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• Nuclear Weapons in Russia: Safety, Security, and Control Issues [Updated April 12, 2002]

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  "When the Soviet Union collapsed in late 1991, it reportedly possessed more than 27,000 nuclear weapons, and these weapons were deployed on the territories of several of the former Soviet republics. All of the nuclear warheads have now been moved to Russia, but Russia still has around 6,000 strategic nuclear weapons and perhaps as many as 12,000 warheads for nonstrategic nuclear weapons. Many analysts in the United States and Russia have expressed concerns about the safety, security, and control over these weapons. Some of these concerns focus on Russia's nuclear command and control structure. Financial constraints have slowed the modernization and replacement of many aging satellites and communications links, raising the possibility that Russia might not be able to identify a potential attack or communicate with troops in the field if an attack were underway. Some fear that the misinterpretation of an ambiguous event might lead to the launch of nuclear weapons. Some also expressed concern that the year 2000 computer bug could affect Russia's command and control system, but it did not. Some concerns are also focused on the safety and security of nuclear warheads in storage facilities in Russia. Press reports and statements by Russian officials about possible missing warheads have added to these concerns. However, General Eugene Habiger, former Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Strategic Command, stated that he had no major concerns about security at Russian nuclear storage facilities after he visited several storage sites in October 1997 and June 1998."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woolf, Amy F.

  2002-04-12
• Energy Policy: Setting the Stage for the Current Debate [Updated April 12, 2002]

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  "The Bush Administration issued its plan for a national energy policy on May 16, 2001. The plan was controversial, characterized by some as leaner on conservation and renewables than Democratic proposals, and predisposed to trade off environmental considerations to increase supply. Comprehensive energy legislation was introduced in the Senate by both parties by late March (S. 388, S. 389, S. 596, S. 597). Bills reported by several House committees (H.R. 2436, H.R. 2460, H.R. 2511, and H.R. 2587) were combined in a single bill, H.R. 4, passed by the House, August 1, 2001. The bill would require a 5 billion gallon reduction in light-duty truck and SUV [sport utility vehicle] fuel consumption and would open the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) to leasing. Debate on comprehensive energy legislation, Amendment No. 2917 to S. 517, began in the Senate in late February. Amendments approved during the first days of the debate included language: [1] designating a southern route for the proposed Alaskan natural gas pipeline; [2] reauthorization of the nuclear liability insurance provisions known as the Price-Anderson Act; [3] authorization of a study of the effect on drinking water of a hydraulic fracturing process used in both natural gas and coal methane production; and [4] adding the text of S. 235, pipeline safety reform legislation, previously approved by the Senate last year."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bamberger, Robert

  2002-04-12
• State Department and Related Agencies: FY2003 Appropriations [April 12, 2002]

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  "On February 4, 2002 the Bush Administration sent its FY2003 budget request to Congress. The State Department request totaled about $7.6 billion, while the international broadcasting request totaled $491 million. Secretary of State Colin Powell testified before various House and Senate Committees in February and March, 2002 stating that last year's priorities of increased security, increased hiring, and improved technology at State remain the same for the next fiscal year budget. In late March, the Administration requested an additional $322.1 million for State and $7.4 million for international broadcasting within a supplemental request. The resulting total FY2003 request for the Department of State and international broadcasting amounts to more than $8.4 billion, 6.9 % greater than the FY2002 total enacted funding of $7.9 billion (including the post 9/11 emergency supplemental). One concern regarding the supplemental has to do with the Bush request for $100 million for the Department of Defense (DoD) to 'support foreign nations in furtherance of the global war on terrorism' and $30 million for DoD to support indigenous forces engaged in activities in furtherance of United States national security aims.' Some are concerned that these funds would give DoD authority to conduct foreign policy without getting prior authority from Congress or conferring with the Department of State."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Epstein, Susan B.

  2002-04-12
• Imagery Intelligence: Issues for Congress [April 12, 2002]

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  "Intelligence derived from satellites has become an essential element of military operations and foreign policymaking. In particular, precise imagery from space-based collection systems makes possible the effective use of precision-guided munitions that is becoming the basis of U.S. defense planning. Imagery intelligence also provides the factual bases for addressing many foreign policy issues. Congress has been concerned with satellite imagery because of its critical importance and its high costs. Independent commissions established by Congress to assess the state of the imagery intelligence effort have concluded that significant changes need to be made in the way the Nation's imagery effort is conducted. There is a consensus that greater emphasis should be placed on better collection targeting and improving processing, exploitation, and dissemination (the processes collectively termed TPED); that greater attention should be given to acquiring commercial imagery; and that the management of the imagery effort may need to be changed. Even before the events of September 11, 2001, there appeared to be a fairly widespread view within congressional committees that at least some additional funding should be directed towards imagery collection and TPED. Subsequent military campaigns have underscored the use of imagery in military operations and other counterterrorist efforts."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Best, Richard A.

  2002-04-12
• Treatment of 'Battlefield Detainees' in the War on Terrorism [April 11, 2002]

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  After earlier criticism from human rights organizations and many foreign governments regarding the determination that the Geneva Conventions of 1949 do not apply to the detainees held in Cuba, President Bush shifted position with an announcement that Taliban fighters are covered by the 1949 Geneva Conventions, while al Qaeda fighters are not. Taliban fighters are not to be treated as prisoners of war (POW), however, because they reportedly fail to meet international standards as lawful combatants. The decision is not likely to affect the treatment of any of the detainees held at the U.S. Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and is not likely to quell all of the criticism. The U.N. High Commissioner on Human Rights (UNHCR) and some human rights organizations argue that all combatants captured on the battlefield are entitled to be treated as POWs until an independent tribunal has determined otherwise.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Elsea, Jennifer

  2002-04-11
• Campaign Financing [April 11, 2002]

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  "Concerns over financing federal elections have become a seemingly perennial aspect of our political system, centered on the enduring issues of high campaign costs and reliance on interest groups for needed campaign funds. Rising election costs have long fostered a sense in some quarters that spending is out of control, with too much time spent raising funds and elections 'bought and sold.' Debate has also focused on the role of interest groups in campaign funding, especially through political action committees (PACs). Differences in perceptions of the campaign finance system have long been compounded by different reform approaches of the major parties. Democrats have tended to favor more regulation, with spending limits and some public funding or benefits a part of their past proposals. Republicans have generally opposed such limits and public funding. Democratic majorities in the 101st-103rd Congresses passed bills with spending limits, benefits, and PAC and loophole curbs. The 101st and 103rd Congress bills were not reconciled; a 102nd Congress conference bill was vetoed. Reformers in the 104th Congress sought a similar bill but failed on a Senate cloture vote; House Republicans offered a bill giving parties and local citizens a greater role, but this and a Democratic alternative lost."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cantor, Joseph E.

  2002-04-11
• Trade Promotion Authority (Fast-Track Authority for Trade Agreements): Background and Developments in the 107th Congress [Updated April 10, 2002]

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  "One of the major trade issues in the 107th Congress is whether or not Congress approves trade promotion authority (formerly called fast-track authority) for the President to negotiate trade agreements with expedited procedures for implementing legislation. Under this authority, Congress agrees to consider legislation to implement the trade agreements (usually nontariff trade agreements) under a procedure with mandatory deadlines, no amendment, and limited debate. The President is required to consult with congressional committees during negotiation and notify Congress before entering into an agreement. The President was granted this authority almost continuously from 1974 to 1994, but the authority lapsed and has not been renewed. A major issue has been the role of labor and the environment as objectives in trade agreements. Differences have been largely along party lines. […] In a speech on April 4, the President called for the Senate to bring TPA [Trade Promotion Authority] legislation to the floor by April 22. Days later, Senate Majority Leader Daschle said that the Senate would not meet that deadline but might consider the bill before the Memorial Day recess. In an address on February 12, 2002, Senate Finance Committee Chairman Baucus said that trade adjustment assistance would be considered in the Senate together with fast-track (TPA), Andean trade preferences, and the Generalized System of Preferences. On December 18, 2001, the Senate Finance Committee ordered H.R. 3005 to be reported with an amendment in the nature of a substitute. On December 12, the Committee had marked up the bill and had approved it subject to further amendment on an 18-3 vote. The House approved TPA bill H.R. 3005 along party lines by a vote of 215-214, on December 6, 2001."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sek, Lenore

  2002-04-10
• Preventing Proliferation of Biological Weapons: U.S. Assistance to the Former Soviet States [April 10, 2002]

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  This report addresses the imperative role the US has played in the attempt to rid the former Soviet Union of their numerous biological research and production centers (BRPCs). Their BRPC capabilities included genetically-altered, antibiotic-resistant pathogens and sophisticated delivery systems, with approximately fifty biological research and production centers (BRPCs) throughout the country devoted to either all or part of their work to the program. To make matters worse, the drastically reduced or eliminated funding for these BRPC's created thousands of unemployed BW scientists, in addition to the facilities, weapons technology, and thousands of strains of pathogens at these centers that became vulnerable to theft, sale, or misuse. However, in the mid-1990's, the United States began engaging BRPCs throughout the former Soviet Union in four kinds of cooperative projects aimed at preventing proliferation of BW capabilities - Biosafety, Biosecurity, Collaborative Research, and Dismantlement. Biosafety enhancement projects are intended to make BRPCs safe places for collaborating scientists to work. In combination, Collaborative Research and Biosafety enhancement projects give U.S. officials routine access to laboratories and facilities that were once used for BW research and production. BioSecurity projects consolidate and restrict access to pathogens, while Dismantlement projects target excess infrastructure and BW equipment at BRPC sites for permanent dismantlement. As a result, U.S. participants in these projects have identified several lessons learned in the past few years. First, it has become clear that the infrastructure of the Soviet/Russian BW complex was more extensive than most analysts realized when the United States initiated its efforts to prevent proliferation of BW capabilities from former Soviet states. Second, U.S. participants report that biosafety, biosecurity, and dismantlement projects require complex negotiations, complex engineering work, considerable project management support, and innovative solutions for problems specific to each BRPC. Consequently, they have learned that the United States may need to offer a long-term commitment if it wants to complete the effort. At the same time, the U.S. agencies with BW nonproliferation programs recognize the need to maximize the nonproliferation benefits of U.S. assistance in an environment with limited resources. Finally, U.S. participants have discovered that interpersonal and institutional relationships resulting from these cooperative efforts may play a powerful role in preventing proliferation of BW capabilities from former Soviet states.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cook, Michelle Stem; Woolf, Amy F.

  2002-04-10
• U.S. Foreign Aid to East and South Asia: Selected Recipients [April 10, 2002]

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  "The U.S. war on terrorism has given new impetus to U.S. aid to Asia. In addition to the goals of alleviating poverty, encouraging democratic social and political forces, fostering economic growth and stability, and cultivating bilateral relations in Asia, since September 2001, the United States has redoubled its efforts in fighting terrorism in parts of the region. This report discusses changing U.S. aid programs for 16 East Asian and South Asian countries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-

  2002-04-10
• Libya [Updated April 10, 2002]

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  "The United Nations Security Council passed three resolutions that placed sanctions on Libya until Libya surrendered for trial two men suspected of bombing Pan Am flight 103 in 1988 and French flight UTA 772 in 1989. Libya surrendered the two men on April 5, 1999, and the U.N. suspended the sanctions the same day. U.S. sanctions against Libya remain in place. Libyan-U.S. relations have been plagued by a series of incidents between U.S. and Libyan armed forces, Libyan policies of supporting terrorism, Libya's search for chemical and nuclear weapons, and Libyan meddling in other nations' internal affairs. Al-Qadhafi has proposed bilateral and multilateral unions with his neighbors and several other countries, and envisions himself as carrying on for Egypt's Nasir in unifying the Arab, Islamic, and African worlds. Libyan leader Muammar al-Qadhafi implemented a form of participatory democracy in Libya, where villages elect Peoples' Congresses, which in turn elect Peoples' Congresses for geographic regions and the central government. In addition, there are Peoples' Congresses representing industries or institutions, such as education, medicine, or broadcasting. Despite the presence and apparent activity of the Peoples' Congresses, it is clear that members of the Revolutionary Command Council, created after the 1969 coup, and their cohort continue to exercise great influence, perhaps dictatorial authority, over Libya. Libya's economy depends upon oil; current production is running at 1.4 million barrels per day of high quality crude, most of which is exported to Western Europe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2002-04-10
• Joint Strike Fighter (JSF): Potential National Security Questions Pertaining to a Single Production Line [April 10, 2002]

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  From the Document: "The Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program is intended to develop and build a family of new-generation tactical combat aircraft for the U.S. Air Force, the Marine Corps, the Navy, and Britain's Royal Navy. As now projected, the JSF will become the U.S. Defense Department's (DoD) largest ever acquisition program in terms of future cost and number of aircraft to be produced. A controversial aspect of the JSF program has been the 'winner-take-all' approach that DoD used to award the development and demonstration contract. On October 26, 2001, senior DoD officials announced that a team led by Lockheed Martin (and composed of Northrop Grumman, and BAE Systems) had beaten a team led by the Boeing Company, winning the exclusive rights to enter the JSF program's system development and demonstration (SDD) phase, and to build all 2,912 JSF aircraft. Some observers contend that DoD's 'winner-take-all' approach to JSF production could have negative implications for the defense industrial base and U.S. national security. […] Observers tend to agree that maintaining combat aircraft design capabilities is more critical and more difficult than maintaining production capabilities. Yet, there is disagreement about whether design capabilities can be maintained in the absence of continued work. Also, many argue that other platforms, such as unmanned aerial vehicles, could supplant manned combat aircraft in the post-JSF future. Other observers disagree, and argue that it is likely that DoD will require a manned combat aircraft after JSF, if only for niche missions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bolkcom, Christopher C.; Else, Daniel H.

  2002-04-10
• Terrorist Attacks and National Emergency Declarations [Updated April 10, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "As part of his response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks against the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., President George W. Bush formally declared national emergencies on September 14 and 23. The President's actions follow a long-standing tradition of alerting the nation to a crisis threatening public order and constitutional government. Under current arrangements, such declarations also allow the President to make use of activated authority on a selective basis, as appropriate for responding to the emergency at hand. Some 60 provisions of law may be brought into force by an emergency declaration. Updated as events recommend, this report chronicles the actions taken by President Bush pursuant to his national emergency declarations, as well the issuance of additional such declarations concerning terrorism."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Relyea, Harold

  2002-04-10
• Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation [Updated April 10, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "The Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation was created pursuant to language contained in the National Defense Authorization Act for 2001 (H.R. 5408), which was incorporated into the H.R. 4205 conference report (H.Rept. 106-945), enacted into law on October 30, 2000 (P.L. [Public Law] 106-398). The Institute was created by Congress in response to a legislative initiative sponsored by the Clinton Administration. When the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation was formally established in Section 2166 of Title 10 U.S.C. [United States Code], the authorities of its controversial predecessor, the U.S. Army School of the Americas, were repealed. This report provides background on the purpose, structure, and other aspects of the new Institute. It will be revised as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.

  2002-04-10
• Palestinians and Middle East Peace: Issues for the United States [April 9, 2002]

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  "The United States began contacts with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in December 1988, after the PLO accepted Israel's right to exist, accepted U.N. Resolutions 242 and 338 that call for an exchange of land for peace, and renounced terrorism. The United States continues its contacts with the PLO and the Palestinian Authority elected in January 1996, and is an active broker in the continuing Middle East peace process. Congress gave the President the authority to waive previously passed legislation prohibiting U.S. contributions to the United Nations from funding any PLO activities, threatening to withdraw U.S. membership from international organizations that recognize the PLO, prohibiting U.S. government employees from negotiating with the PLO, and labeling the PLO a terrorist organization. The waiver authority was extended in P.L. 104-107 (February 12, 1996), but expired August 12, 1997. […] The Interim Agreement signed on September 28, 1995 (also called Oslo II or the Taba Agreement), provided for elections for the 88-seat Palestinian Assembly, the release of Israeli-held prisoners, Israeli withdrawal from six West Bank cities, and other issues. The Israelis withdrew from the West Bank cities by the end of 1995, and the Palestinian Assembly was elected on January 20, 1996, and sworn in on March 7, 1996. Israel and the Palestinians agreed to an Israeli withdrawal from Hebron in January 1997, and on October 23, 1998 signed the Wye agreement to meet previous commitments. The peace talks stalled at Camp David in July 2000, and remain suspended since the Palestinian uprising began in September.Some 600 Palestinians and 150 Israelis have died in the continuing confrontation. Also see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB91137, The Middle East Peace Talks."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2002-04-09
• Palestinians and Middle East Peace: Issues for the United States [Updated April 9, 2002]

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  "The United States began contacts with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in December 1988, after the PLO accepted Israel's right to exist, accepted U.N. Resolutions 242 and 338 that call for an exchange of land for peace, and renounced terrorism. The United States continues its contacts with the PLO and the Palestinian Authority elected in January 1996, and is an active broker in the continuing Middle East peace process. […] On May 4, 1994, Israel and the PLO signed an agreement providing for the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza and Jericho (withdrawal completed May 11, 1994). The Interim Agreement signed on September 28, 1995 (also called Oslo II or the Taba Agreement), provided for elections for the 88-seat Palestinian Assembly, the release of Israeli-held prisoners, Israeli withdrawal from six West Bank cities, and other issues. The Israelis withdrew from the West Bank cities by the end of 1995, and the Palestinian Assembly was elected on January 20, 1996, and sworn in on March 7, 1996. Israel and the Palestinians agreed to an Israeli withdrawal from Hebron in January 1997, and on October 23, 1998 signed the Wye agreement to meet previous commitments. The peace talks stalled at Camp David in July 2000, and remain suspended since the Palestinian uprising began in September. Some 600 Palestinians and 150 Israelis have died in the continuing confrontation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2002-04-09
• Federal Emergency Management Agency Funding for Homeland Security and Other Activities [April 9, 2002]

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  "In response to the terrorist attacks in the fall of 2001, the Bush Administration requested funds in the FY2003 budget for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) that emphasize the agency's homeland security mission. [...] The Initiative would provide grants to state and local police, fire, and other emergency personnel for equipment purchases, improvement of communications capabilities, and training. [...] Emergency food and shelter funds would be transferred to the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Mitigation funding to reduce the costs of future disasters or to prevent disasters from occurring would no longer be tied to the receipt of disaster assistance, but would primarily derive from competitive grants. Likely issues of debate for the 107th Congress include the advantages and disadvantages of transferring preparedness and equipment funding from the Department of Justice to the First Responder Initiative in FEMA, consolidating hazard mitigation funding, and options for funding disaster assistance."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bea, Keith

  2002-04-09
• Free Trade Agreements: Impact on U.S. Trade and Implications for U.S. Trade Policy [Updated April 9, 2002]

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  "In the last few years, the United States has considered bilateral and regional free trade areas (FTAs) with a number of trading partners. Such arrangements are not new in U.S. trade policy. The United States has had a free trade arrangement with Israel since 1985 and with Canada since1989. The latter was expanded to include Mexico in 1994 to become the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) effective in January 1994. The United States has been conducting negotiations with 33 Western Hemispheric countries with a goal of forming a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) by 2005 and with various Asian and Pacific-Rim countries to achieve a free trade and investment area by 2020. In the last two years, U.S. interest in bilateral and regional free trade arrangements has surged. In 2000, the United States began and completed negotiations with Jordan on a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) and began separate negotiations with Singapore and with Chile. Furthermore, some Members of Congress have introduced legislation to encourage the formation of free trade arrangements with other trading partners. The surge in interest in FTAs as a component of U.S. trade policy comes at a time when major U.S. trading partners, for example, Canada, Mexico, Japan, and the EU, are themselves negotiating and forming FTAs with various other countries. […] This report will monitor pending and possible proposals for U.S. FTAs, relevant legislation and other congressional interest in U.S. FTAs. The report will be revised as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cooper, William H., 1949-

  2002-04-09
• Caspian Oil and Gas: Production & Prospects [April 9, 2002]

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  "There is a prospect of exceedingly large reserves of crude oil and natural gas in the Caspian Sea region, and a consequent large increase in the production of oil and gas from that area. Because diversity of energy sources is a consideration in Congressional deliberations on energy policy, this prospect could play a role in policy discussions. However, there are notable obstacles to increases in Caspian Sea region production of oil and gas both now and in the future that may slow development."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gelb, Bernard A.

  2002-04-09
• AIDS in Africa [Updated April 9, 2002]

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  "Sub-Saharan Africa has been far more severely affected by AIDS than any other part of the world. The United Nations reports that 28.1 million adults and children are infected with the HIV virus in the region, which has about 10% of the world's population but more than 70% of the worldwide total of infected people. The overall rate of infection among adults in sub-Saharan Africa is about 8.4%; it is 1.2% worldwide. Sixteen countries, mostly in eastern and southern Africa, have HIV infection rates of more than 10%, and the rate has reached 35.8% in Botswana. An estimated 19.3 million Africans have died from AIDS, including 2.3 million who died in 2001. AIDS has surpassed malaria as the leading cause of death in Africa, and it kills many times more Africans than war. In Africa, HIV is spread primarily by heterosexual contact, and sub- Saharan Africa is the only region where women are infected at a higher rate than men."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2002-04-09
• Enron: A Select Chronology of Congressional, Corporate, and Government Activities [April 9, 2002]

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  "Enron Corporation, which had more than $49 billion in total assets for 2001 and was listed as the seventh largest U.S. corporation (ranked by revenues in 2000) by 'Fortune' magazine, filed for Chapter 11 reorganization protection on December 2, 2001. The Houston-based corporation and 13 affiliated entities filing for bankruptcy provoked intense media and congressional interest and questions involving the financial markets, securities and auditing firms, and corporate management and insurance and pension policies. The federal government is examining Enron's corporate activities. Investigations by the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Commodity Futures Trading Commission, and Federal Energy Regulatory Commission have commenced. Since December 2001, Congress has held numerous hearings on issues surrounding the Enron collapse, and additional hearings are scheduled. Numerous state and local governments have initiated legal proceedings against Enron and its affiliated entities. This report is a chronology of select major corporate and federal government events that are relevant to the collapse of Enron. Chronology entries were compiled from congressional, corporate, and standard news sources. Web sites are provided when appropriate and available. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Anderson, J. Michael

  2002-04-09
• Iran: Current Developments and U.S. Policy [April 9, 2002]

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  "More than two decades after the November 4, 1979 seizure of the U.S. embassy in Tehran, and even before Iran's tacit cooperation with post-September 11 U.S. efforts to defeat Afghanistan's Taliban regime, signs of moderation in Iran had stimulated the United States to try to engage Iran in official talks. Iran, still split between conservatives and reformers loyal to President Mohammad Khatemi, who was elected in May 1997 and overwhelmingly reelected on June 8, 2001, has not accepted to date. However, recent reports of Iranian meddling in post-Taliban Afghanistan and Iran's intercepted January 2002 shipment of arms allegedly to the Palestinian Authority have reversed the warming trend. […] During the first term of the Clinton Administration, as part of a policy of 'dual containment' of Iran and Iraq, President Clinton imposed a ban on U.S. trade and investment in Iran in 1995, and a 1996 law imposed sanctions on foreign investment in Iran's energy sector (Iran-Libya Sanctions Act, ILSA). In keeping with a 1997 policy shift toward engagement, the Clinton Administration and Congress later eased sanctions to allow U.S. exports to Iran of food and medical supplies and importation from Iran of goods such as carpets and caviar. The United States has consistently worked with its allies to prevent arms and advanced technology sales to Iran and to limit Iran's influence over regional energy flows. U.S. purchases of Iranian crude oil and U.S. company investments in Iran remain barred. ILSA was renewed for another 5 years on August 3, 2001 (H.R. 1954, P.L. 107-24)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2002-04-09
• Trade and the Americas [Updated April 8, 2002]

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  "The Summit of the Americas, held in December 1994, led to ongoing congressional interest in three inter-related trade policy issues. The first involves an invitation extended to Chile to join NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement]. The second focuses on preferential tariff treatment for Caribbean and Central American countries. The third concerns movement towards a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), the concept of making the entire hemisphere a free-trade zone. Two other issues that subsequently have emerged involve a request by the Andean countries to extend and expand the Andean Trade Preferences Act (ATPA), and consideration of a free trade agreement with five Central American countries. Following the Miami Summit, the U.S., Canada, and Mexico invited Chile to enter into negotiations to accede to NAFTA. Envisioned as a first step towards creation of an FTAA, preliminary negotiations started in July 1995. Chile, however, shortly thereafter suspended the negotiations pending renewal of U.S. 'fast-track' negotiating authority. In August 1999, Chile proposed to re-start discussions on a bilateral free trade agreement and negotiations eventually commenced December 6-7, 2000 in Washington. The Bush Administration has continued the negotiations with the hope of reaching an agreement sometime in 2002. A second issue concerns the treatment of the Caribbean and Central American countries that may have been hurt in trade and investment terms as a result of the implementation of NAFTA."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ahearn, Raymond J.

  2002-04-08
• Afghanistan's Path to Reconstruction: Obstacles, Challenges, and Issues for Congress [April 8, 2002]

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  "For the past 22 years, Afghanistan has been embroiled in conflict. Humanitarian assistance programs have been a key part of the overall multilateral effort to relieve human suffering and assist refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). In the post-September 11 environment, while actions are being taken to eliminate Taliban and Al Qaeda forces and others supporting terrorism, the needs have only become more urgent. The case of Afghanistan may present a special category of crisis, in which the United States and others play a significant role in the war on terrorism while simultaneously providing humanitarian and reconstruction assistance to the innocent civilians caught in the crossfire. Moreover, the conditions in Afghanistan represent a challenging mix of infrastructure destruction, ongoing security concerns, and humanitarian needs requiring an immediate response. So far, the international community has recognized that large amounts of aid and resources will be required in the reconstruction effort. In addition, a long-term commitment will be necessary to ensure a stable, democratic Afghanistan emerges and will not fall prey to the twin evils of drugs and terrorism. As the Afghan phase of the war is concluded, transitional and reconstruction assistance will move ahead. It is anticipated that Congress will examine the early progress of reconstruction efforts, aid priorities, and the long-term role to be played by the United States. It will likely also look at the contributions by and responsibilities of key allies partnering in the efforts within Afghanistan. The current operating environment reveals some of the key challenges that lie ahead such as security issues, population movements, food security, environment and infrastructure, health, and education."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Margesson, Rhoda

  2002-04-08
• Possible Impacts of Major Counter Terrorism Security Actions on Research, Development, and Higher Education [April 8, 2002]

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  "The Congress, the executive branch, and scientific and technical communities have adopted and are considering research and development (R&D) and education-related security measures to counteract terrorism. [...] The National Academy of Sciences, the American Chemical Society, the American Psychological Association, and other professional groups have offered to assist the government and are monitoring opportunities for their members to compete for federal awards for counter terrorism R&D and related activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Knezo, Genevieve Johanna

  2002-04-08
• Why Certain Trade Agreements Are Approved as Congressional-Executive Agreements Rather Than as Treaties [Updated April 5, 2002]

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  "Trade agreements such as the NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement] and the GATT [General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade] Uruguay Round agreements have been approved by majority vote of each House of Congress rather than by two-thirds vote of the Senate -- that is, they have been treated as congressional-executive agreements rather than as treaties. The congressional-executive agreement has been the vehicle for implementing Congress' long-standing policy of seeking trade benefits for the United States through reciprocal trade negotiations. In a succession of statutes, Congress has authorized the President to negotiate and enter into tariff and nontariff barrier (NTB) agreements for limited periods, while mandating that NTB and free trade area agreements negotiated under this authority could enter into force for the United States only if approved by both Houses in a bill enacted into public law and other statutory conditions were met. The President is currently seeking trade agreement authority utilizing this approval procedure: H.R. 3005, which contains such authority, passed the House December 6, 2001; an amended version of the bill was reported by the Senate Finance Committee February 28, 2002. In February 2001, a U.S. circuit court dismissed an appeal challenging the constitutionality of the NAFTA because it was not entered into as a treaty, the court ruling that the issue was a nonjusticiable political question (Made in the USA Foundation v. United States, 242 F.3d 1300 (11th Cir. 2001)); the U.S. Supreme Court has since denied review in the case."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Jeanne J.

  2002-04-05
• North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Program [Updated April 5, 2002]

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  "North Korea's nuclear weapons program became an immediate foreign policy issue facing the United States because of North Korea's refusal to carry out its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other nuclear accords it had signed. North Korea has constructed nuclear reactors and a plutonium reprocessing plant at a site called Yongbyon. U.S. and other foreign intelligence assessments have concluded that North Korea probably has acquired enough weapons-grade plutonium for the manufacture of at least one nuclear weapon. The United States and North Korea signed an agreement on October 21, 1994, that offers North Korea a package of benefits in return for a freeze of North Korea's nuclear program. Benefits to North Korea include: light water nuclear reactors totaling 2,000 electric megawatts; shipments of 'heavy oil' to North Korea (50,000 tons in 1995 and 500,000 tons annually beginning in 1996 until the first light water reactor is built). The pace of implementation of the Agreed Framework has been very slow. Instead of the original target date of 2003, it generally is estimated that completion of the light water reactors will not take place until well beyond 2010. The United States has faced several policy problems since the signing of the Agreed Framework, including securing money annually to finance heavy oil shipments to North Korea (the cost of the oil has risen from about $30 million in 1995 to over $100 million), suspicions of clandestine North Korean nuclear activities, and North Korea's development of long range missiles."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Niksch, Larry A.

  2002-04-05
• Middle East Peace Talks [Updated April 5, 2002]

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  "Since the founding of Israel, Arab-Israeli conflict marked every decade until the 1990s. With each clash, issues separating the parties multiplied and became more intractable. The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 provided a home for the Jewish people, but the ensuing conflict made refugees of thousands of Arab residents of the formerly British Palestine, with consequences troubling for Arabs and Israelis alike. The 1967 war ended with Israel occupying territory of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Egypt and Syria fought the 1973 war, in part, to regain their lands. In 1982, Israel invaded southern Lebanon to prevent terrorist incursions; it withdrew in 1985, retaining control of a 9-mile 'security zone' over which Lebanon seeks to reclaim. Middle East peace has been a U.S. and international diplomatic goal throughout the years of conflict. The 1978 Camp David talks, the only previous direct Arab-Israeli negotiations, brought about the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Migdalovitz, Carol

  2002-04-05
• Presidential Advisers' Testimony Before Congressional Committees: A Brief Overview [April 5, 2002]

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  "Since the beginning of the federal government, Presidents have called upon executive branch officials to provide them with advice regarding matters of policy and administration. While Cabinet members were among the first to play such a role, the creation of the Executive Office of the President (EOP) in 1939 and the various agencies located within that structure resulted in a large increase the number and variety of presidential advisers. All senior staff members of the White House Office and the leaders of the various EOP agencies and instrumentalities could be said to serve as advisers to the President. Occasionally, these executive branch officials playing a presidential advisory role have been called upon to testify before congressional committees and subcommittees. Sometimes, such invited appearances have been prompted by allegations of personal misconduct on the part of the official, but they have also included instances when accountability for policymaking and administrative or managerial actions have instigated the request for testimony. Because such appearances before congressional committees or subcommittees seemingly could result in demands for advice proffered to the President, or the disclosure--inadvertent or otherwise--of such advice, there has been resistance, from time to time, by the Chief Executive to allowing such testimony. Congress has a constitutionally rooted right of access to the information it needs to perform its Article I legislative and oversight functions. Generally, a congressional committee with jurisdiction over the subject matter, which is conducting an authorized investigation for legislative or oversight purposes, has a right to information held by the executive branch in the absence of either a valid claim of constitutional privilege by the executive or a statutory provision whereby Congress has limited its constitutional right to information."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Relyea, Harold; Shampansky, Jay R.

  2002-04-05
• Israeli-United States Relations [April 5, 2002]

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  "Israeli-U.S. relations are an important factor in U.S. policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship. The main vehicle for expressing support for Israel has been foreign aid; Israel currently receives about $3 billion per year in economic and military grants, refugee settlement assistance, and other aid. Congress has monitored the aid issue closely along with other issues in bilateral relations, and its concerns have affected Administration's policies. U.S.-Israeli relations have evolved from an initial American policy of sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in 1948 to an unusual partnership that links a small but militarily powerful Israel, dependent on the United States for its economic and military strength, with the U.S. superpower trying to balance competing interests in the region. Some in the United States question the levels of aid and general commitment to Israel, and argue that a U.S. bias toward Israel operates at the expense of improved U.S. relations with various Arab states. Others maintain that democratic Israel is a strategic ally, and that U.S. relations with Israel strengthens the U.S. presence in the Middle East. The United States fully supported the Israeli-PLO [Palestine Liberation Organization] Declaration of Principles signed in Washington on September 13, 1993, and the follow-up agreements in May 1994, September 1995, the Hebron agreement of January 15, 1997, and the Wye agreement of October 23, 1998, mediated by President Clinton. See also CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB85066, 'Israel: U.S. Foreign Assistance'; CRS Issue Brief IB91137, 'The Middle East Peace Talks'; CRS Report RS20339, 'Jerusalem: The U.S. Embassy and P.L. 104-45'; and CRS Report RS20001, 'Jonathan Pollard: Background and Consideration for Presidential Clemency.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2002-04-05
• Egypt-United States Relations [April 5, 2002]

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  "U.S.-Egyptian relations are tied to maintaining regional stability, improving bilateral relations focused on Egyptian economic development and military cooperation, developing Egypt's democracy, sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, and continuing U.S. foreign assistance to Egypt. Experience gained from Egyptian-U.S. joint military exercises proved valuable in easing coordination during the February 1991 Desert Storm operation reversing Iraqi aggression against Kuwait. Egypt is a leader and moderating influence among many Arab, African, Islamic, and Third World states. Among the current issues in U.S.-Egyptian relations are the shared concerns over the terrorist attacks against Egyptian police, religious, government, and tourist facilities, and what those attacks maysignal for Egypt's domestic stability. The two nations may disagree over Egypt's interpretation of applying human rights practices to Islamic terrorists. The two countries disagree over the speed and depth, but not the need for some of Egypt's economic reforms. Egypt and the United States agree on the importance of the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, the need to continue current Arab-Israel peace talks, and the need for regional stability. The two nations agree on Egypt's determination to introduce democratic reforms to Egypt. The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of over $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. The United States will reduce Economic Support Funds (ESF) to about $400 million per year by 2008 in keeping with a plan to reduce aid to Israel. The Administration requested $655 million in economic grants and $1.3 billion in military grants for FY2002 for Egypt."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2002-04-05