions of support for human rights and fundamental freedoms. In 1948, the U.N. General Assembly adopted the nonbinding Universal Declaration of Human Rights to define the rights and freedoms to which the Charter referred. Since then, the international community has built on this foundation and developed a more comprehensive array of enumerated human rights and a set of mechanisms meant to protect and promote them. As a chief architect and guarantor of the postwar international order, the United States has at times led these efforts and, on the basis of sovereignty and other concerns, at times stood apart from them."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weber, Michael A.
2018-11-23
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Northern Ireland: Current Issues and Ongoing Challenges in the Peace Process [March 12, 2018]
"Between 1969 and 1999, almost 3,500 people died as a result of political violence in Northern Ireland, which is one of four component 'nations' of the United Kingdom (UK). The conflict, often referred to as 'the Troubles,' has its origins in the 1921 division of Ireland and has reflected a struggle between different national, cultural, and religious identities. Protestants in Northern Ireland (48%) largely define themselves as British and support remaining part of the UK (unionists). Most Catholics in Northern Ireland (45%) consider themselves Irish, and many desire a united Ireland (nationalists). On April 10, 1998, the two governments and the Northern Ireland political parties participating in peace talks reached a political settlement. The resulting Good Friday Agreement (also known as the Belfast Agreement) recognized the 'consent principle' (i.e., a change in Northern Ireland's status can come about only with the consent of a majority of its people). It called for devolved government--the transfer of power from London to Belfast--with a Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive Committee in which unionist and nationalist parties would share power; it also contained provisions on decommissioning (disarmament) of paramilitary weapons, policing, human rights, UK security normalization (demilitarization), and the status of prisoners."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2018-03-12
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Cross-Border Data Sharing Under the CLOUD Act [April 23, 2018]
"Law enforcement officials in the United States and abroad increasingly seek access to electronic communications, such as emails and social media posts, stored on servers and in data centers in foreign countries. Because the architecture of the internet allows technology companies to store data at a great distance from the physical location of their customers, electronic communications that could serve as evidence of a crime often are not housed in the same country where the crime occurred. This disconnect has caused governments around the world, including the United States, to seek data stored outside their territorial jurisdictions. In the Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of Data (CLOUD) Act, Congress enacted one of the first major changes in years to U.S. law governing cross-border access to electronic communications held by private companies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2018-04-23
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The European Union: Questions and Answers [February 23, 2018]
"The European Union (EU) is a political and economic partnership that represents a unique form of cooperation among sovereign countries. The EU is the latest stage in a process of integration begun after World War II, initially by six Western European countries, to foster interdependence and make another war in Europe unthinkable. The EU currently consists of 28 member states, including most of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, and has helped to promote peace, stability, and economic prosperity throughout the European continent."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2018-02-23
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Can Corporations be Held Liable under the Alien Tort Statute? [April 24, 2017]
"Recently, the Supreme Court heard oral argument in 'Jesner v. Arab Bank PLC'--a case filed under the Alien Tort Statute against one of the largest financial institutions in the Middle East. Originally passed by the First Congress as part of the Judiciary Act of 1789, the Alien Tort Statute provides federal district courts with 'jurisdiction of any civil action by an alien for a tort only, committed in violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the United States.' This single-sentence statute has been described as 'unlike any other in American law' and 'unknown to any other legal system in the world.' Despite its brevity, questions about jurisdiction under the statute have been the subject of debate for several decades (as discussed in this CRS primer.) In Jesner, the Supreme Court is set to address an issue that has caused a recent split among U.S. circuit courts of appeals: can corporations be liable for torts in violation of the law of nations under the Alien Tort Statute?"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2018-04-24
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It Belongs in a Museum: Sovereign Immunity Shields Iranian Antiquities Even When it Does Not Protect Iran [March 22, 2018]
"Foreign sovereign immunity may protect property owned by nations designated as state sponsors of terrorism, even when it does not shield the nations themselves, the Supreme Court held in 'Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran.' In an 8-0 opinion delivered by Justice Sotomayor (with Justice Kagan recused), the Court ruled that the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) did not permit U.S. victims of Iran-sponsored terrorist attacks to seize a collection of Persian antiquities on loan from Iran to a museum at the University of Chicago. 'Rubin' underscores a common side effect of the FSIA's terrorism-related exceptions to sovereign immunity: although victims of terror attacks may be able to obtain judgments against state sponsors of terrorism--currently, Iran, Sudan, Syria, and North Korea--they often have little chance of seizing covered states' property when seeking to collect their financial awards."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2018-03-22
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Transatlantic Relations in 2018 [January 10, 2018]
"As the second year of the Trump Administration begins, a degree of uncertainty lingers over transatlantic relations. The U.S.-European partnership could face challenges in 2018. Following the election of President Trump, numerous European officials and analysts expressed concern about the future trajectory of U.S.-European relations, particularly the U.S. commitment to NATO, the European Union (EU), and the multilateral trading system. Although the Trump Administration has not altered or withdrawn from the fundamental aspects of the transatlantic relationship, many European leaders appear uneasy with key parts of the Trump Administration's 'America First' foreign policy and some question whether the United States will remain a reliable partner in 2018."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.; Archick, Kristin
2018-01-10
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Northern Ireland, Brexit, and the Irish Border [March 12, 2018]
"As the 20th anniversary of the April 1998 peace accord for Northern Ireland (known as the Good Friday Agreement or the Belfast Agreement) approaches, concerns are increasing about how the expected exit of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU)--or 'Brexit'--might affect Northern Ireland. The future of the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland has become a central issue in the UK's withdrawal negotiations with the EU. Once the UK ceases to be a member of the EU--likely in March 2019-- Northern Ireland will be the only part of the UK to share a land border with an EU member state (Ireland and the UK both joined the EU in 1973). Agreeing upon arrangements for the post-Brexit UK-Irish border is particularly challenging because of Northern Ireland's history of political violence. Roughly 3,500 people died during 'the Troubles,' the 30-year sectarian conflict between unionists (Protestants who largely define themselves as British and support remaining part of the UK) and nationalists (Catholics who consider themselves Irish and may desire a united Ireland)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Mix, Derek E.
2018-03-12
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Material Support for Terrorism is Not Always an 'Act of International Terrorism,' Second Circuit Holds [March 5, 2018]
"The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit (Second Circuit) recently overturned a jury verdict deeming one of the largest financial institutions in the Middle East liable for providing financial services to Hamas and other designated foreign terrorist organizations. In 'Linde v. Arab Bank', PLC, American victims of terror attacks during the second Palestinian intifada were set to recover at least $100 million from Arab Bank under the civil liability provisions of the Antiterrorism Act (ATA). But the Second Circuit vacated the verdict, holding that the trial court incorrectly concluded that a violation of the federal law criminalizing material support to foreign terrorist organizations necessarily constitutes an 'act of international terrorism' subject to civil liability under the ATA. By holding that victims of terror attacks are not always entitled to recover civil damages even if they prove the defendant committed the crime of material support, 'Linde' highlights the legal complexities and obstacles that plaintiffs face when seeking civil damages under the ATA."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2018-03-05
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Brexit: Status and Outlook [Updated January 9, 2020]
From the Document: "After the 2016 referendum in which 52% of voters in the United Kingdom (UK) favored leaving the European Union (EU), 'Brexit' was originally scheduled to occur on March 29, 2019. In early 2019, Parliament repeatedly rejected the withdrawal agreement negotiated between then-Prime Minister Theresa May's government and the EU. Boris Johnson became prime minister in July 2019, following May's resignation. Given continued political deadlock over Brexit in the UK, the EU granted the UK three deadline extensions, with the most recent lasting until January 31, 2020."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mix, Derek E.; Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Archick, Kristin
2020-01-09
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State Department's 'Trafficking in Persons' Report: Scope, Aid Restrictions, and Methodology [Updated October 30, 2019]
From the Introduction: "The State Department estimates that globally there are 24.9 million victims of human trafficking, also commonly referred to as modern slavery. Several international mechanisms exist to define and address human trafficking, such as the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (the Palermo Protocol) and the United Nations (U.N.) Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. In the United States, Congress has led efforts to eliminate severe forms of trafficking in persons domestically and internationally, particularly with its enactment of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386). Division A of that act, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA), established U.S. antitrafficking policy to (1) 'prevent' trafficking, (2) 'protect' trafficking victims, and (3) 'prosecute' and punish traffickers (known as the three Ps)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weber, Michael A.; O'Regan, Katarina C.; Rosen, Liana W.
2019-10-30
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Brexit: Status and Outlook [Updated October 30, 2019]
From the Document: "After the 2016 referendum in which 52% of voters in the United Kingdom (UK) favored leaving the European Union (EU), 'Brexit' was originally scheduled to occur on March 29, 2019. In early 2019, however, Parliament repeatedly rejected the withdrawal agreement negotiated between Prime Minister Theresa May's government and the EU without supporting any alternative. Given continued political deadlock over Brexit in the UK, the EU has granted the UK three deadline extensions. The most recent extension lasts until January 31, 2020."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mix, Derek E.; Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Archick, Kristin
2019-10-30
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Waters of the United States (WOTUS): Repealing and Revising the 2015 Clean Water Rule [October 23, 2019]
From the Background: "Congress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA) to restore and protect the quality of the nation's surface waters (33 U.S.C. §1251 'et seq.'). The statute protects 'navigable waters,' which it defines as 'the waters of the United States, including the territorial seas.' The CWA does not further define the term 'waters of the United States' (WOTUS). Thus, the Army Corps of Engineers and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have defined WOTUS in their regulations. However, Congress's intent as to the meaning of WOTUS has been debated and litigated for more than four decades."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gatz, Laura; Mulligan, Stephen P.
2019-10-23
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European Parliament and U.S. Interests [Updated October 25, 2019]
From the Document: "The European Parliament (EP) is the only directly elected institution of the 28-country European Union (EU). The EP's 751 members represent the EU's roughly 513 million citizens. The most recent EP elections were in May 2019. The EP has accumulated more power over time as part of EU efforts to improve democratic accountability and transparency in EU policymaking. Enhanced powers since the 2009 Lisbon Treaty have made the EP a more important actor on several issues of U.S. concern, including trade, data privacy, and counterterrorism. Congress-EP ties are long-standing, and Congress may be increasingly interested in EP activities given the EP's potential to influence key aspects of U.S.-EU relations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2019-10-25
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Global Human Rights: International Religious Freedom Policy [Updated December 27, 2019]
From the Introduction: "For decades, U.S. policymakers have sought to promote religious freedom abroad, reflecting both support for human rights in U.S. foreign policy as well as the particular emphasis on freedom of religion in U.S. domestic law and political culture. Protection of religious freedom is also affirmed in international law through the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and other instruments. Congress has been a strong advocate for international religious freedom issues and has sought to ensure U.S. support for religious freedom as a focus of U.S. foreign policy, most prominently through passage of the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weber, Michael A.
2019-12-27
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European Fighters in Syria and Iraq: Assessments, Responses, and Issues for the United States [April 27, 2015]
From the Document: "The rising number of U.S. and European citizens traveling to fight with rebel and terrorist groups in Syria and Iraq has emerged as a growing concern for U.S. and European leaders, including Members of Congress. Several deadly terrorist attacks in Europe over the past year--including the killing of 17 people in Paris in January 2015--have heightened the perception that these individuals could pose a serious security threat. Increasingly, terrorist suspects in Europe appear to have spent time with groups fighting in the Middle East, especially with the Islamic State organization (also known as ISIL or ISIS). Others, like the gunman who murdered two individuals in Copenhagen in February 2015, seem to have been inspired by Islamist extremist propaganda. U.S. intelligence suggests that more than 20,000 foreign fighters have traveled to the Syria-Iraq region, including at least 3,400 Westerners, since 2011. The vast majority of Western fighters are thought to be from Europe, although roughly 150 Americans have traveled or attempted to travel to Syria. U.S. authorities estimate that a handful of Americans have died in the conflict; they also assert that military operations against the Islamic State group since August 2014 have killed thousands of fighters, including an unknown number of foreigners."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Belkin, Paul; Blanchard, Christopher M. . . .
2015-04-27
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Legislation Limiting the President's Power to Use Nuclear Weapons: Separation of Powers Implications [November 3, 2017]
From the Document: "Recent proposed legislation that would place limitations on the President's power to employ nuclear weapons has prompted interest in questions related to the constitutional allocation of power over the United States' nuclear arsenal. This memorandum examines the constitutional separation of powers principles implicated by legislative proposals that restrict the President's authority to launch nuclear weapons. [...] Legislation limiting presidential power over nuclear weapons implicates the historic debate over the separation of war powers between the legislative and executive branches that has been ongoing since the founding era and has been described as the 'most difficult area of the Constitution.' Although it seems well within Congress's constitutional authority to end the production of nuclear weapons through, for example, the power of the purse, there is no clear answer on whether legislation limiting the President's power to employ those nuclear weapons that are already in the military arsenal would violate separation of powers principles. Nor is there certainty that a court would resolve a conflict given that judicial involvement in wartime disputes between the branches is relatively rare, and issues of standing and justiciability may preclude judicial consideration of many disputes concerning the allocation of war powers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2017-11-03
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European Security and Islamist Terrorism [June 8, 2017]
"The June 3, 2017 attack in London--in which eight people were killed and nearly 50 injured--was the third terrorist incident in the United Kingdom in the last few months. Five people were killed outside the UK parliament in March in a similar car and knife attack, and in May, a suicide bomber killed 22 people and wounded 116 at a music concert in Manchester. These incidents are among a string of terrorist attacks in Europe connected to or inspired by violent Islamist extremism, with many since 2014 linked to the Islamic State group (also known as ISIS or ISIL)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin; Belkin, Paul; Mix, Derek E.
2017-06-08
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Can Congress Limit the President's Power to Launch Nuclear Weapons? [November 9, 2017]
This Legal Sidebar discusses the constitutional implications of legislation limiting the President's power to use nuclear weapons. "As outlined in earlier CRS [Congressional Research Service] products, the Constitution allocates the authorities necessary to conduct war and other military operations between Congress and the President. But the precise contours of each branch's respective powers have been the subject of debate since the founding era. Moreover, courts traditionally have been reluctant to resolve wartime separation of powers disputes between the legislative and executive branches, often dismissing these cases on jurisdictional grounds without reaching the merits of the constitutional challenges."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2017-11-09
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia [January 11, 2019]
"The executive branch also has used a variety of EOs [executive order]and legislation to impose sanctions on Russian individuals and entities in response to a number of other concerns. Legislation that established specifically Russia-related sanctions includes the following: [1] The Sergei Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountability Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-208, Title IV; 22 U.S.C. 5811 note); [2] Support for the Sovereignty, Integrity, Democracy, and Economic Stability of Ukraine Act of 2014, as amended (SSIDES; P.L. 113-95; 22 U.S.C. 8901 et seq.); [3] Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014, as amended (UFSA; P.L. 113-272; 22 U.S.C. 8921 et seq.); [4] Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017, as amended (CRIEEA; P.L. 115-44, Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act [CAATSA], Title II; 22 U.S.C. 9501 et seq.)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Archick, Kristin; Nelson, Rebecca M. . . .
2019-01-11
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Evolution of the Meaning of 'Waters of the United States' in the Clean Water Act [Updated March 5, 2019]
From the Document: "For more than forty-five years, all three branches of government have struggled with how to interpret the meaning of 'waters of the United States' in the Clean Water Act. In a shift from early water pollution legislation, the 1972 amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, which came to be known as the Clean Water Act, eliminated the requirement that federally regulated waters must be capable of being used by vessels in interstate commerce. Rather than use traditional navigability tests, the 1972 amendments redefined 'navigable waters' for purposes of the Clean Water Act's jurisdiction to include 'the waters of the United States, including the territorial seas.' Disputes over the proper meaning of that phrase have been ongoing since that change."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2019-03-05
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Sharing the Colorado River and the Rio Grande: Cooperation and Conflict with Mexico [December 12, 2018]
"The United States and Mexico share the waters of the Colorado River and the Rio Grande. A bilateral water treaty from 1944 (the 1944 Water Treaty) and other binational agreements guide how the two governments share the flows of these rivers. The binational International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC) administers these agreements. Since 1944, the IBWC has been the principal venue for addressing river-related disputes between the United States and Mexico. The 1944 Water Treaty authorizes the IBWC to develop rules and to issue proposed decisions, called minutes, regarding matters related to the treaty's execution and interpretation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Carter, Nicole T.; Mulligan, Stephen P.; Stern, Charles V.
2018-12-12
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U.S.-European Relations in the 116th Congress [February 4, 2019]
"Since the end of the Second World War, successive U.S. Administrations and many Members of Congress have supported a close U.S. partnership with Europe. Often termed the 'transatlantic relationship', the U.S.-European partnership encompasses NATO, the European Union (EU), and extensive bilateral political and economic ties. Over the past 70 years, political tensions, trade disputes, and changes in the security landscape have tested U.S.-European relations. Despite periodic difficulties, U.S. and European policymakers have valued the transatlantic partnership as serving their respective geostrategic and economic interests."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Archick, Kristin
2019-02-04
