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German Foreign and Security Policy [Updated January 31, 2008]
"German Chancellor Angela Merkel took office in November 2005 promising a foreign policy anchored in a revitalized transatlantic partnership. Most observers agree that since reaching a low-point in the lead-up to the Iraq war in 2003, relations between the United States and Germany have improved. With recent leadership changes in the United Kingdom and France, and a fragile coalition government in Italy, U.S. officials view Germany under Chancellor Merkel as a key U.S. ally in Europe. Despite continuing areas of divergence, President Bush and many Members of Congress have welcomed German leadership in Europe and have voiced expectations for increased U.S.-German cooperation on the international stage[...] Under Merkel's leadership, Germany has sought to boost transatlantic cooperation in areas ranging from economic and trade relations, climate change policy, and global counterterrorism and non-proliferation policy, to peacekeeping, reconstruction and stabilization efforts in Afghanistan, the Middle East, Africa, and the Balkans. Merkel has enjoyed relatively strong domestic support for her transatlantically-oriented foreign policy agenda. However, as her term progresses, and domestic political tensions mount, she may be more hard-pressed to justify her Atlanticist foreign policy to a public which appears increasingly skeptical of U.S. influence in the world. This report may be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belkin, Paul
2008-01-31
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Iraq: Oil and Gas Legislation, Revenue Sharing, and U.S. Policy [Updated January 18, 2008]
"Iraqi leaders continue to debate a package of hydrocarbon sector and revenue sharing legislation that would define the terms for the future management and development of the country's significant oil and natural gas resources. The package includes an oil and gas sector framework law and three supporting laws that would outline revenue sharing, restructure Iraq's Ministry of Oil, and create an Iraqi National Oil Company. Both the Bush Administration and Congress consider the passage of oil and gas sector framework and revenue sharing legislation as important benchmarks that would indicate the current Iraqi government's commitment to promoting political reconciliation and long term economic development in Iraq. […] The current military strategy employed by U.S. forces in Iraq seeks to create a secure environment in which Iraqis can resolve core political differences. However, it remains to be seen whether the package of hydrocarbon legislation under consideration will promote reconciliation or contribute to deeper political tension. Administration policymakers and Members of Congress thus face difficult choices with regard to encouraging consideration of new hydrocarbon legislation and related constitutional reforms while attempting to ensure that the content of proposed laws and amendments reflects compromises reached by and acceptable to Iraqis. This report reviews the package of legislation currently under consideration, analyzes the positions of various Iraqi political actors, and discusses potential implications for U.S. foreign policy goals in Iraq."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2008-01-18
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Diplomacy for the 21st Century: Transformational Diplomacy [Updated January 29, 2008]
"On January 18, 2006, in a speech at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., Secretary Rice outlined her vision for diplomacy changes that she referred to as 'transformational diplomacy' to meet this 21st Century world. The new diplomacy elevates democracy-promotion activities inside countries. According to Secretary Rice in her February 14, 2006 testimony before Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the objective of transformational diplomacy is: 'to work with our many partners around the world to build and sustain democratic, well-governed states that will respond to the needs of their people and conduct themselves responsibly in the international system.' Secretary Rice's announcement included moving people and positions from Washington, D.C., and Europe to "strategic" countries; it also created a new position of Director of Foreign Assistance, modified the tools of diplomacy, and changed U.S. foreign policy emphasis away from relations among governments to one of supporting changes within countries. This report provides an overview of Secretary of State Rice's transformational diplomacy plan. It examines the calls for reform of America's current diplomatic institutions, and the Administration's response -- transformational diplomacy. The report also presents the concerns many experts have expressed regarding specific elements of this proposal, and a sample of reactions in other countries. Finally, the report discusses various issues that may be considered by Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.; Nakamura, Kennon H.
2008-01-29
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Open Source Intelligence (OSINT): Issues for Congress [Updated January 28, 2008]
"Open source information (OSINT) is derived from newspapers, journals, radio and television, and the Internet. Intelligence analysts have long used such information to supplement classified data, but systematically collecting open source information has not been a priority of the U.S. Intelligence Community. In recent years, given changes in the international environment, there have been calls, from Congress and the 9/11 Commission among others, for a more intense and focused investment in open source collection and analysis. However, some still emphasize that the primary business of intelligence continues to be obtaining and analyzing secrets. The collection and analysis of OSINT information will be ultimately judged by its contribution to the overall intelligence effort. Collecting information from open sources is generally less expensive and less risky than collection from other intelligence sources. The use of OSINT may result not only in monetary savings but also in less risk than utilizing sensitive technical and human sources. OSINT can also provide insights into the types of developments that may not be on the priority list for other systems or may not be susceptible to collection through other intelligence approaches - innovative applications of new technologies, shifts in popular attitudes, emergence of new political and religious movements, growing popular discontent, disillusionment with leadership, etc. Supporters of OSINT maintain that the future contribution of the Intelligence Community will be enhanced by its ability to provide detailed information and incisive analyses of such developments. This report will be updated as new information becomes available."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.; Cumming, Alfred
2008-01-28
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North American Oil Sands: History of Development, Prospects for the Future [Updated January 17, 2008]
"When it comes to future reliable oil supplies, Canada's oil sands will likely account for a greater share of U.S. oil imports. Oil sands account for about 46% of Canada's total oil production and oil sands production is increasing as conventional oil production declines. Since 2004, when a substantial portion of Canada's oil sands were deemed economic, Canada, with about 175 billion barrels of proved oil sands reserves, has ranked second behind Saudi Arabia in oil reserves. […] The U.S. experience with oil sands has been much different. The U.S. government collaborated with several major oil companies as early as the 1930s to demonstrate mining of and in-situ production from U.S. oil sand deposits. However, a number of obstacles, including the remote and difficult topography, scattered deposits, and lack of water, have resulted in an uneconomic oil resource base. Only modest amounts are being produced in Utah and California. U.S. oil sands would likely require significant R&D and capital investment over many years to be commercially viable. An issue for Congress might be the level of R&D investment in oil sands over the long term. As oil sands production in Canada is predicted to increase to 2.8 million barrels per day by 2015, environmental issues are a cause for concern. Air quality, land use, and water availability are all impacted. Socio-economic issues such as housing, skilled labor, traffic, and aboriginal concerns may also become a constraint on growth."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humphries, Marc
2008-01-17
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Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act: A Brief Overview of Selected Issues [Updated February 8, 2008]
"The current legislative and oversight activity with respect to electronic surveillance under FISA has drawn national attention to several overarching issues. This report briefly outlines three such issues and touches upon some of the perspectives reflected in the ongoing debate. These issues include the inherent and often dynamic tension between national security and civil liberties, particularly rights of privacy and free speech; the need identified by the Director of National Intelligence (DNI), Admiral Mike McConnell, for the Intelligence Community to be able to efficiently and effectively collect foreign intelligence information from the communications of foreign persons located outside the United States in a changing, fast paced, and technologically sophisticated international environment, and the differing approaches suggested to meet this need; and limitations of liability for those electronic communication service providers who furnish aid to the federal government in its foreign intelligence collection. Two constitutional provisions, in particular, are implicated in this debate - the Fourth and First Amendments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bazan, Elizabeth B.
2008-02-08
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Gulf Security Dialogue and Related Arms Sale Proposals [Updated January 17, 2008]
"In May 2006, the Administration launched an effort to revive U.S.-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) security cooperation under the auspices of a new Gulf Security Dialogue (GSD). The Dialogue now serves as the principal security coordination mechanism between the United States and the six countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) - Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman. The core objectives of the Dialogue are the promotion of intra-GCC and GCC-U.S. cooperation to meet common perceived threats. The Dialogue provides a framework for U.S. engagement with the GCC countries in the following six areas: the improvement of GCC defense capabilities and interoperability; regional security issues such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and Lebanon; counter-proliferation; counter-terrorism and internal security; critical infrastructure protection; and commitments to Iraq [...] On January 15, 2008, Representative Anthony Weiner introduced H.J.Res. 76 to prohibit the JDAM sale to Saudi Arabia. As of January 22, the bill had 97 cosponsors [...] This report describes the structure and objectives of the Gulf Security Dialogue; briefly assesses its regional implications; summarizes related proposed arms sales; provides an overview of congressional notification and review procedures; and analyzes recent related activity in the Administration and Congress. It will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.; Blanchard, Christopher M.
2008-01-17
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Director of National Intelligence Statutory Authorities: Status and Proposals [Updated January 25, 2008]
"In passing the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) in 2004, Congress approved the most comprehensive reform of the U.S. Intelligence Community since its establishment over 50 years ago. Principal among enacted changes was the establishment of a new position of the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) to manage the Intelligence Community. Some observers have questioned whether the statute gives the DNI sufficient authority to implement the 2004 intelligence reforms enacted by Congress. Others believe that the DNI's existing authorities are substantially stronger than those of the former Director of Central Intelligence (CIA), but that the DNI must more effectively assert those authorities. […]In examining the DNI's current authorities, it is clear that they are substantially stronger than those held by the former DCI, but whether they are sufficient to implement mandated reforms will depend on several factors. […] This report reviews the congressional debate over authorities that occurred during consideration of the 2004 Act; examines the DNI's request for more authority and the congressional response to date; compares several of the DNI's authorities with those of former DCIs; and, examines some potential Congressional concerns. This report will be updated as new information becomes available."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.; Masse, Todd; Cumming, Alfred
2008-01-25
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Haiti: Developments and U.S. Policy Since 1991 and Current Congressional Concerns [Updated June 21, 2007]
From the Summary: "Following elections that were widely heralded as the first free and fair elections in Haiti's then-186-year history, Jean-Bertrand Aristide first became Haitian President in February 1991. He was overthrown by a military coup in September 1991. For over three years, the military regime resisted international demands that Aristide be restored to office. In September 1994, after a U.S. military intervention had been launched, the military regime agreed to Aristide's return, the immediate, unopposed entry of U.S. troops, and the resignation of its leadership. President Aristide returned to Haiti in October 1994, under the protection of some 20,000 U.S. troops, and soon disbanded the Haitian army. U.S. aid helped train a professional, civilian police force. Subsequently, critics charged Aristide with politicizing that force and engaging in corrupt practices. Elections held under Aristide and his successor, Rene Preval (1996-2000), including the one in which Aristide was reelected in 2000, were marred by alleged irregularities, low voter turnout, and opposition boycotts. Efforts to negotiate a resolution to the electoral dispute frustrated the international community for years. Tension and violence continued throughout Aristide's second term, culminating in his departure from office in February 2004, after the opposition repeatedly refused to negotiate a political solution and armed groups took control of over half the country. Aristide claimed that he was still the elected president and that the United States forced him from office, a charge the Bush Administration denies. An interim government, backed by the Bush Administration, was established with Gerard LaTortue as Prime Minister."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seelke, Clare Ribando; Taft-Morales, Maureen
2007-06-21
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Immigration: Policy Considerations Related to Guest Worker Programs [Updated January 17, 2008]
"At present, the United States has two main programs for temporarily importing low-skilled workers, sometimes referred to as guest workers. Agricultural guest workers enter through the H-2A visa program, and other guest workers enter through the H-2B visa program. Employers interested in importing workers under either program must first apply to the U.S. Department of Labor for a certification that U.S. workers capable of performing the work are not available and that the employment of alien workers will not adversely affect the wages and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers. Other requirements of the programs differ. [...] President George W. Bush proposed a new, expanded temporary worker program in January 2004 when he announced his principles for immigration reform, and has since reiterated his support for such a program. In August 2007, following the unsuccessful cloture vote in the Senate on S. 1639, the Bush Administration announced that it would seek to streamline the existing H-2A and H-2B programs within current law. The current discussion of guest worker programs takes place against a backdrop of historically high levels of unauthorized migration to the United States, and one question that often arises about proposals for new guest worker programs is whether they would enable participants to obtain LPR status. Other issues raised in connection with guest worker proposals include how new program requirements would compare with those of the H-2A and H-2B programs and how the eligible population would be defined."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2008-01-17
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Iraq: Reconstruction Assistance [Updated January 17, 2008]
"A large-scale assistance program has been undertaken by the United States in Iraq since mid-2003. To date, nearly $45 billion has been appropriated for Iraq reconstruction. […]. A significant number of reconstruction activities on the ground are completed or ongoing, but security concerns have slowed progress and added considerable expense to these efforts. Reconstruction programs have included the training and equipping of Iraqi security forces; construction of road, sanitation, electric power, oil production, and other infrastructure; and a range of programs to offer expert advice to the Iraqi government, establish business centers, provide school books and vaccinations, finance village development projects, and promote civil society, etc. Reconstruction priorities have changed over time. Allocations within the Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund (IRRF), the main U.S. assistance account in the first few years, mirrored shifting events on the ground. However, funds shifted to security and democratization in the period from 2004 to 2006 meant fewer funds available for electric power and water projects. At this time, most infrastructure programs are no longer funded. The key emphases of the aid program are the training of Iraqi forces and programs assisting the development of Iraqi governing capacities and supporting the work of the Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs). The report will be updated as events warrant. For discussion of the Iraq political situation, see CRS Report RL31339, Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security, by Kenneth Katzman."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tarnoff, Curt
2008-01-17
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Climate Change Legislation in the 110th Congress [Updated January 7, 2008]
"Congressional interest in climate change legislation has grown in recent years. In the 110th Congress, Members have introduced numerous bills that directly address various aspects of climate change. These bills cover a wide spectrum, ranging from climate change research to comprehensive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions cap-and-trade programs. Additional bills focus on GHG reporting or registration, or on power plant emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) as part of wider controls on pollutant emissions. […].Within several broad categories, climate change legislation varies in its approach to climate change issues. For example, some bills covering research issues focus solely on modeling the effects of future climate change, whereas others address the development of monitoring systems. Bills focusing on technology deployment do so through tax incentives and credit-based programs within the United States or by promoting technology deployment in developing countries. Bills that include GHG registries are designed either as a part of a larger reduction bill or as a method for establishing a baseline for some future reduction program. Bills with mandatory emission reductions differ by the entities covered, the gases limited, and the emission targets required. This report briefly discusses the basic concepts on which these bills are based, and compares major provisions of the bills in each of the following categories: climate change research; emissions reduction technologies; U.S. actions pursuant to international emission reduction agreements; adaptation to the effects of climate change; GHG reporting and registration; and GHG emissions reduction programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Yacobucci, Brent D.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2008-01-07
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Immigration: Terrorist Grounds for Exclusion and Removal of Aliens [Updated January 22, 2008]
"The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) spells out a strict set of admissions criteria and exclusion rules for all foreign nationals who come permanently to the United States as immigrants (i.e., legal permanent residents) or temporarily as nonimmigrants. Notably, any alien who engages in terrorist activity, or is a representative or member of a designated foreign terrorist organization, is generally inadmissible. After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the INA was broadened to deny entry to representatives of groups that endorse terrorism, prominent individuals who endorse terrorism, and (in certain circumstances) spouses and children of aliens who are removable on terrorism grounds. The INA also contains grounds for inadmissibility based on foreign policy concerns. The report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission) concluded that the key officials responsible for determining alien admissions (consular officers abroad and immigration inspectors in the United States) were not considered full partners in counterterrorism efforts prior to September 11, 2001, and as a result, opportunities to intercept the September 11 terrorists were missed. The 9/11 Commission's monograph, 9/11 and Terrorist Travel, underscored the importance of the border security functions of immigration law and policy. This report opens with an overview of the grounds for inadmissibility and summarizes key legislation enacted in recent years. The section on current law explains the legal definitions of 'terrorist activity,' 'engage in terrorist activity,' and 'terrorist organization,' and describes the terrorism-related grounds for inadmissibility and removal."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Garcia, Michael John
2008-01-22
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Executive Branch Reorganization and Management Initiatives: A Brief Overview [Updated January 14, 2008]
"This report provides a brief overview of recent executive branch reorganization actions and related management initiatives. President George W. Bush came to office from a campaign which had emphasized efficiency in government, particularly through the use of information technology, but revealed no plans for executive branch reorganization. The departing Clinton Administration had conducted an active effort at 'reinventing government,'spearheaded by a National Performance Review (NPR) announced shortly after the 1993 inauguration. The NPR produced a series of reports proposing various organizational and operational reforms. […].At the outset of the 110th Congress, President Bush did not indicate any plans for major reorganization within the executive branch. However, the restoration of presidential reorganization plan authority appeared to remain of interest to the Bush Administration. Of likely interest to congressional overseers in the second session are such organizational issues as the efficiency, economy, and effectiveness of the administrative structure of the Department of Homeland Security; the organizational status of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA); enhancement of the department's policy office; the operations of the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, recently reconstituted as an independent establishment within the executive branch; and the recommendations of the HELP Commission to overhaul the organization and management of the foreign assistance program (H.R. 1, H.R. 1684, S. 4, S. 547). This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold
2008-01-14
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Earthquakes: Risk, Monitoring, Notification, and Research [Updated January 16, 2008]
"Given the potentially huge costs associated with a severe earthquake, an ongoing issue for Congress is whether the federally supported programs aimed at reducing U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes are an adequate response to the earthquake hazard. Under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), four federal agencies have responsibility for long-term earthquake risk reduction: the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). They variously assess U.S. earthquake hazards, send notifications of seismic events, develop measures to reduce earthquake hazards, and conduct research to help reduce overall U.S. vulnerability to earthquakes. Congress established NEHRP in 1977, and its early focus was on research that would lead to an improved understanding of why earthquakes occur and to an ability to predict their occurrence precisely. Congress most recently reauthorized NEHRP in 2004 (P.L. 108-360), and designated NIST as the lead agency, to create better synergy among the agencies and improve the program. Understanding has improved about why and where earthquakes occur; however, reliably predicting the precise date and time an earthquake will occur is not yet possible. Research may eventually lead to an ability to predict earthquakes, but the focus of NEHRP now has shifted towards improving the nation's ability to prepare for earthquakes and to minimize losses when an earthquake occurs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)
2008-01-16
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Countries of the World and International Organizations: Sources of Information [Updated January 30, 2008]
"This report provides a selection of authoritative materials for locating information on foreign countries and international organizations. In the general information section, it presents sources giving an overview of politics, economics, and recent history. A specialized information section cites sources on human rights, immigration, international organizations, military strengths, terrorism, and other topics. Included are titles of some of the most frequently consulted bibliographic sources that are available for use in many libraries. Electronic information on foreign countries is also provided, via the Internet, by agencies of the federal government, official foreign government websites, international organizations, and related sources. Included is a current list of foreign chanceries located in Washington, DC, as of the date of this report. This report will be updated periodically through the year as new materials become available."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Torreon, Barbara Salazar
2008-01-30
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Intelligence Estimates: How Useful to Congress? [Updated January 28, 2008]
"National Intelligence Estimates (NIEs) are often of considerable interest to many Members of Congress. They represent the most formal assessment of a given issue by the U.S. Intelligence Community and address issues of major national security importance which may require congressional action. The intelligence process, however, is not an exact science and, on occasion, NIEs have proved unreliable because they were based on insufficient evidence or contained faulty analysis. This was demonstrated in the NIE produced in 2002 on Iraqi Weapons of Mass Destruction, parts of which were significantly inaccurate. NIEs can provide insights into the likely effects of certain policy approaches, but they are not usually made to take into account the details of planned U.S. diplomatic, economic, military, or legislative initiatives. In the past, Congress was not a principal consumer of NIEs but now appears increasingly interested in obtaining NIEs on crucial security issues despite or perhaps because of the experience with the 2002 Iraq NIE. […]. Some observers assert, however, that public discussion on specific NIEs may not adequately reflect the process by which they are prepared or their inherent limitations. This report will be updated when new information becomes available."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2008-01-28
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Georgia [Republic]: Current Developments and U.S. Interests [Updated February 2, 2008]
"This report examines Georgia's efforts to democratize and bolster its free market economy, while surmounting separatism, crime, corruption, and other problems. U.S. policy and assistance are discussed. Basic facts and biographical information are provided. This report may be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nichol, James P.
2008-02-02
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France: Factors Shaping Foreign Policy, and Issues in U.S.-French Relations [Updated January 17, 2008]
"The factors that shape French foreign policy have changed since the end of the Cold War. The perspectives of France and the United States have diverged in some cases. More core interests remain similar. Both countries' governments have embraced the opportunity to build stability in Europe through an expanded European Union and NATO. Each has recognized that terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction are the most important threats to their security today. […]. Trade and investment ties between the United States and France are extensive, and provide each government a large stake in the vitality and openness of their respective economies. Through trade in goods and services, and, most importantly, through foreign direct investment, the economies of France and the United States have become increasingly integrated. Other areas of complementarity include the Balkans peace operations, the fight against terrorism, and the stabilization of Afghanistan and Lebanon -- all challenges where France has played a central role. A major split occurred over Iraq, however, with many countries either supporting or independently sharing French ideas of greater international involvement. Developments in the Middle East affect French foreign and domestic policy. France has a long history of involvement in the region, and a population of 5-6 million Muslims. Paris believes that resolution of the Arab-Israeli conflict is key to bringing peace to the region. Surges in violence in the Middle East have led to anti- Semitic acts in France, mostly undertaken by young Muslims."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gallis, Paul E.
2008-01-17
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U.S. Foreign Assistance to the Middle East: Historical Background, Recent Trends, and the FY2008 Request [Updated July 3, 2007]
From the Summary: "This report is an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to the Middle East from FY2003 to FY2007, and of the FY2008 budget request. It includes a brief history of aid to the region, a review of foreign aid levels, a description of selected country programs, and an analysis of current foreign aid issues. […] Congress both authorizes and appropriates foreign assistance and conducts oversight of executive agencies' management of aid programs. As a region, the Middle East is the largest annual recipient of U.S. economic and military aid. With Iraq in need of long-term reconstruction assistance, Iraq has become a regular recipient of U.S. foreign aid. For policymakers, foreign assistance plays a key role in advancing U.S. foreign policy goals in the Middle East. The United States has a number of interests in the region, ranging from support for the state of Israel and Israel's peaceful relations with its Arab neighbors, to the protection of vital petroleum supplies and the fight against international terrorism. U.S. assistance helps to maintain the 1979 Camp David peace accords between Israel and Egypt and the continued stability of the Kingdom of Jordan, which signed its own peace treaty with Israel in 1994. U.S. funding also works to improve Palestinian civil society, and aid officials have worked to ensure that U.S. aid to the West Bank and Gaza Strip is not diverted to terrorist groups. Since the attacks of September 11, 2001, the United States has established new region-wide aid programs to promote democracy and encourage socio-economic reform in order to undercut the forces of radicalism in some Arab countries."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2007-07-03
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Foreign Students in the United States: Policies and Legislation [Updated January 31, 2008]
"More than six years after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks by foreign nationals -- including several terrorists on student visas -- the security concerns over foreign student visas are being weighed against competitiveness concerns. Potential foreign students, as well as all aliens, must satisfy Department of State (DOS) consular officers abroad and immigration inspectors upon entry to the United States that they are not ineligible for visas under the so-called 'grounds for inadmissibility' of the Immigration and Nationality Act, which include security and terrorist concerns. The consular officers who process visa applicants are required to check the consolidated Terrorist Screening Database (TSDB) before issuing any visa. In part because of these security measures, student visa debates have expanded to include both security and market-based discussions. Higher education institutions in the United States are concerned over their ability to attract the numbers and quality of foreign students, and whether the post- September 11 security measures impede the entry of potential students into the U.S. education system. The fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) increasingly rely on foreign students, and these fields hold a top priority with most research institutions. […]. Consequently, many groups in higher education and the private sector are seeking to expand pathways for foreign students to emigrate to the United States. […]. This report will be updated as warranted."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Haddal, Chad C.
2008-01-31
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Berry Amendment: Requiring Defense Procurement to Come from Domestic Sources [Updated January 31, 2008]
"The Berry Amendment requires the Department of Defense (DOD) to give preference in procurement to domestically produced, manufactured, or home grown products, notably food, clothing, fabrics, and specialty metals. […]. Some policymakers believe that policies like the Berry Amendment contradict free trade policies, and that the presence and degree of such competition is the most effective tool for promoting efficiencies and improving quality. On the other hand, others believe that key U.S. sectors need the protections afforded by the Berry Amendment. The debate over the Berry Amendment raises several questions regarding the viability of the Berry Amendment, among them: (1) If the U.S. does not produce a solely domestic item, or if U.S. manufacturers are at maximum production capability, should DOD restrict procurement from foreign sources, and (2) to what extent do U.S. national security interests and industrial base concerns justify waiver of the specialty metal restriction? The Gansler Commission has studied the state of defense acquisition and made a number of recommendations, among them loosening some provisions like the Berry Amendment. This report examines the original intent and purpose of the Berry Amendment, legislative proposals to amend the application of domestic source restrictions, as well as options for Congress. The report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grasso, Valerie Bailey
2008-01-31
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Ship Navigation in Harbors: Safety Issues [February 8, 2008]
"On November 7, 2007, a container ship collided with a tower of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, spilling 58,000 gallons of the ship's bunker fuel into the Bay. The incident has raised questions about the role of maritime pilots and vessel traffic services (VTSs) in preventing accidents in U.S. harbors, such as: Is there a need for further independent oversight of pilot performance? Could VTSs operate more like Air Traffic Control centers? Should the pilot and ship captain be required to agree on a passage plan before transiting a harbor? […]. Given the federal interest in marine environmental protection and the Coast Guard's mission to ensure the safety of shipping in U.S. waters, some experts have advocated stronger federal oversight of pilots. […]. State pilots resist greater federal oversight, arguing that the unique geography and navigational requirements of each port justifies local oversight. Whether VTSs should exert more direct control over vessel movement is also raised as a safety measure, but most acknowledge that an experienced on-board mariner is probably in the best position to direct a vessel's movement. Requiring that a pilot and ship captain first agree on a harbor passage plan, investigating language difficulties between pilots and foreign crews, and Coast Guard rotational staffing practices, are other issues policymakers may examine in assessing the safety of ship navigation in U.S. harbors."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Frittelli, John
2008-02-08
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Global Peace Operations Initiative: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated January 31, 2008]
"In his September 21, 2004 address to the opening meeting of the 59th session of the U.N. General Assembly, President Bush asserted that the world 'must create permanent capabilities to respond to future crises.' In particular, he pointed to a need for 'more effective means to stabilize regions in turmoil, and to halt religious violence and ethnic cleansing.' A similar rationale prompted the Clinton Administration to formulate the ACRI training program in 1996 and underlies the current search for new strategies and mechanisms to prevent and control conflicts. To accomplish these ends, GPOI, has three major goals: train some 75,000 troops worldwide, with an emphasis on Africa, in peacekeeping skills by 2010 […], support Italy in establishing a center to train international gendarme (constabulary) forces to participate in peacekeeping operations […], and foster an international deployment and logistics support system to transport peacekeepers to the field and maintain them there." "The United States previously provided peacekeeping capacity-building assistance to foreign militaries primarily under two programs, the African Contingency Operations Training and Assistance program (ACOTA) and its predecessor program, and the Enhanced International Peacekeeping Capabilities program (EIPC). Both ACOTA and EPIC have been subsumed under the GPOI budget line. ACOTA is still the term used to refer to the Africa component of GPOI, however, and is implemented by the State Department's Africa Bureau."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Serafino, Nina M.
2008-01-31
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Islamic Terrorism and the Balkans [Updated January 15, 2008]
"In the 1990s, wars and political instability provided an opportunity for Al Qaeda and other terrorist groups to infiltrate the Balkans. However, U.S. and European peacekeeping troops, aid, and the prospect of Euro-Atlantic integration have helped to bring more stability to the region in recent years. Moreover, the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States underscored for the countries of the region the dangers of global terrorism, and resulted in increased U.S. attention and aid to fight the terrorist threat. In part as a result, many experts currently do not view the Balkans as a key region harboring or funding terrorists, in contrast to the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Western Europe. However, experts note that the region may play a secondary role in terrorist plans, as a transit point for terrorists, as well as for recuperation. Moreover, they agree that the region's continuing problems continue to leave it vulnerable to terrorist groups in the future. U.S. officials have cited the threat of terrorism in the Balkans as an important reason for the need for continued U.S. engagement in the region. In addition to the need to take steps to directly combat terrorist infrastructure in the region, U.S. officials say that U.S. efforts to bring stability to the region also help to fight terrorism. They note that political instability, weak political and law enforcement institutions and poverty provide a breeding ground for terrorist groups."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2008-01-15
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Recruiting and Retention: An Overview of FY2006 and FY2007 Results for Active and Reserve Component Enlisted Personnel [Updated February 7, 2008]
"This report provides a brief overview of the recruiting and retention rates for Active and Reserve Component enlisted personnel during FY2006 and FY2007. Since the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the United States has launched several major military operations which have dramatically increased the operations tempo of the military services, required the large scale mobilization of reservists, and resulted in significant battle casualties. These factors have been particularly applicable to the Army, Army Reserve, and Army National Guard, which have shouldered the bulk of the manpower burden associated with the occupation of Iraq. The Marine Corps and Marine Corps Reserve have also been heavily involved in Iraq. Many observers have expressed concern that these factors might lead to lower recruiting and retention rates, thereby jeopardizing the vitality of today's all-volunteer military. Recruiting and retention results for FY2006 and FY2007 are summarized below. This report will be updated as necessary."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kapp, Lawrence; Henning, Charles A.
2008-02-07
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Arms Sales: Congressional Review Process [Updated January 14, 2008]
"This report reviews the process and procedures that currently apply to congressional consideration of foreign arms sales proposed by the President. This includes consideration of proposals to sell major defense equipment, defense articles and services, or the re-transfer to third party nations of such military items. Under […] the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), Congress must be formally notified 30 calendar days before the Administration can take the final steps to conclude a government-to-government foreign military sale of major defense equipment valued at $14 million or more, defense articles or services valued at $50 million or more, or design and construction services valued at $200 million or more. In the case of such sales to NATO member states, NATO, Japan, Australia, or New Zealand, Congress must be formally notified 15 calendar days before the Administration can proceed with the sale. […]. In general, the executive branch, after complying with the terms of applicable U.S. law, principally contained in the AECA, is free to proceed with an arms sales proposal unless Congress passes legislation prohibiting or modifying the proposed sale. Under current law Congress must overcome two fundamental obstacles to block or modify a Presidential sale of military equipment: it must pass legislation expressing its will on the sale, and it must be capable of overriding a presumptive Presidential veto of such legislation. Congress, however, is free to pass legislation to block or modify an arms sale at any time up to the point of delivery of the items involved."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2008-01-14
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Poland's New Government: Background and Issues for the United States [February 15, 2008]
"After a governmental deadlock caused by intra-coalition squabbling, Poland held snap parliamentary elections on October 21, 2007; the vote was seen by many as a referendum on the governing style and policies of the then-ruling Law and Justice party. Under that government, the presidency and prime minister's post were held by twin brothers Lech and Jaroslaw Kaczynski. Their government's nationalist policies caused controversy domestically and in the international arena as well. Many observers believe that under the new center-right Civic Alliance-led government, domestic policies will change more in tone than in substance. Poland's relations with neighboring states and the European Union are expected to improve, but ties with the United States may become more complicated. This report may be updated as events warrant. See also CRS Report RS22509, Poland: Background and Policy Trends of the Kaczynski Government."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ek, Carl
2008-02-15
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International Crises and Disasters: U.S. Humanitarian Assistance, Budget Trends, and Issues for Congress [Updated January 29, 2008]
"Humanitarian emergencies can emerge anywhere in the world, stemming from natural disasters or man-made conflicts. U.S. and international humanitarian assistance can have an important impact not only on the relief operation itself but on broader foreign policy issues. In the second session of the 110th Congress, humanitarian assistance is likely to enjoy continued bipartisan support, with key policy issues focused on budget priorities, levels of funding, and the types of other support available worldwide. […] In addition, the President has the authority to draw down defense equipment and direct military personnel to respond to disasters and provide space-available transportation on military aircraft and ships to private donors who wish to transport humanitarian goods and equipment in response to a disaster. Finally, the President can request other government agencies to assist within their capabilities. In FY2006 the United States contributed close to $3 billion to disaster relief worldwide. This report examines U.S. humanitarian assistance in international crises and disaster situations. It considers the sources of U.S. government aid (including the governmental response mechanism), budget trends in humanitarian assistance, and issues for Congress. It does not specifically address the creation of a new Director of Foreign Assistance position at the State Department or the broader restructuring of U.S. foreign aid programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Margesson, Rhoda
2008-01-29
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Iraq and Al Qaeda [Updated July 27, 2007]
From the Summary: "In building a case for invading Iraq and ousting Saddam Hussein from power, the Administration asserted that the regime of Saddam Hussein had a working relationship with the Al Qaeda organization. The Administration stated that the relationship dated to the early 1990s, and was based on a common interest in confronting the United States. The Administration assertions were derived from U.S. intelligence showing a pattern of contacts with Al Qaeda when its founder, Osama bin Laden, was based in Sudan in the early to mid-1990s and continuing after he relocated to Afghanistan in 1996. […] Another pillar of the Administration argument rested on reports of contacts between Baghdad and an Islamist Al Qaeda affiliate group, called Ansar al-Islam, based in northern Iraq in the late 1990s. Although the connections between Ansar al-Islam and Saddam Hussein's regime were subject to debate, the organization apparently did evolve into what is now known as Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQ-I). AQ-I is a key component of the Sunni Arab-led insurgency that has frustrated U.S. efforts to stabilize Iraq, but there is debate about how large and significant a component of overall violence is carried out by AQ-I. At the same time, U.S. commanders are increasingly focusing combat operations on AQ-I. The U.S. military also has sought, with some success, to exploit differences between AQ-I and Iraqi Sunni political, tribal, and insurgent leaders. There are some indications that AQ-I is attempting to conduct activities outside Iraq in a process that some describe as 'spillover' from Iraq into the broader Middle East."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2007-07-27
