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Cruise Missile Inventories and NATO Attacks on Yugoslavia: Background Information [April 20, 1999]
From the Summary: "Press reports suggest that, as of mid-April, there were less than 100 Conventional Air-Launched Cruise Missiles (CALCMs) and between 1,000 and 1,100 Block III Tomahawk land-attack cruise missiles (TLAMs) remaining in the U.S. military inventory. No additional CALCMs will likely enter inventory for at least several months, and only small numbers of additional TLAMs are scheduled for delivery in coming months. Depending on the circumstances, other kinds of weapons can be substituted for CALCMs and TLAMs, but in some cases, particularly for carrying out precision attacks on heavily defended targets in bad weather, CALCMs or TLAMs may be the most (or only) appropriate weapons. This report is intended primarily for Members and staffers who are following Operation Allied Force or who track procurement of Air Force or Navy weapons, particularly cruise missiles. It will be updated as events warrant. The overall status of NATO military operations in and around Yugoslavia is covered in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB10027, 'Kosovo: U.S. and Allied Military Operations.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
1999-04-20
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Crusader XM2001 Self-Propelled Howitzer: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated June 25, 2002]
From the Summary: "The Army has been seeking to enhance its self-propelled 155mm artillery capabilities since the late 1970's. In addition to several programs to modify the M109 artillery system, culminating in the current M109A6 Paladin, since 1987 these efforts have focused on what is now called the XM2001 Crusader. Initially begun in order to match the mobility and firepower of Soviet artillery, the Crusader program is now the center of a controversy over whether it is an appropriate investment given the Army's on-going transformation to a lighter, more mobile force. Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld has announced his intent to terminate the program, however the Crusader's supporters in the House and Senate Armed Services Committees are seeking legislative provisions to maintain the program until at least May 2003 while an assessment of alternatives is conducted. This report will be updated as further events occur."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruner, Edward F.; Bowman, Steve
2002-06-25
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Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance [Updated December 22, 2004]
"Operation Iraqi Freedom accomplished a long-standing U.S. objective, the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, but replacing his regime with a stable, moderate, democratic political structure has run into significant difficulty. That outcome would contribute to preventing Iraq from becoming a sanctuary for terrorists, a key recommendation of the 9/11 Commission report (Chapter 12, Section 2). During the1990s, U.S. efforts to covertly change the regime failed because of limited U.S. commitment, disorganization of the Iraqi opposition, and the vigilance of Iraq's several overlapping security services. Previous U.S. Administrations had ruled out a U.S. military invasion to change the regime, believing such action would be risky and that Iraq did not necessarily pose a level of threat that would justify doing so. President George W. Bush characterized Iraq as a grave potential threat to the United States because of its refusal to abandon its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs and its potential to transfer WMD to terrorist groups. After a November 2002-March 2003 round of U.N. WMD inspections in which Iraq's cooperation was mixed, on March 19, 2003, the United States launched Operation Iraqi Freedom to disarm Iraq and change its regime. The regime fell on April 9, 2003. Although acknowledging that the insurgency is adversely affecting U.S. policy, the Bush Administration asserts that U.S. policy in Iraq will ultimately succeed as U.S., NATO, and other trainers build Iraq's various security bodies. Some believe the United States should add significant numbers of troops to the current level of about 150,000, plus about 26,000 foreign military personnel. Others believe the United States needs to take new steps to recruit major international force contributors, and yet some others believe that the United States should end its presence in Iraq."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2004-12-22
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Intelligence Community Reorganization: Potential Effects on DOD Intelligence Agencies [Updated December 21, 2004]
"Some Members of Congress and independent commissions, most recently the
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, the 9/11
Commission, have argued that a lack of coordination among intelligence agencies contributed to the failure to provide warning of the terrorist attacks of September 2001. In response, in December 2004 Congress passed intelligence reform legislation (P.L. 108-458) that modifies the existing organization of the Intelligence Community and establishes more centralized leadership under a newly created Director of National Intelligence (DNI). As the legislation was being debated in the fall of 2004, attention focused on the extent of the budgetary and administrative authorities to be assigned to the DNI. Significant concerns were expressed by DOD officials, some Members of Congress, and various outside observers that providing the DNI with greater authority and control of intelligence agencies in DOD could jeopardize the increasingly close relationship between these agencies and the operating military forces. The conference committee on intelligence reform legislation (S. 2845) addressed these concerns with language that gave the DNI substantial authorities over intelligence budgets, but not operational control over their activities. The final version of the legislation also provided that the details of budgetary authorities to be exercised by the DNI and other cabinet officers be worked out in accordance with guidelines to be issued by the President after the DNI is appointed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2004-12-21
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Visa Waiver Program [Updated October 18, 2004]
From the Summary: "The USA PATRIOT Act enacted a requirement that by October 1, 2003, all aliens applying for admission under the VWP [visa waiver program] must have machine-readable passports; however, the act allows the Secretary of State to waive the requirement until September 30, 2007, and the requirement was waived for 22 of the 27 countries participating in the VWP. In addition, the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Reform Act of 2002 requires that by October 26, 2004, all countries participating in the VWP must issue their nationals machine-readable passports that incorporate 'biometric identifiers'; however, the deadline was extended until October 26, 2004 by P.L. [Public Law] 108-299. Notably, 'The 9/11 Commission Report' recommends that DHS complete as quickly as possible a biometric entry-exit screening system. S. 2845 as passed by the Senate, would require that each VWP country, as a condition of being in the VWP, have a program to issue tamper-resident, machine-readable visa documents that incorporate biometric identifiers which are compatible with the biometric identifiers used in the US-VISIT [ United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology] program. There is no comparable provision in the House-passed version of S. 2845. Additional legislation, H.R. 4550, would require those entering under the VWP to undergo an electronic verification of admissibility before embarkation. Other bills would suspend the VWP (H.R. 2235, H.R. 3522, and H.R. 3534). H.R. 3956/S. 2844 would add Poland to the program. This report will be updated if legislative action occurs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Siskin, Alison
2004-10-18
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Secret Sessions of Congress: A Brief Historical Overview [Updated October 21, 2004]
"'Secret' or 'closed door' sessions of the House of Representatives and Senate are held periodically to discuss business, including impeachment deliberations, deemed to require confidentiality and secrecy. Authority for the two chambers to hold these sessions is implied by Article I, Section 5, of the Constitution. Both the House and the Senate have supplemented this clause through rules and precedents. While secret sessions were common in Congress's early years, they have been less frequent in the twentieth century. National security is the principal reason for such sessions in recent years. Members and staff who attend these meetings are prohibited from divulging information. Violations are punishable by each chamber's disciplinary rules. Members may be expelled and staff fired for violations of the rules of secrecy. Transcripts from secret sessions are not published unless the relevant chamber votes, during the session, or at a later time, to release them. The portions released then may be printed in the Congressional Record. This report will be revised when either house holds another secret session or amends its rules for these meetings."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Amer, Mildred L. (Mildred Lehmann)
2004-10-21
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Internet: An Overview of Key Technology Policy Issues Affecting Its Use and Growth [Updated December 29, 2004]
"The growth of the Internet may be affected by a number of issues being debated by Congress. This report summarizes the following technology policy issues; internet privacy issues encompass concerns about information collected by website operators and by 'spyware,' and about the extent to which law enforcement officials are allowed to monitor an individual's Internet activities. Congress has passed several laws already, but continues to debate what other legislation may be needed, computer and Internet security in both the government and private sectors. Issues have also been raised about the vulnerability of the nation's critical infrastructures (e.g. electrical power supply) to cyber attacks. Issues for Congress include oversight and improvement of the protection of federal computer systems and cooperation with and between the private sectors, Broadband Internet access gives users the ability to send and receive data at speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. With deployment of broadband technologies beginning to accelerate, Congress is seeking to ensure fair competition and timely broadband deployment to all sectors and geographical locations of American society, electronic commerce (e-commerce) -- have grown substantially. Among the issues facing Congress are encryption procedures to protect e-commerce transactions, extension of the three-year tax moratorium on domestic e-commerce taxation, the impact of the USA PATRIOT Act, and how the policies of the European Union and the World Trade Organization (WTO) may affect U.S. e-commerce activities, anti-spam law, the CAN-SPAM Act, permits, but does not require, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to create a 'do not e-mail' list similar to the National Do Not Call list for telemarketers. Whether to require the FTC to establish such a list, and the extent to which the new law will actually reduce the amount of spam, remain congressional issues in the wake of the law's enactment, internet's domain name system (DNS) is currently under transition from federal to private sector control. Congress is monitoring how the Department of Commerce is managing and overseeing this transition in order to ensure competition and promote fairness among all Internet constituencies, the evolving role of the Internet in the political economy of the United States continues to attract congressional attention. Among the issues are information technology research and development, the provision of online services by the government ('e-government'), and availability and use of 'open source' software."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.; Smith, Marcia S.; Kruger, Lennard G.
2004-12-29
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Imagery Intelligence: Issues for Congress [April 12, 2002]
"Intelligence derived from satellites has become an essential element of military operations and foreign policymaking. In particular, precise imagery from space-based collection systems makes possible the effective use of precision-guided munitions that is becoming the basis of U.S. defense planning. Imagery intelligence also provides the factual bases for addressing many foreign policy issues. Congress has been concerned with satellite imagery because of its critical importance and its high costs. Independent commissions established by Congress to assess the state of the imagery intelligence effort have concluded that significant changes need to be made in the way the Nation's imagery effort is conducted. There is a consensus that greater emphasis should be placed on better collection targeting and improving processing, exploitation, and dissemination (the processes collectively termed TPED); that greater attention should be given to acquiring commercial imagery; and that the management of the imagery effort may need to be changed. Even before the events of September 11, 2001, there appeared to be a fairly widespread view within congressional committees that at least some additional funding should be directed towards imagery collection and TPED. Subsequent military campaigns have underscored the use of imagery in military operations and other counterterrorist efforts."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2002-04-12
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Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-War Governance [Updated April 23, 2003]
"In his 2002 and 2003 State of the Union messages, President Bush characterized Iraq as a grave potential threat to the United States because of its refusal to abandon its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs as required by U.N. Security Council resolutions and the potential for it to transfer WMD to terrorist groups. Since September 2002, the President has said that unless Iraq fully disarms in cooperation with United Nations weapons inspectors, the United States would lead a coalition to achieve that disarmament militarily. U.S. officials have made clear that this would include the ouster of Iraq's President Saddam Hussein's regime. On March 17, 2003, the United States launched "Operation Iraqi Freedom," a war effort to disarm Iraq and change its regime. The regime fell on April 9. The character of the government that would replace Saddam Hussein's Baath Party, and the exact process by which that government will be chosen, are yet to be determined. Some Administration officials reportedly had hoped that major military and governmental defections from the Hussein regime would serve as the core of a successor government. However, no senior Hussein regime figures defected, and the Bush Administration is expecting established opposition groups and emerging local leaders to form the core of a new regime. Some of the pre-existing disputes and schisms among the various anti-Hussein groups are already beginning to break out into a post-war power struggle, and there is a debate among Iraqi groups over how great a role the United States should play in the process of choosing a successor government."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2003-04-23
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Intelligence Community and 9/11: Congressional Hearings and the Status of the Investigation [Updated January 16, 2003]
"The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 led many to inquire whether there had been a failure by United States intelligence agencies to collect all available information about the plots that led to the attacks, to analyze it properly, and disseminate it in time to protect the American public. Congressional intelligence committees responded by launching an unprecedented Joint Inquiry to investigate the Intelligence Community's record in regard to the 9/11 attacks and make recommendations for further legislative action. The Joint Inquiry began its investigation in February 2002 and held public hearings in September and October. Findings, conclusions, and recommendations were made public in December 2002; release of the final report is anticipated in 2003."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2003-01-16
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Veterans' Medical Care Appropriations and Funding Process [Updated December 27, 2004]
"The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides benefits to veterans who meet certain eligibility rules. Benefits to veterans range from disability compensation and pensions, to hospital and medical care. VA provides these benefits to veterans through three major operating units: the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), the Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA) and the National Cemetery Administration (NCA). VHA is primarily a direct service provider of primary care, specialized care, and related medical and social support services to veterans through an integrated health care system. Veterans are enrolled in priority groups that determine payments for service and non-service connected medical conditions. In FY2004, Congress appropriated $28.4 billion for VHA to be spent through an account structure comprised of four new accounts: medical services, medical administration, medical facilities, and medical and prosthetic research. In its budget submission to Congress, the Administration proposed several legislative and regulatory changes to increase certain co-payments and other cost-sharing charges for lower priority veterans and to reduce co-pays for certain veterans. The House and Senate Committees on Appropriations, and the final conference agreement did not accept any of the Administration's cost-sharing proposals for VHA. This report will be updated as legislative and budgetary activity occurs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Panangala, Sidath Viranga
2004-12-27
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Security Threat Assessments for Hazmat Drivers [January 25, 2005]
"The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) is gradually implementing Section 1012 of the USA PATRIOT Act (P.L. 107-56). This provision seeks to reduce some of the security risks associated with hazardous materials (hazmat) transportation by requiring a security threat assessment of drivers with a hazmat endorsement on their commercial drivers license (CDL). This process, which includes immigration and database checks, may deter a terrorist from obtaining or keeping such an endorsement; nevertheless, the hazmat transportation system remains vulnerable to attack. Members of Congress are overseeing implementation of TSA's program, reviewing its financial impacts, and deciding whether to explicitly require in law a comparable review of Canadian- and Mexican-domiciled drivers transporting specified hazmats into the United States. Congress might consider whether to: help the states pay for their costs to implement TSA's program by specifying that any fee collected by TSA also must reflect state costs and must be shared with the states, conduct additional oversight on TSA's hazmat threat assessment process, evaluate whether TSA should be required to combine its hazmat security threat process with its Transportation Workers Identification Credential (TWIC) program, or delay the fingerprint-based portion of the check until the TWIC is deployed. Each of these options poses its own set of unique costs and benefits that would need to be evaluated. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rothberg, Paul F.
2005-01-25
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Requirements for Linguists in Government Agencies [September 2, 2004]
"As part of the war on terrorism, it is widely recognized that the U.S. government has a substantial and growing need for personnel with knowledge of foreign languages and especially languages that may be spoken in limited and remote areas of the world. In 2002, the federal government employed about a thousand translators and interpreters in four agencies responsible for security-related functions. In addition, these agencies employ nearly 20,000 staff in positions that require some foreign language proficiency. Yet there is a widespread consensus that requirements for foreign language qualified personnel are not currently being met. The report issued by the 9/11 Commission in July of 2004 makes several references to this deficiency and suggests corrective action to address it."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kuenzi, Jeffrey J., 1965-
2004-09-02
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Terrorist Nuclear Attacks on Seaports: Threat and Response [Updated January 24, 2005]
"A terrorist nuclear attack on a U.S. seaport could cause local devastation and affect the global economy. Terrorists might obtain a bomb in several ways, though each poses difficulties. Ability to detect a bomb appears limited. The United States is using technology, intelligence, international cooperation, etc., to try to thwart an attack. Issues for Congress include safeguarding foreign nuclear material, mitigating economic effects of an attack, and allocating funds between ports and other potential targets. This report will be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Medalia, Jonathan E.
2005-01-24
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Peacekeeping and Post-Conflict Capabilities: The State Department's Office for Reconstruction and Stabilization [January 19, 2005]
"The State Department's new Office of the Coordinator for Reconstruction and Stabilization (S/CRS) is intended to address longstanding concerns, both within Congress and the broader policy community, over what is seen as inadequate planning mechanisms for stabilization and reconstruction operations, lack of inter-agency coordination in carrying out such tasks, and inappropriate capabilities for many of the non-military tasks required. Effectively distributing resources among the various executive branch actors, maintaining clear lines of authority and jurisdiction, and balancing short- and long-term objectives are major challenges for designing, planning, and conducting post-conflict operations. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Serafino, Nina M.; Weiss, Martin A.
2005-01-19
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Defense Transformation: Background and Oversight Issues for Congress [Updated December 20, 2004]
"The Bush Administration identified transformation as a major goal for the Department of Defense (DOD) soon after taking office and has since worked to refine and implement its plans for defense transformation. The issue for Congress is how to take the concept of defense transformation into account in assessing and acting on Administration proposals for DOD. The Administration's vision for defense transformation calls for shifting the U.S. military toward a greater reliance on joint operations, network-centric warfare, effects-based operations, speed and agility, and precision application of firepower. To help implement this vision, DOD has created an Office of Force Transformation (OFT), designated U.S. Joint Forces Command (USJFCOM) as its premier 'transformation laboratory,' and revised weapon acquisition regulations. Transformation could affect the defense industrial base by transferring funding from 'legacy' systems to transformational systems, and from traditional DOD contractors to firms that previously have not done much defense work."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2004-12-20
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North Korea: A Chronology of Events, October 2002-December 2004 [January 24, 2005]
"This report provides a chronology of events relevant to U.S. relations with North Korea from October 2002 through December 31, 2004. The chronology includes significant meetings, events, and statements that shed light on the issues surrounding North Korea's nuclear weapons program. An introductory analysis provides background on U.S. policy preceding October 2002 as well as an overview of developments and dynamics among the major players in the North Korea nuclear dispute: South Korea, Japan, China, Russia, and the United States. Particular attention is paid to the demise of the Agreed Framework, the ongoing six party talks, China's prominent role in the negotiations, inter-Korean relations, and the Japanese abductee issue. Also discussed is Congress' role in dealing with North Korea, including the passage of the North Korea Human Rights Act (P.L. 108-333). This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Manyin, Mark E.; Marchart, Helene; Chanlett-Avery, Emma
2005-01-24
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Information Sharing for Homeland Security: A Brief Overview [Updated January 10, 2005]
"In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, various recommendations and efforts have been made with the intention of improving information sharing among government entities at all levels within the United States, the private sector, and certain foreign governments, with a view to countering terrorists and strengthening homeland security. The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission) was among those to have most recently offered recommendations in this regard in its July 22, 2004, report. The types of information potentially within the scope of such sharing include raw data, which has undergone little or no assessment regarding its accuracy or implications; knowledge, which has been determined to have a high degree of reliability or validity; and intelligence, which has been carefully evaluated concerning its accuracy and significance, and may sometimes be credited in terms of its source. This report reviews some of the principal existing homeland security information sharing arrangements, as well as some projected arrangements in this regard, and discusses related policy, evaluations, and proposed legislation. It will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold; Seifert, Jeffrey W.
2005-01-10
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France: Factors Shaping Foreign Policy, and Issues in U.S.-French Relations [Updated January 10, 2005]
"The factors that shape French foreign policy have changed since the end of the Cold War. The perspectives of France and the United States have diverged in some cases. More core interests remain similar. Both countries' governments have embraced the opportunity to build stability in Europe through an expanded European Union and NATO. Each has recognized that terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction are the most important threats to their security today. Several factors shape French foreign policy. France has a self-identity that calls for efforts to spread French values and views, many rooted in democracy and human rights. France prefers to engage international issues in a multilateral framework, above all through the European Union. European efforts to form an EU security policy potentially independent of NATO emerged in this context. From the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States through the Iraq war of 2003 until today, France has pressed the United States to confront emerging crises within a multilateral framework. France normally wishes to 'legitimize' actions ranging from economic sanctions to political censure to military action in the United Nations. Bush Administration officials have at times reacted with hostility to such efforts, charging that French efforts to ensure 'multipolarity' in the world are a euphemism for organizing opposition to U.S. initiatives."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gallis, Paul E.
2005-01-10
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Homeland Security Advisory System: Possible Issues for Congressional Oversight [Updated January 11, 2005]
"The Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS), established on March 12, 2002, is a color-coded terrorist threat warning system administered by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The system, which federal departments and agencies are required to implement and use, provides recommended protective measures for federal departments and agencies to prevent, prepare for, mitigate against, and respond to terrorist attacks. DHS disseminates HSAS terrorist threat warnings to federal departments, state and local agencies, the public, and private-sector entities. This dissemination of warnings is conducted through multiple communication systems and public announcements. HSAS has five threat levels: low, guarded, elevated, high, and severe. From March 2002 to the present, the HSAS threat level has been no lower than elevated, and has been raised to high six times. The first time it was raised to high was on September 10, 2002, due to the fear of terrorist attacks on the anniversary of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The most recent time it was raised to high was on August 1, 2004, due to intelligence regarding possible terrorist attacks on financial institutions in New York City, Washington, DC, and Newark, New Jersey."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Reese, Shawn
2005-01-11
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State Department and Related Agencies: FY2004 Appropriations and FY2005 Request [Updated December 22, 2004]
"State Department funding is within the Commerce, Justice, State (CJS) appropriation. The President sent his FY2005 budget to Congress on February 2, 2004. Included was the Department of State FY2005 budget request for a total of $8,551.4 million (5% more than the FY2004 enacted level, including supplemental funds and rescissions) and the International Broadcasting FY2005 budget request for $569.3 million (a 3.8% decline from the FY2004 level). Throughout February and March, Secretary of State Colin Powell testified before the House and Senate appropriations committees. He emphasized security needs, hiring, and technology. The House Appropriations Committee reported out its FY2005 CJS appropriation bill (H.R. 4754) on June 23, 2004, recommending $8,430 million for the Department of State, $121 million less than the President's request. The House passed its amended bill on July 8th by a vote of 397 to 18. The House version provided $8,420.7 million for the Department of State and $610.3 million for international broadcasting. The House agreed to reduce the Committee recommendation of a $50 million funding level for the National Endowment for Democracy (NED) by $9.4 million to $40.579 million, setting the State Department funding at $8,420.7 million."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Epstein, Susan B.
2004-12-22
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Secrecy Versus Openness: New Proposed Arrangements for Balancing Competing Needs [Updated December 22, 2004]
"During the latter half of 2004, disputes arose over whether or not to declassify portions of the sensitive content of reports resulting from congressional investigations and national commission inquiries into the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the war in Iraq, and related matters. As a result, some called for Congress to create a special mechanism for the impartial and expeditious resolution of such disputes (S. 2672/H.R. 4855; S. 2845 amendment). The culmination of one such effort at balancing legitimate competing needs for secrecy and openness is reviewed in this report, which will no longer be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold
2004-12-22
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Martial Law and National Emergency [Updated January 7, 2005]
"Crises in public order, both real and potential, often evoke comments concerning a resort to martial law. While some ambiguity exists regarding the conditions of a martial law setting, such a prospect, nonetheless, is disturbing to many Americans who cherish their liberties, expect civilian law enforcement to prevail, and support civilian control of military authority. An overview of the concept of, exercise of, and authority underlying martial law is provided in this report, which will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold
2005-01-07
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Broadband Internet Access and the Digital Divide: Federal Assistance Programs [Updated November 10, 2004]
"The 'digital divide' is a term that has been used to characterize a gap between 'information haves and have-nots,' or in other words, between those Americans who use or have access to telecommunications technologies (e.g., telephones, computers, the Internet) and those who do not. One important subset of the digital divide debate concerns high-speed Internet access, also known as broadband. Broadband is provided by a series of technologies (e.g. cable, telephone wire, satellite, wireless) that give users the ability to send and receive data at volumes and speeds far greater than current 'dial-up' Internet access over traditional telephone lines. Broadband technologies are currently being deployed by the private sector throughout the United States. While the numbers of new broadband subscribers continue to grow, studies conducted by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the Department of Commerce (DOC), and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) suggest that the rate of broadband deployment in urban and high income areas may be outpacing deployment in rural and low-income areas. Some policymakers, believing that disparities in broadband access across American society could have adverse economic and social consequences on those left behind, assert that the federal government should play a more active role to avoid a 'digital divide' in broadband access. One approach is for the federal government to provide financial assistance to support broadband deployment in underserved areas. Others, however, believe that federal assistance for broadband deployment is not appropriate. Some opponents question the reality of the 'digital divide,' and argue that federal intervention in the broadband marketplace would be premature and, in some cases, counterproductive."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kruger, Lennard G.
2004-11-10
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Freedom of Speech and Press: Exceptions to the First Amendment [Updated December 7, 2004]
"The First Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that 'Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech or of the press....' This language restricts government both more and less than it would if it were applied literally. It restricts government more in that it applies not only to Congress, but to all branches of the federal government, and to all branches of state and local government. It restricts government less in that it provides no protection to some types of speech and only limited protection to others. This report provides an overview of the major exceptions to the First Amendment -- of the ways that the Supreme Court has interpreted the guarantee of freedom of speech and press to provide no protection or only limited protection for some types of speech. For example, the Court has decided that the First Amendment provides no protection to obscenity, child pornography, or speech that constitutes "advocacy of the use of force or of law violation ... where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cohen, Henry, 1949-
2004-12-07
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Scientific Research and the Experimental Use Privilege in Patent Law [October 28, 2004]
"Congress has identified research and development (R&D) as important contributors to technological progress. The performance of R&D may have intellectual property ramifications, however. To the extent that researchers use patented inventions without authorization, they may face infringement liability. Although the courts recognize an exception to patent infringement known as the 'experimental use privilege,' this judicially created doctrine has been described as very narrow and rarely applied. In particular, the experimental use privilege applies only to uses done for amusement, to satisfy idle curiosity or for strictly philosophical inquiry. This doctrine does not excuse uses that are in keeping with the accused infringer's business objectives."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Thomas, John R.
2004-10-28
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Congo (formerly Zaire) [Updated June 5, 2001]
"The Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire, is a vast-resource-rich country of 49 million people. Events there affect much of sub-Saharan Africa. In August 1998, Congo was plunged into its second civil war in 2 years. A peace accord was concluded in Lusaka, Zambia, in July and August 1999, and the U.N. Security Council later agreed to send peace monitors and protecting troops, in a force known as MONUC, to assist in the peace process. Deployment was slow, but the assassination of President Laurent Kabila on January 16, 2001, was followed by progress in the peace process. By May 30, 2,150 peacekeepers of a force projected at 3,000 had arrived, and the United Nations is soon expected to propose MONUC enlargement. Congo was ill-prepared for independence in 1960; its first civil war broke out almost immediately, leading to U.N. intervention. U.S. policy-makers took a strong interest in Zaire during the Cold War years because of its resources and central location, but relations with Mobutu cooled in the post-Cold War era. Policy makers initially welcomed Kabila's pledge of elections in 2 years, but problems in democratization and economic reform complicated relations. A limited aid program focusing on democracy, health, the private sector, and the environment has been resumed. Secretary of State Colin Powell has urged all parties to respect the Lusaka agreement and said he is 'cautiously optimistic' about implementation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copson, Raymond W.
2001-06-05
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Internet Privacy: Overview and Pending Legislation [Updated December 22, 2004]
"Internet privacy issues generally encompass two types of concerns. One is the collection of personally identifiable information (PII) by website operators from visitors to government and commercial websites, or by software that is surreptitiously installed on a user's computer ('spyware') and transmits the information to someone else. The other is the monitoring of electronic mail and Web usage by the government or law enforcement officials, employers, or Internet Service Providers. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks intensified debate over the issue of law enforcement monitoring, with some advocating increased tools for law enforcement officials to track down terrorists, and others cautioning that fundamental tenets of democracy, such as privacy, not be endangered in that pursuit. Congress passed the 2001 USA PATRIOT Act (P.L. 107-56) that, inter alia, makes it easier for law enforcement to monitor Internet activities. That act was later amended by the Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296), loosening restrictions as to when, and to whom, Internet Service Providers may voluntarily release the content of communications if they believe there is a danger of death or injury. The report of the 9/11 Commission called for a full and informed debate on the USA PATRIOT Act, and creation of a board to ensure that privacy and civil liberties are protected. Congress directed that a Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board be established as part of the law that implements many of the Commission's recommendations (P.L.108-457, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2004-12-22
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Continuity of Operations (COOP) in the Executive Branch: Issues in the 109th Congress [January 31, 2005]
"Spurred in part by occasional warnings of potential terrorist threats in the post-9/11 era, some policymakers have intensified their focus on continuity of operations (COOP) issues. COOP planning is a segment of federal government contingency planning linked to continuity of government (COG). Together, COOP and COG are designed to ensure survival of a constitutional form of government and the continuity of essential federal functions. This report focuses primarily on executive branch COOP activities. Broadly, COOP planning refers to the internal effort of an organization, such as a branch of government, department, or office, to assure that the capability exists to continue essential operations in response to a comprehensive array of potential operational interruptions. In the executive branch, COOP planning is regarded as a 'good business practice,' and part of the fundamental mission of agencies as responsible and reliable public institutions. In the 109th Congress, policy questions and issues might arise as Congress examines the status of COOP planning within the executive branch of the federal government and the implications of that planning for overall agency emergency preparedness. Some of the issues surrounding COOP planning are discussed in this report, including authority to activate and implement COOP plans; defining essential activities to be maintained by a COOP plan; budgeting for COOP activities; congressional committee jurisdiction; and attention to COOP and preparedness matters."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Petersen, R. Eric
2005-01-31
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Copyright Law: Digital Rights Management Legislation [Updated October 1, 2004]
"Digital Rights Management (DRM) refers to the technology that copyright owners use to protect digital media. This report surveys several of the DRM bills that were introduced in the 107th Congress and those that are pending in the 108th Congress. Generally, the bills are directed at two separate goals. One goal is to increase access to digitally-protected media for lawful purposes. The other attempts to thwart digital piracy and would do so by enhancing civil and criminal sanctions for digital (and traditional) copyright infringement and educating the public about the rights of copyright holders."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jeweler, Robin
2004-10-01
