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Budgeting for Wars in the Past [Updated: March 27, 2003]
"This is in response to congressional requests for a memo briefly reviewing how the United States has budgeted for wars in the past. Requesters have asked specifically whether, since World War II, the United States has ever provided funds for wars- or for some other recent military operations- before the operations have started. Based on an examination of previous CRS reviews of funding for wars and for other major military operations, it appears, with one possible exception, that Presidents have not requested and Congress has not provided funding for wars in advance of the start of operations. Rather, Administrations have requested funding after operations have begun, and Congress has subsequently appropriated money to meet specific documented budget requirements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Daggett, Stephen
2003-03-27
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Iraq: A Compilation of Legislation Enacted and Resolutions Adopted by Congress, 1990-2003 [Updated March 27, 2003]
"This report is a compilation of legislation on Iraq from 1990 to the present. The list is composed of resolutions and public laws relating to military action or diplomatic pressure to be taken against Iraq. The list does not include foreign aid appropriations bills passed since FY1994 that deny U.S. funds to any nation in violation of the United Nations sanctions regime against Iraq. Also, measures that were not passed only in either the House or the Senate are not included (with the exception of the proposals in the 108th Congress and several relevant concurrent and joint resolutions from previous Congresses)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2003-03-27
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Homeland Security: 9/11 Victim Relief Funds [Updated March 27, 2003]
"In the first days following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, an unprecedented number of Americans contributed over $2.2 billion (some estimates run as high as $2.7 billion) in donations to assist in the relief of victims. According to the New York State Attorney General's office, over 250 new charitable funds were created in the weeks following the 9/11 crisis. The federal government responded to the attacks in various ways. In the first week after the disaster, Congress passed the 2001 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Recovery from and Response to Terrorist Attacks on the United States (P.L. 107-38), part of which provided at least $20 billion for disaster recovery in New York, Virginia and Pennsylvania. Then 12 days after the attack the September 11th Victim Compensation Fund of 2001 (P.L. 107-42) became law. This $6 billion program is intended to compensate any individual (or the personal representative of a deceased individual) who was physically injured or killed as a result of the attack. Nearly 3,000 victim families are expected to apply for compensation. Attorney General Ashcroft appointed a Special Master who is presently in the process of distributing the fund. Congress also passed, and the President signed into law, the Victims of Terrorism Tax Relief Act of 2001 (P.L.107- 134). Among other things, this law states that victims will not be subject to federal income taxes for the year in which they died and also for the previous year."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wolfe, M. Ann
2003-03-27
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Arming Pilots against Terrorism: Implementation Issues for the Federal Flight Deck Officer Program [Updated March 25, 2003]
"The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296, H.R. 5005) contains provisions to arm pilots of passenger aircraft and gives deputized pilots the authority to use force, including lethal force, to defend the flight deck against criminal and terrorist threats. Participation in the Federal Flight Deck Officer Program, established under the Arming Pilots against Terrorism Act contained in P.L. 107-296, is limited to pilots of air carriers providing passenger air transportation or intrastate passenger air transportation. Pilots of cargo air carriers may not participate in the program. However, legislation (H.R. 765; S. 516; amendment to S. 165 by Sen. Boxer) seeks to include all-cargo air carrier pilots in the program. During debate over legislation to arm pilots, proponents argued that the potential benefits of deterring or thwarting terrorist and criminal acts against passenger aircraft outweighed the inherent risks associated with arming pilots. However, opponents of policy allowing pilots to be armed with lethal weapons argued that such a program's safety risks and monetary costs significantly outweighed these potential benefits. Risks cited included potential distraction to the flight crew, dangers that a weapon discharge could pose to the aircraft or its occupants, and security concerns associated with carrying firearms in secured areas of the aviation system. Proponents countered that these risks could be effectively mitigated, but recognized that these are important issues to be addressed for successful implementation of the policy to arm pilots."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elias, Bartholomew
2003-03-25
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Federally Supported Water Supply and Wastewater Treatment Programs [Updated March 25, 2003]
Although the federal government has played a significant role in developing water quality regulations and standards for municipal and industrial (M&I) water use, it historically has provided a relatively small percentage of the funding for construction of water supply and treatment facilities for M&I uses. Yet, several programs exist to assist communities with development of water supply and treatment projects, and it appears that Congress is more frequently being asked to authorize direct financial and technical assistance for developing or treating water supplies for M&I use. This report provides background information on the types of water supply and wastewater treatment projects traditionally funded by the federal government and the several existing programs to assist communities with water supply and wastewater recycling and treatment.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary; Copeland, Claudia; Cody, Betsy A.
2003-03-25
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Iraq: Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Capable Missiles and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) [Updated March 25, 2003]
"This report addresses Iraq's missile and UAV programs and their employment of missiles against Coalition forces in Operation Iraqi Freedom. The UN supervised the destruction of a number of Al Samoud 2 missiles, but some of these missiles may be deployed with Iraqi forces. Intelligence sources estimate that Iraq has illegally retained up to 20 Al Hussein SCUD variant missiles and has fired a number of Ababil-100 missiles at coalition targets. Iraq has also been accused of modifying L-29 Czech jet trainers to be used as UAVs to disseminate chemical or biological agents. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2003-03-25
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Homeland Security: Protecting Airliners from Terrorist Missiles [Updated March 25, 2003]
"The Congressional Research Service addresses the recent terrorist threats against commercial airliners by way of shoulder fired surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). As a result of CRS's investigation, various recommendations are made to Congress in an effort to curtail these attacks. CRS presents a menu of options including installing infrared (IR) countermeasures on aircraft; modifying flight operations and air traffic control procedures; improving airport and regional security; and strengthening missile non-proliferation efforts. CRS asserts that equipping aircraft with missile countermeasure systems can protect the aircraft even when operating in areas where ground-based security measures are unavailable or infeasible to implement. However, this option has a relatively high cost, between $1 million and $3 million per aircraft, and the time needed for implementation does allow for immediate response to the existing terrorist threat. Procedural improvements such as specific flight crew training, altering air traffic procedures to minimize exposure to the threat, and improved security near airports may be less costly than countermeasures and could more immediately help deter domestic terrorist attacks. However, these techniques by themselves cannot completely mitigate the risk of domestic attacks and would not protect U.S. airliners flying to and from foreign airports."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bolkcom, Christopher C.; Elias, Bartholomew
2003-03-25
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Presidential and Vice Presidential Succession: Overview and Current Legislation [Updated March 25, 2003]
"Whenever the office of President of the United States becomes vacant due to "removal ... death or resignation" of the chief executive, the Constitution provides that "the Vice President shall become President." When the office of Vice President becomes vacant for any reason, the President nominates a successor, who must be confirmed by a majority vote of both houses of Congress. If both of these offices are vacant simultaneously, then, under the Succession Act of 1947, the Speaker of the House of Representatives becomes President, after resigning from the House and as Speaker. If the speakership is also vacant, then the President Pro Tempore of the Senate becomes President, after resigning from the Senate and as President Pro Tempore. If both of these offices are vacant, or if the incumbents fail to qualify for any reason, then the cabinet officers are eligible to succeed, in the order in which their departments were created...Succession-related provisions are derived from the Constitution, statutory law, and political precedents of the past two centuries. Current legislative proposals include S. 148, introduced by Senator DeWine, and H.R. 1354, introduced by Representative Tom Davis, both of which are pending before the 108th Congress. These bills would include the Secretary of Homeland Security in the line of succession, but diverge from tradition by making the secretary eighth in line of succession, following the Attorney General, rather than inserting the office at the end of the current succession list. This report traces the evolution of succession procedures and reviews contemporary practices and pending legislation." -- Summary
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Neale, Thomas H.
2003-03-25
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War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [Updated March 24, 2003]
"Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This issue brief does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with the congressional authorization for the action and the application and effectiveness of the War Powers Resolution."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2003-03-24
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Iraq War: Background and Issues Overview [Updated March 24, 2003]
"The Background section of this report outlines the evolution of the current conflict with Iraq since September 11, 2001. This section is followed by a more detailed description and analysis of U.S. policy and a survey of congressional actions on Iraq. The report then reviews a range of issues that the Iraq situation has raised for Congress. These issue discussions have been written by CRS [Congressional Research Service] experts, and contact information is provided for congressional readers seeking additional information. In this section and elsewhere, text boxes list CRS products that provide in-depth information on the topics under discussion or on related topics. The final section links the reader to additional sources of information on the Iraq crisis."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copson, Raymond W.
2003-03-24
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U.S.-European Union Trade Relations: Issues and Policy Challenges [Updated March 21, 2003]
"The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks gave new momentum to European Union (EU) initiatives to "The United States and European Union (EU) share a huge and mutually beneficial economic partnership. Not only is the U.S.-EU trade and investment relationship the largest in the world, it is arguably the most important. Agreement between the two economic superpowers has been critical to making the world trading system more open and efficient. [...] Resolution of U.S.-EU trade disputes has become increasingly difficult in recent years. Part of the problem may be due to the fact that the U.S. and the EU are of roughly equal economic strength and neither side has the ability to impose concessions on the other. Another factor may be that many bilateral disputes now involve clashes in domestic values, priorities, and regulatory systems where the international rules of the road are inadequate to provide a sound basis for effective and timely dispute resolution. [...] The major U.S.-EU trade and investment policy challenges can be grouped into six categories: (1) avoiding a 'big ticket' trade dispute associated with steel or the tax breaks for U.S. exporters; (2) resolving longstanding trade disputes involving aerospace production subsidies and beef hormones; (3) dealing with different public concerns over new technologies and new industries (4) fostering a receptive climate for mergers and acquisitions; (5) strengthening the multilateral trading system; and (6) reaching understandings on foreign policy sanctions that have a trade impact."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ahearn, Raymond J.
2003-03-21
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Nuclear Nonproliferation Issues [Updated March 21, 2003]
"The United States has been a leader of worldwide efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. To this end, the international community and many individual states have agreed to a range of treaties, laws, and agreements, known collectively as the nuclear nonproliferation regime, aimed at keeping nations that do not have nuclear weapons from acquiring them. The nonproliferation regime has also been concerned with preventing terrorists from obtaining a nuclear weapon or the materials to craft one. The attacks on New York and Washington September 11, 2001, added a new level of reality to the threat that terrorists might acquire a nuclear weapon and explode it in a populated area. Other nonproliferation concerns include a number of regional crisis points. In the Middle East, the possibility that Iraq has resumed, or may resume, its nuclear weapons program is a major concern driving the U.S. campaign against Saddam Hussein's regime. Iran's nuclear weapons development is also a threat, with recently released satellite evidence indicating that it is constructing uranium enrichment and heavy water production facilities. North Korea's acknowledgment that it is developing uranium enrichment capability, and moves to restart its plutonium production reactor, have enhanced the danger of nuclear proliferation there. The India-Pakistan nuclear arms race makes the continuing confrontation between those two countries particularly sensitive. There is concern about China's actions in expanding its nuclear force, and of Chinese and Russian activities that may encourage proliferation in the other regions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Behrens, Carl E.
2003-03-21
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Total Information Awareness Programs: Funding, Composition, and Oversight Issues [Updated March 21, 2003]
Late last year controversy erupted about a Department of Defense (DOD) R&D
effort called Total Information Awareness (TIA) under an office headed by retired
Admiral John D. Poindexter within the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA). By integrating various new tools designed to detect, anticipate, train for,
and provide warnings about potential terrorist attacks, DARPA hopes to develop a
prototype Total Information Awareness system. This system would integrate a
number of ongoing R&D efforts, referred to in this paper as Total Information
Awareness programs. While concern has centered primarily on privacy issues,
accounts of the program's funding have also differed. This report covers the funding,
composition, oversight, and technical feasibility of TIA programs. The privacy
implications are addressed in CRS Report RL31730, Privacy: Total Information
Awareness Programs and Related Information Access, Collection, and Protection
Laws, by Gina Marie Stevens.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belasco, Amy
2003-03-21
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Israeli-United States Relations [March 20, 2003]
"Israeli-U.S. relations are an important factor in U.S. policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship. The main vehicle for expressing support for Israel has been foreign aid; Israel currently receives about $3 billion per year in economic and military grants, refugee settlement assistance, and other aid. Congress has monitored the aid issue closely along with other issues in bilateral relations, and its concerns have affected Administration's policies. U.S.-Israeli relations have evolved from an initial American policy of sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in 1948 to an unusual partnership that links a small but militarily powerful Israel, dependent on the United States for its economic and military strength, with the U.S. superpower trying to balance competing interests in the region. Some in the United States question the levels of aid and general commitment to Israel, and argue that a U.S. bias toward Israel operates at the expense of improved U.S. relations with various Arab states. Others maintain that democratic Israel is a strategic ally, and that U.S. relations with Israel strengthens the U.S. presence in the Middle East."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2003-03-20
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Iraq: Map Sources [Updated March 19, 2003]
"This report identifies selected Web sites for maps of Iraq. Selected government, library, and organizational Web site addresses are provided. Maps of the Middle East, Iraq, the No-Fly Zone, and Facilities Used by U.S. Forces in the Gulf are also provided. This report will be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nelson, Marilyn L.
2003-03-19
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First Responder Initiative: Policy Issues and Options [Updated March 19, 2003]
"In its FY2004 request, the Bush Administration proposed a new block grant program called the 'First Responder Initiative' to help state and local first responders prepare for possible terrorist attacks. Under the proposal, the Office for Domestic Preparedness (ODP), within the Department of Homeland Security, would administer the $3.5 billion program. The programs primary purpose would be to improve the ability of first responders (police, firefighters, and emergency medical personnel) to respond to terrorist attacks involving weapons of mass destruction. The program would fund a range of activities in the areas of planning, training, exercises, and equipment. The 107th Congress considered a number of bills similar to the Administration proposal. In October 2002, the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee reported S. 2664, the First Responder Terrorism Preparedness Act of 2002. The bill contained several features proposed by the Administration, including a 25% matching requirement, a wide range of eligible activities, and a requirement that states distribute 75% of funds to sub-state regions. It also contained some provisions not specified in the Administration proposal, such as establishing standards for training and equipment and prohibiting the use of funds for overtime expenses. There are a limited number of terrorism preparedness block grant proposals in the 108th Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2003-03-19
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United Nations Security Council - Its Role in the Iraq Crisis: A Brief Overview [March 18, 2003]
"On September 12, 2002, President Bush in his address to the U.N. General Assembly, focused on Iraq and its failure to comply with various resolutions adopted by the U.N. Security Council. He urged the Council to act in the face of such repeated violations. On November 8, 2002, the Council responded, adopting Resolution 1441 (2002) unanimously. This short report provides background information on what the U.N. Security Council is and what it does, including the occasions when it has authorized the use of force or its equivalent. As the U.N. organ having primary responsibility for the maintenance of peace and security, the 15-member Security Council set the major international response to the August 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, authorizing the use of 'force' to gain Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait in compliance with the 11 resolutions previously passed in 1990. In 1991, after the war, the Council adopted a series of 12 resolutions that assigned an extensive set of tasks to the United Nations and imposed on Iraq an equally extensive series of obligations. As hostilities became imminent, U.N. activities inside Iraq were suspended. It is anticipated that formal Council deliberations would also become minimal, limited to informal consultations on the status of the situation in Iraq and future roles for the organization. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Browne, Marjorie Ann
2003-03-18
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North Korea: Chronology of Provocations, 1950-2003 [Updated March 18, 2003]
"This chronology provides information on selective instances of North Korean
provocations between June 1950 and 2003. The purpose of this report is to place
current provocations in the context of past actions in order to better judge their significance and to determine changes in trends. The term "provocation" is defined to include: armed invasion, border violations, infiltration of armed saboteurs and spies, hijacking, kidnapping, terrorism (including assassination and bombing), threats/intimidation against political leaders, media personnel, and institutions, and incitement aimed at the overthrow of the South Korean government. Information is taken from South Korean and Western sources and typically is denied by the North Korean government."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nanto, Dick Kazuyuki
2003-03-18
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Potential Humanitarian Issues in Post-War Iraq: An Overview for Congress [March 18, 2003]
"There seems to be a consensus that the current poor humanitarian situation inside Iraq could worsen during a conflict, though this would likely depend on the nature and duration of the conflict and the extent and quality of humanitarian assistance. Problems could arise from the following: malnutrition and disruption of food supplies, inadequate sanitation and clean water, and reduced health and medical care. The consequences of war in Iraq could also include a potential humanitarian emergency with population movements across borders or within Iraq itself. Given the challenge of current conditions in Iraq, U.N. agencies indicate that a conflict in Iraq would disrupt critical infrastructure, delivery of basic services, and food distribution with the potential of severe humanitarian consequences. Relief agencies are having to plan for humanitarian needs amid great uncertainty about conditions in the aftermath of conflict. In recent months many have continued to reiterate that contingency planning does not mean they assumed war was inevitable."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Margesson, Rhoda; Bockman, Johanna
2003-03-18
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U.S. Assistance to North Korea [Updated March 17, 2003]
"Since 1995, the U.S. has provided over $1 billion in foreign assistance to the Democratic Peoples Republic of North Korea (DPRK, also known as North Korea), about 60% of which has taken the form of food aid, and about 40% in the form of energy assistance channeled through the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO). Additionally, there has been discussion of offering North Korea broader economic development assistance in exchange for Pyongyang verifiably dismantling its nuclear program and cooperating on other security-related issues. U.S. aid to North Korea has been controversial since its inception, and the controversy has been intimately linked to the larger debate over the most effective strategy for dealing with the DPRK."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.; Jun, Ryun
2003-03-17
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North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Program [Updated March 17, 2003]
"North Korea's decisions to restart nuclear installations at Yongbyon that were shut down under the U.S.-North Korean Agreed Framework of 1994 and withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty create an acute foreign policy problem for the United States. North Korea's major motive appears to be to escalate pressure on the Bush Administration to negotiate over Pyongyang's proposed nonaggression pact and/or a new nuclear agreement that would provide new U.S. benefits to North Korea. However, re-starting the Yongbyon facilities opens up a possible North Korean intent to stage a 'nuclear breakout' of its nuclear program and openly produce nuclear weapons within six months. North Korea's actions follow the disclosure in October 2002 that North Korea is operating a secret nuclear program based on uranium enrichment and the decision by the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO) in November 2002 to suspend shipments of heavy oil to North Korea. The main elements of Bush Administration policy are (1) terminating the Agreed Framework; (2) no bilateral negotiations with North Korea until it satisfies U.S. concerns over its nuclear program; (3) assembling an international coalition to pressure North Korea; and (4) proposing multilateral talks involving North Korea and other countries, possibly under United Nations auspices; (5) warning and planning for future economic sanctions against North Korea; and (6) warning North Korea not to reprocess nuclear weapons-grade plutonium, including asserting that 'all options are open,' including military options."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Niksch, Larry A.
2003-03-17
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Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts, the Iraqi Opposition, and Post-War Iraq [Updated March 17, 2003]
"In his 2002 and 2003 State of the Union messages, President Bush characterized Iraq as a grave potential threat to the United States because of its refusal to abandon its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs as required by U.N. Security Council resolutions and the potential for it to transfer WMD to terrorist groups. Since September 2002, the President has said that unless Iraq fully disarms in cooperation with United Nations weapons inspectors, the United States would lead a coalition to achieve that disarmament militarily. U.S. officials have made clear that this would include the ouster of Iraq's President Saddam Hussein's regime. Since February 2003, the Administration has stressed that regime change through U.S.-led military action would yield benefits beyond disarmament, including liberation from an oppressive regime for the Iraqi people and enhancement of the prospects for peace and democracy throughout the Middle East."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2003-03-17
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Information Warfare and Cyberwar: Capabilities and Related Policy Issues [March 14, 2003]
Military planning is shifting away from the Cold War view that power is derived from platforms, and more toward the view that combat power can be enhanced by communications networks and technologies that control access to, and directly manipulate information. As a result, information itself is now both a tool and a target of warfare. An important objective of using technology is to control the flow of information, and through deception or blockage, reduce the ability or willingness of an adversary to fight. As concepts emerge, this new use of technology is referred to by several names; information warfare, cyberwar, and netwar. This report describes the emerging areas of information warfare and cyberwar in the context of U.S. national security. It assesses known U.S. capabilities and plans, suggests related policy issues of potential interest to Congress, and tracks relevant current legislation. Additional reports are planned for specific information warfare issues. This report will be updated to accommodate significant changes.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wilson, Clay
2003-03-14
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Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas: Energy Security and Other Major Issues [Updated March 14, 2003]
The Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) contains significant energy resources. The principal authority for OCS development is the OCS Lands Act of 1953, as amended (43 USC 1331). The OCS is made available for oil and gas exploration and development subject to environmental protection and competing public needs.1 A number of OCS issues have been addressed through the annual appropriation process, including offshore leasing moratoria, lease sale 181 (a controversial Florida lease sale), and the royalty-in-kind program. The leasing moratoria, which began in Congress with the FY1982 Interior Appropriations Act (P.L. 97-100), prohibited new offshore California leases. The moratoria were imposed because many coastal states and environmental groups convinced Congress that leasing tracts in environmentally sensitive areas might lead to activities that could cause economic or irreversible environmental damage. Eventually the moratoria were expanded to include New England, the Georges Bank, the mid-Atlantic, the Pacific Northwest, much of Alaska, and a portion of the Eastern Gulf of Mexico. Environmental concerns from offshore oil and gas development generally include oil spills, drilling discharges, seismic surveys, and onshore damage. New technology has led to greater exploration and development into deeper water made possible by advances in high-quality 3-dimensional seismic surveying and processing. New drilling technology and new drilling rigs allow for increased drilling at greater depths and accuracy, resulting in higher production rates and lower-cost production.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humphries, Marc
2003-03-14
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Iran: Current Developments and U.S. Policy [March 13, 2003]
"Even before Iran's tacit cooperation with post-September 11 U.S. efforts to defeat Afghanistan's Taliban regime, signs of moderation in Iran had stimulated the United States to try to engage Iran in official talks. Iran, still split between conservatives and reformers loyal to President Mohammad Khatemi did not accept. By early 2002, reports of Iran's continued support to anti- Middle East peace process groups such as Hizballah had reversed the warming trend. Iran was grouped with North Korea and Iraq as part of the 'axis of evil' identified in President Bush's January 29, 2002 State of the Union message. The United States said subsequently it supports reform-minded Iranians who want democracy, an apparent shift from the stance of attempting to engage Khatemi's government. President Bush has identified Iran's efforts to acquire weapons of mass destruction and delivery means, coupled with its support of terrorist groups, as key U.S. concerns. Iran's ballistic missile program has made major strides over the past few years, with the help of several foreign suppliers, and its nuclear program has made significant strides recently that have drawn statements of U.S. concern."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2003-03-13
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Middle East Peace Talks [Updated March 13, 2003]
"The end of the Cold War, the decline of the Soviet Union, and the U.S.-led victory in the Gulf war facilitated the beginning of a new peace process in 1991. Israel and the Palestinians discussed a 5-year period of interim self-rule leading to a final settlement. Israel and Syria discussed Israeli withdrawal from the Golan Heights in exchange for peace. Israel and Jordan discussed relations. Israel and Lebanon focused on Israel' s withdrawal from its self-declared security zone in south Lebanon and reciprocal Lebanese actions. On September 13, 1993, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed a Declaration of Principles (DOP), providing for Palestinian empowerment and some territorial control. Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty agenda on September 14, 1993; Prime Minister Rabin and King Hussein affirmed the end of the state of belligerency between Israel and Jordan on July 25; a Peace Treaty was signed on October 26, 1994. Israel and the Palestinians signed an Interim Self-Rule in the West Bank/Oslo II accord on September 28, 1995. Israel continued implementing it despite the November 4 assassination of Prime Minister Rabin.
Israel suspended talks with Syria after terror attacks in February/March 1996. They resumed in December 1999, but were 'postponed indefinitely' after January 2000. A January 1997 protocol produced Israeli redeployment from Hebron. An October 15-23, 1998, summit resulted in the Wye River Memorandum on implementation of earlier agreements. The Israeli cabinet froze implementation on December 20. On September 4, 1999, Israeli Prime Minister Barak and Palestinian leader Arafat signed the Sharm al-Shaykh Memorandum on implementing Wye. Israel withdrew from south Lebanon on May 24, 2000. From July 11-24, President Clinton held a summit with Israeli and Palestinian leaders at Camp David to reach a framework accord, but they did not succeed. A Palestinian uprising or 'intifadah' began in September. On December 23, President Clinton presented bridging proposals."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2003-03-13
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Iraq: U.N. Inspections for Weapons of Mass Destruction [Updated March 13, 2003]
"U.N. inspections of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs resumed in November 2002 after a 4-year hiatus. U.N. Security Council Resolution 1441 granted Iraq a final chance to disarm. Given Iraq's history of thwarting WMD inspections, many have low expectations for the success of inspections. This report, which will be u dated, analyzes the challenges and opportunities of inspections in light of new U.N. Security Council authorities and Congress's authorization to use U.S. force against Iraq ( .L. 107-243). The success of these inspections will have a direct impact on whether U.S. military force is used to eliminate the threat of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. On the plus side, new inspections have strengthened authorities under the new U.N. resolution, including unimpeded access to all sites and interviewing Iraqi officials privately, and they utilize new technologies. There is also a better relationship between U.N. Monitoring, Verification, and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) than there was between its predecessor and the IAEA. Inspections, rather than military strikes, could encourage defectors to provide critical information and might facilitate uncovering links between WMD and terrorism."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Squassoni, Sharon A.
2003-03-13
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Iraq: Weapons Threat, Compliance, Sanctions, and U.S. Policy [Updated March 10, 2003]
"On November 8, 2002, the Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1441, giving U.N. weapons inspectors new authorities; inspections began November 27. Following the latest report by the inspectors on March 7, 2003, the U.N. Security Council remains divided over whether to authorize military action to disarm Iraq."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2003-03-10
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Human Cloning [Updated March 10, 2003]
"On December 27, 2002, a representative of Clonaid announced the overseas birth of the first cloned human to a 31-year old American woman. Although the company said genetic tests would show that the baby is a clone of the birth mother, tests results have not been released. Claims of a second birth of a cloned baby to a Dutch couple on January 3, 2003 have also not been proven. These announcements are likely to rekindle debate in the 108th Congress on the moral and ethical implications of human cloning as the disclosure by Advanced Cell Technology (ACT) did in the 107th Congress. In November 2001 ACT announced the creation of the first cloned human embryos (which survived only for a few hours). ACT intended to use the embryos to derive stem cells to produce therapies for diseases like diabetes and Parkinson's disease. President Bush announced in August 2001 that for the first time federal funds will be used to support research on human embryonic stem cells, but funding will be limited to 'existing stem cell lines.' Federal funds will not be used for the cloning of human embryos for any purpose, including stem cell research. The President's Council on Bioethics was established in November 2001 to consider all of the medical and ethical ramifications of biomedical innovation. In July 2002 the Council released its report on human cloning which unanimously recommended a ban on reproductive cloning and, by a vote of 10 to 7, a 4-year moratorium on cloning for medical research purposes. In January 2002, the National Academies released its report entitled 'Scientific and Medical Aspects of Human Reproductive Cloning'. The panel recommended that the U.S. ban human reproductive cloning that is aimed at creating a child. It suggested the ban should be legally enforceable and carry substantial penalties rather than rely simply on voluntary actions. The panel noted that the ban should be reconsidered within 5 years, but only if compelling new data on safety and efficacy are presented and a national dialogue on the social and ethical issues suggests that a review is warranted. However, the panel concluded that research using cloning procedures to produce stem cells should be permitted because of the considerable potential for developing new therapies and advancing biomedical knowledge."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Johnson, Judith A. (Judith Ann), 1957-
2003-03-10
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Safeguarding the Nation's Drinking Water: EPA and Congressional Actions [Updated March 7, 2003]
"The events of September 11 raised concerns about the security of the nation's drinking water supplies and their vulnerability to attack. Issues include the readiness of water utilities to prevent and respond to attacks on water systems, steps that can be taken to improve preparedness and response capabilities, and the availability of resources to help utilities enhance drinking water security. After a presidential commission on critical infrastructure protection identified vulnerabilities in the water sector in 1997, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), with other federal agencies, water utilities, and state and local governments, began taking steps to improve the security of water systems, although these efforts generally were not targeted to current concerns over terrorism...Since September 11, 2001, EPA has increased efforts to help utilities safeguard facilities and supplies from terrorist or other threats in numerous ways...The 107th Congress took significant steps to improve drinking water security...In February 2003, the White House issued the National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and Key Assets, which designates EPA as the lead agency for protecting critical water infrastructure. The 108th Congress may be interested in overseeing implementation of the water security provisions of the Bioterrorism Act and other efforts to improve drinking water security. Regarding funding, the Consolidated Appropriations Resolution for FY2003, P.L. 108-7 (H.J.Res. 2) provides more than $22 million for EPA for water security activities." - Excerpts from Summary
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tiemann, Mary
2003-03-07
