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Moldova: Basic Facts [June 26, 2001]
"This short report provides information and analysis on Moldova, including its history, political and economic situation, foreign policy, and U.S. policy toward Moldova. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2001-06-26
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Internet: An Overview of Key Technology Policy Issues Affecting Its Use and Growth [Updated August 20, 2004]
"The growth of the Internet may be affected by a number of issues being debated by Congress. This report summarizes several key technology policy issues. Internet privacy issues encompass concerns about information collected by website operators and by 'spyware,' and separately about the extent to which law enforcement officials or employers monitor an individual's Internet activities. The 2001 USA PATRIOT Act (P.L. 107-56) has raised concerns among privacy advocates because of new authorities granted to law enforcement officials. Broadband Internet access gives users the ability to send and receive data at speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. With deployment of broadband technologies beginning to accelerate, Congress is seeking to ensure fair competition and timely broadband deployment to all sectors and geographical locations of American society. Since the mid-1990s, commercial transactions on the Internet- called electronic commerce (e-commerce)- have grown substantially. Among the issues facing Congress are encryption procedures to protect e-commerce transactions, extension of the three-year tax moratorium on domestic e-commerce taxation, the impact of the USA PATRIOT Act, and how the policies of the European Union and the World Trade Organization (WTO) may affect U.S. e-commerce activities." This report also addresses the new federal anti-spam law, the administration and governance of the Internet's domain name system, and the evolving role of the Internet in the political economy of the United States.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.; Smith, Marcia S.; Kruger, Lennard G.
2004-08-20
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Iraq's Trade with the World: Data and Analysis [Updated September 23, 2004]
"Despite concerns over continued insurgent activity and the stability of the interim government that have scared away much foreign investment by major corporations, the Bush Administration officials and others report that Iraq's economy is booming. The U.S. government is engaged in efforts to attract small and medium U.S. businesses to work and invest in the country as subcontractors on U.S. government contracts and in the private sector. The United States has lifted most international trade sanctions with respect to Iraq in keeping with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1483, and has designated Iraq as a beneficiary developing country under the Generalized System of Preferences. This report provides detailed trade statistics on Iraq's trade with the world from 1980 to the present, highlighting its major trading partners and regional trade linkages. Data on U.S. trade with Iraq for 2003 and 2004 to date are also provided. The report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jones, Vivian Catherine
2004-09-23
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Turkey: Update on Selected Issues [Updated August 12, 2004]
"Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his Justice and Development Party (AKP) remain popular and have a firm hold on power in Turkey. The AKP is trying to recast itself from an Islamist-rooted party to a centrist 'conservative democratic' party. Although some AKP actions fuel secularist suspicions of a hidden Islamist agenda, the high priority that the party gives to attaining European Union (EU) membership may mitigate fears about its intentions and support its centrist ambitions. The government remains focused on the economy. With the aid of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), it has undertaken major macroeconomic reforms, achieved solid growth, and reduced inflation. The IMF has reviewed the government's economic performance positively and is expected to approve a new three-year stand-by agreement for 2005-2007. The government also has been challenged by terrorism and is dealing with both Kurdish terrorism, a radical religious terrorist threat with possible international links, and remnants of leftist terrorism."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2004-08-12
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Safeguarding Federal Elections from Possible Terrorist Attack: Issues and Options for Congress [October 27, 2004]
"Concerns have arisen that terrorist attacks near the November 2, 2004 federal election might be launched to disrupt voting and affect the outcome. As a result, questions have arisen about what might be done both to prevent such attacks and to respond to any that occur. Deliberations have centered largely around two questions: If a terrorist attack occurs, should the election be postponed, in whole or in part, and if so, by whom and under what authority? What steps should and are being taken to enhance security for the election? Questions about election postponement include who has the constitutional authority, to whom could such power be delegated, and what legal limitations exist. Congressional authority to regulate elections may vary depending on what contest or contests are affected. The executive branch does not currently have authority to set or change the times of elections, a power reserved for Congress under the Constitution, although Congress may be able to delegate such authority. Either Congress or the states might also pass legislation in response to a terrorist attack that would change the timing of any elections that were affected."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Thomas, Kenneth R.; Whitaker, L. Paige; Huckabee, David C. . . .
2004-10-27
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Iraq: Oil-For-Food Program, International Sanctions, and Illicit Trade [Updated August 2, 2004]
"The 'oil-for-food' program was the centerpiece of a long-standing U.N. Security Council effort to alleviate human suffering in Iraq while maintaining key elements of the Gulf war-related sanctions regime. In order to ensure that Iraq remained contained and that only humanitarian needs are served by the program, the program mandated substantial controls on Iraqi oil exports and humanitarian imports. All Iraqi oil revenues earned under the program were held in a U.N.-controlled escrow account and were not accessible to the regime of Saddam Hussein. The program has terminated now that Saddam Hussein's regime has fallen, an Iraqi government assumed sovereignty on June 28, 2004, and Saddam-era United Nations sanctions have been lifted. However, since the fall of the regime, there have been new allegations of misuses of the program, including allegations that politicians and businessmen in numerous countries received illicit proceeds from the program. Several investigations, including one by the United Nations, have been spawned by these allegations. This product will be updated as warranted by major developments. See also CRS Report RL31339, Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and Post-Saddam Governance."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2004-08-02
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Postponement and Rescheduling of Elections to Federal Office [October 4, 2004]
"Because of the fear of possible terrorist attacks which could be directed at election facilities or voters in the States just prior to or during the elections in a presidential election year, attention has been directed at the possibility/authority to postpone, cancel or reschedule an election for federal office. The United States Constitution does not provide in express language any current authority for a federal official or institution to 'postpone' an election for federal office. While the Constitution does expressly devolve upon the States the primary authority to administer within their respective jurisdictions elections for federal office, there remains within the Constitution a residual and superceding authority in the Congress over most aspects of congressional elections (Article I, Section 5, clause 1), and an express authority in Congress over at least the timing of the selections of presidential electors in the States (Article II, Section 1, clause 4). Under this authority Congress has legislated a uniform date for presidential electors to be chosen in the States, and a uniform date for congressional elections across the country, which are to be on the Tuesday immediately following the first Monday in November in the particular, applicable even-numbered election years. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Maskell, Jack
2004-10-04
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Emergency Communications: Wireless Enhanced 911 Issues Update [Updated August 4, 2004]
"One of the intents of Congress in passing the Wireless Communications and Public Safety Act of 1999 (P.L. 106-81), and of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in implementing the act, is to make wireless enhanced 911(W-E911) technology universally available throughout the United States. Enhanced 911 provides Automatic Number Identification (ANI) and Automatic Location Identification (ALI) functions for emergency calls to Public Safety Answering Points (PSAPs). A report on technical and operational problems that might be impediments to timely deployment of 911, known as the 'Hatfield Report', recognized the need to upgrade 911 infrastructure nationwide, discussed some of the difficulties encountered by PSAPs, and recommended the creation of a 911 bureau at the Executive Level. Legislation introduced in the Senate on June 12, 2003 (S. 1250) addressed many of the issues raised in the Hatfield Report, such as federal support for emergency call centers (PSAPs); protection of state funds collected as telephone surcharges for 911; and interconnection with other emergency services. The bill would require the head of the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) at the Department of Commerce to create a Task Force to facilitate coordination with federal, state and local communications. A companion bill (H.R. 2898) was introduced in the House on July 25. Both bills were reported out of committee. An amended version of the House bill that would include the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in a joint program of coordination and funding was passed November 4; the Senate version of the bill has been placed on the calendar for floor action. This report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moore, L. K. S. (Linda K. S.)
2004-08-04
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Iran's Ballistic Missile Capabilities [Updated August 23, 2004]
"Iran's extensive inventory of ballistic missiles is considered by some as its primary means to deliver weapons of mass destruction (WMD) to a variety of potential targets in the region. Recent missile tests and reports that Iran is actively pursuing nuclear weapons have helped to increase regional tensions. This report will be updated as events warrant. Additional information is provided in CRS Report RL30427, Missile Survey: Ballistic and Cruise Missiles of Foreign Countries, CRS Report RL30551, Iran: Arms and Weapons of Mass Destruction Suppliers, and CRS Report RL30699, Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons and Missiles: Status and Trends." This report fully characterizes and details the varied elements of Iran's ballistic missile program, as well as tracking the continuing trends of their ongoing pursuits of such an arsenal.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2004-08-23
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Prescription Drug Importation and Internet Sales: A Legal Overview [Updated October 4, 2004]
"As prescription drug prices have escalated in recent years, so too has consumer interest in purchasing less costly medications abroad. Meanwhile, in July, 2003, the House of Representatives passed H.R. 2427, a bill that would allow wholesalers, pharmacists, and consumers to import certain prescription drugs from 25 different countries, including Canada, where drug prices are often lower than in the United States. Although H.R. 2427 passed the House, the provisions allowing drug importation faced opposition in the Senate and were not included in the conference agreement on Medicare prescription drug benefits. Instead, the final Medicare bill, H.R. 1, modified a provision of existing law that authorizes the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to allow the importation of prescription drugs if the Secretary of Health and Human Services certifies that implementing such a program is safe and reduces costs, a determination that no Secretary has made in the years since a similar certification requirement was established in 2000."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feder, Jody
2004-10-04
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Proposals for Intelligence Reorganization, 1949-2004 [Updated September 24, 2004]
"Proposals for the reorganization of the United States Intelligence Community have repeatedly emerged from commissions and committees created by either the executive or legislative branches. The heretofore limited authority of Directors of Central Intelligence and the great influence of the Departments of State and Defense have inhibited the emergence of major reorganization plans from within the Intelligence Community itself. Proposals to reorganize the Intelligence Community emerged in the period immediately following passage of the National Security Act of 1947 (P.L. 80-253) that established the position of Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Recommendations have ranged from adjustments in the DCI's budgetary responsibilities to the actual dissolution of the CIA and returning its functions to other departments. The goals underlying such proposals have reflected trends in American foreign policy and the international environment as well as domestic concerns about governmental accountability. This report will be updated as circumstances warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2004-09-24
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Homeland Security: Protecting Airliners from Terrorist Missiles [Updated October 22, 2004]
"Recent events have focused attention on the threat that terrorists with shoulder fired surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), referred to as Man-Portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS), pose to commercial airliners. Most believe that no single solution exists to effectively mitigate this threat. Instead, a menu of options may be considered, including installing infrared (IR) countermeasures on aircraft; modifying flight operations and air traffic control procedures; improving airport and regional security; and strengthening missile non-proliferation efforts. Equipping aircraft with missile countermeasure systems can protect the aircraft even when operating in areas where ground-based security measures are unavailable or infeasible to implement. However, this option has a relatively high cost, between $1 million and $3 million per aircraft, and the time needed for implementation does not allow for immediate response to the existing terrorist threat. Procedural improvements such as specific flight crew training, altering air traffic procedures to minimize exposure to the threat, and improved security near airports may be less costly than countermeasures and could more immediately help deter domestic terrorist attacks. However, these techniques by themselves cannot completely mitigate the risk of domestic attacks and would not protect U.S. airliners flying to and from foreign airports. This report will be updated as needed. This report will be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bolkcom, Christopher C.; Feickert, Andrew; Elias, Bartholomew
2004-10-22
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Presidential and Vice Presidential Succession: Overview and Current Legislation [Updated September 27, 2004]
"The events of September 11, 2001 raised concerns about continuity in the presidency and succession issues in general. Following establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), legislation to include the DHS secretary in the line of succession has been introduced in the 108th Congress: S. 148, H.R. 1354, and H.R. 2319. All three would include the Secretary of Homeland Security in the line of succession following the Attorney General, while H.R. 2319 also makes further amendments to the Succession Act of 1947. Other measures would make major changes to existing succession law; these include H.R. 2749, S. 2073, S.Res. 419, or propose actions that would not require legislation (H.Res. 775 and S.Con.Res. 89). The Senate Committees on the Judiciary and Rules and Administration held a joint hearing September 16, 2003 to review the Succession Act of 1947 and the question of succession in general. For additional related information, please consult CRS Report RS20827, Presidential and Vice Presidential Terms and Tenure, by Thomas H. Neale, and CRS Report RS20260, Presidential Disability: An Overview, by Thomas H. Neale. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Neale, Thomas H.
2004-09-27
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Consolidating Intelligence Appropriation and Authorization in a Single Committee: 9/11 Commission Recommendation and Alternatives [October 29, 2004]
"On July 22, 2004, the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission) issued its final report on the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Among other findings and recommendations, the commission stated that existing congressional oversight was 'dysfunctional' and recommended two alternative proposals to change the existing intelligence committee structure: (1) replace the existing Senate and House Select Intelligence Committees with a joint committee on intelligence; or (2) consolidate intelligence appropriation and authorization functions in existing intelligence authorization committees. This report discusses the second of these two proposals. Under existing Senate and House rules, intelligence appropriations are under the jurisdiction of the Senate and House Appropriations Committees. Each committee distributes these appropriations among five appropriations subcommittees, predominantly the Defense Appropriations Subcommittees. This action was based on a proposal by the Senate Majority and Minority Whips, the leaders of a bipartisan working group appointed by the Majority and Minority Leaders. This report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Streeter, Sandy
2004-10-29
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House Committees: A Framework for Considering Jurisdictional Realignment [November 4, 2004]
"The House has chosen to handle committee jurisdiction in a number of ways. It has chosen to concentrate jurisdiction over an issue in new, existing, and temporary committees. It has chosen to keep jurisdiction over components of an issue distributed among several committees. And, it has chosen to vest in one committee jurisdiction over a narrow subject matter that could just as readily have been considered a component of subject matter within another committee's jurisdiction. Rules relating to referral and the Speaker's referral authority have also been changed to deal with jurisdictional issues. The House is once again studying its committee organization, this time in relation to the policy area of homeland security. This report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Koempel, Michael L.
2004-11-04
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Al Qaeda: Statements and Evolving Ideology [Updated November 30, 2004]
From the Summary: "The release of a new videotape by Osama Bin Laden in late October 2004 rekindled public debate surrounding Al Qaeda's ideology, motives, and future plans to attack the United States. The highly political tone and content of the two most recent statements released by Osama Bin Laden [April and October 2004] have led some terrorism analysts to speculate that the messages may signal a new attempt by Bin Laden to create a lasting political leadership role for himself and Al Qaeda as the vanguard of an international Islamist ideological movement. Others have argued that Al Qaeda's presently limited capabilities have inspired a temporary rhetorical shift and that the group's primary goal remains carrying out terrorist attacks against the United States and its allies around the world, with particular emphasis on targeting economic infrastructure and fomenting unrest in Iraq and Afghanistan. This report reviews Osama Bin Laden's use of public statements from the mid-1990s to the present and analyzes the evolving ideological and political content of those statements. The report will be updated periodically. For background on the Al Qaeda terrorist network, see CRS Report RS21529, 'Al Qaeda after the Iraq Conflict.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.
2004-11-30
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Military Personnel Financial Services Protection Act: H.R. 5011, 108th Congress [October 19, 2004]
"H.R. 5011, the Military Personnel Financial Protection Act, was passed by the House on October 5, and is pending in the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs. The bill utilizes both Congress' constitutional Commerce Power authority to enact insurance legislation, and the states' traditional regulation of the insurance industry to create a scheme for regulating the sale of certain life insurance products to military personnel that supporters argue is fairer and more transparent than is currently the case. It amends three primary securities laws -- the Investment Company Act of 1940, the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, and Investment Advisers Act of 1940; invests the states with regulatory authority over 'insurance activities conducted on Federal land or facilities in the United States and abroad'; requires sellers of life insurance products on federal facilities to make certain written disclosures to, for example, clarify that the products being offered are not recommended by the government or may be alternatively available through the government; and mandates that the Secretary of Defense maintain an easily accessible list of insurance and securities producers barred from military installations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Seitzinger, Michael V.; Rubin, Janice E.
2004-10-19
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Internet Privacy: Overview and Pending Legislation [Updated September 14, 2004]
"The debate over website information policies concerns whether industry self regulation or legislation is the best approach to protecting consumer privacy. Congress has considered legislation that would require commercial website operators to follow certain fair information practices, but none has passed. Legislation has passed, however, regarding information practices for federal government websites e.g, the E-Government Act (P.L. 107-347). Meanwhile, controversy is rising about how to protect computer users from spyware without creating unintended consequences. Spyware is not well defined, but generally includes software emplaced on a computer without the user's knowledge that takes control of the computer away from the user, such as by redirecting the computer to unintended websites, causing advertisements to appear, or collecting information and transmitting it to another person. Four spyware bills are pending; two have been reported or ordered reported from committee (H.R. 2929 and H.R. 4661). This report provides an overview of Internet privacy, tracks Internet privacy legislation pending before the 108th Congress, and describes the laws that were enacted in the 107th Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2004-09-14
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U.S. Foreign Assistance to the Middle East: Historical Background, Recent Trends, and the FY2005 Request [Updated August 4, 2004]
From the Summary: "This report is an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to the Middle East from FY2002 to FY2004, and of the FY2005 budget request. It includes a brief history of aid to the region, a review of foreign aid levels, a description of selected country programs, and an analysis of current foreign aid issues. It will be updated periodically to reflect recent developments. For foreign aid terminology and acronyms, please see the glossary appended to this report. Congress both authorizes and appropriates foreign assistance and conducts oversight of executive agencies' management of aid programs. As a region, the Middle East is the largest annual recipient of U.S. economic and military aid. With Iraq in need of long-term reconstruction assistance, many analysts expect Iraq to become a regular recipient of U.S. foreign aid once the United States has transferred sovereignty to an Iraqi national body."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell
2004-08-04
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State Election Laws: Overview of Statutes Regarding Emergency Election Postponement within the State [September 22, 2004]
"Federal law establishes the date of the general presidential election as the Tuesday following the first Monday in November every four years. However, due to the possibility of an emergency or disaster, including the threat of a terrorist attack, occurring immediately before or during a scheduled election, some states have enacted statutes providing for the temporary postponement of elections in their respective states, precincts, districts, or counties. This Report summarizes seven state statutes that provide a mechanism for the postponement of certain elections. In the event of emergencies or disasters, it appears that these laws might provide for the postponement of the general presidential election within the state. The following state statutes are summarized: Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Louisiana, Maryland, New York, and North Carolina. In addition, examples of state statutes that grant the governor the power to suspend certain state laws during an emergency are included. Although these statutes do not mention elections, they might be relied on to support the state's delay of the general presidential election in an emergency."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Whitaker, L. Paige
2004-09-22
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Terrorism: Internet Privacy: Law Enforcement Monitoring of E-Mail and Web Usage [Updated August 17, 2004]
"To what extent should law enforcement and government officials be
permitted to monitor individuals' Internet usage, including electronic mail
and website visits, and how have the terrorist attacks of September 11,
2001 affected this debate?" This issue brief discusses the USA PATRIOT Act and the debate over how to strike a balance between law enforcement's need to investigate criminals, and protecting what most citizens believe to be their "right" to privacy. The document includes a summary of the options and implications for U.S. policy, as well as the role of Congress.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2004-08-17
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Border Security: The Role of the U.S. Border Patrol [September 7, 2004]
"The United States Border Patrol (USBP) has a long and storied history as our nation's first line of defense against unauthorized migration. Today, the USBP's primary mission is to detect and prevent the entry of illegal aliens into the country, assist in the detection of possible terrorists, and interdict drug smugglers and other criminals. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 dissolved the Immigration and Naturalization Service and placed the USBP within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Within DHS, the USBP forms a part of the Bureau of Customs and Border Protection under the Directorate of Border and Transportation Security. During the last decade, the USBP has seen its budget and manpower more than triple. This expansion was the direct result of Congressional concerns about illegal immigration and the agency's adoption of "Prevention Through Deterrence" as its chief operational strategy in 1994. The strategy calls for placing USBP resources and manpower directly at the areas of greatest illegal immigration in order to detect, deter, and apprehend aliens attempting to cross the border between official points of entry. Post 9/11, the USBP has also refocused its strategy on preventing the entry of terrorists and weapons of mass destruction. In addition to a workforce of over 10,000 agents, the USBP deploys vehicles, aircraft, watercraft, and many different technologies to defend the border."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nunez-Neto, Blas
2004-09-07
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Genocide: Legal Precedent Surrounding the Definition of the Crime [September 14, 2004]
"The current situation in Darfur, Sudan, and the surrounding debate over whether the Sudanese government's actions constitute genocide or ethnic cleansing provides the impetus for this report. This report presents a brief historical background on the U.N. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Genocide Convention), its ratification and implementation by the United States, and its incorporation into the Rome Statute creating an International Criminal Court (ICC). Decisions from the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and Rwanda (ICTR) are analyzed to help determine when charges of genocide have been found to be legitimate. For legal purposes, genocide is a highly specific offense, and to be liable for it an actor must commit certain acts against a designated group with an intent to destroy the group, in whole or in part. Accordingly, a number of serious human rights atrocities, such as the mass extermination of a civilian population, might not constitute genocidal acts in certain circumstances, though they may nevertheless constitute war crimes or crimes against humanity."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garcia, Michael John; Derenzo, Judith
2004-09-14
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Budget for Fiscal Year 2005 [Updated October 12, 2004]
"The Administration released its FY2005 Mid-Session Review (MSR), containing revised budget estimates, on July 30, 2004. The MSR projected a FY2005 deficit of $331 billion, $32 billion below the Administration's February 2004 original estimate. According to the MSR, expected higher receipts, partially offset by expected higher outlays, reduced the deficit estimate for FY2005. The President's original FY2005 budget (February 2004) included, among many policy proposals, extending and making permanent many of the tax cuts adopted in 2001 and 2003. On May 12, 2004, the Administration requested an additional $25 billion for the ongoing operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. The MSR indicated that more funding beyond the May request will be needed in FY2005. The budget did not include estimates for the cost of the war on terror beyond FY2004, provided limited information on the costs of extending the tax cuts past FY2009 (which is the period in which most of their budget effects would occur), and did not propose providing relief from the expanding middle-class coverage of the alternative minimum tax (AMT) after FY2005. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Winters, Philip D.
2004-10-12
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Critical Infrastructure and Key Assets: Definition and Identification [October 1, 2004]
"The National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets (NSPP) details a major part of the Bush administration's overall homeland security strategy. Implementing this Strategy requires clear definition of 'critical infrastructures' and 'key assets.' Although the Strategy provides such definitions, the meaning of 'critical infrastructure' in the public policy context has been evolving for decades and is still open to debate. Twenty years ago, 'infrastructure' was defined primarily with respect to the adequacy of the nation's public works. In the mid-1990's, however, the growing threat of international terrorism led policy makers to reconsider the definition of 'infrastructure' in the context of homeland security. Successive federal government reports, laws and executive orders have refined, and generally expanded, the number of infrastructure sectors and the types of assets considered to be 'critical' for purposes of homeland security. The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001(P.L. 107-56) contains the federal government's most recent definition of 'critical infrastructure.' The NSPP contains the most recent detailed list of critical infrastructures and assets of national importance. The list may continue to evolve, however, as economic changes or geopolitical developments influence homeland security policy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.; Parfomak, Paul W.
2004-10-01
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Proposed Authorities of a National Intelligence Director: Issues for Congress and Side-by-Side Comparison of S. 2845, H.R. 10, and Current Law [Updated October 5, 2004]
"The 9/11 Commission, in its recent report on the attacks of September 11, 2001, criticized the U.S. Intelligence Community's (IC) fragmented management structure and questioned whether the U.S. government, and the IC, in particular, is organized adequately to direct resources and build the intelligence capabilities that the United States will need to counter terrorism, and to address the broader range of national security challenges in the decades ahead. The Commission made a number of recommendations, one of which was to replace the current position of Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) with a National Intelligence Director (NID) who would oversee national intelligence centers on specific subjects of interest- including a National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC)- across the U.S. government, manage the national intelligence program; oversee the agencies that contribute to it; and have hiring, firing, and budgetary authority over the IC's 15 agencies. Although the Commission recommended that the director be located in the Executive Office of the President, the Commission Vice Chairman in testimony before Congress on September 7, 2004, withdrew that portion of the recommendation in light of concerns that the NID would be subject to undue influence. The Commission further recommended that a deputy NID be established to oversee the day-to-day operations of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The Commission's recommendation to strengthen management authority over the IC is the latest contribution to an IC structural reform debate that dates at least to 1955, when arguments for stronger IC authority began to surface. OMB deputy director James Schlesinger in 1971 first broached the NID concept."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cumming, Alfred
2004-10-05
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Visa Waiver Program [Updated April 6, 2004]
From the Summary: "Since the events of September 11, 2001, concerns have been raised about the ability of terrorists to enter the United States under the visa waiver program. The visa waiver program (VWP) allows nationals from certain countries to enter the United States as temporary visitors (non-immigrants) for business or pleasure without first obtaining a visa from a U.S. consulate abroad. Temporary visitors for business or pleasure from non-VWP countries must obtain a visa from Department of State (DOS) officers at a consular post abroad before coming to the United States. The VWP constitutes one of a few exceptions under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) in which foreign nationals are admitted into the United States without a valid visa. Under Department of Homeland Security (DHS) regulations, at this time travelers who seek to enter the United States through the VWP are not subject to the biometric requirements of the US-VISIT [Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology] program; however, as of September 30, 2004, VWP participants arriving at airports and seaports will be subject to US-VISIT."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Siskin, Alison
2004-04-06
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Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Possible Effects on Gasoline Prices of Selected Fill Policies [Updated September 27, 2004]
"Conditions in the gasoline market, including strong demand, high refinery capacity utilization rates, fragmented regional gasoline specifications, and scarce, high-cost imports, as well as the need to build inventories, point to the continuation of high gasoline prices even if oil prices decline somewhat. Although the price of oil influences, and is a component of, the price of gasoline, a complex interaction of many factors determines price. A drawdown of the SPR [Strategic Petroleum Reserve]- in addition to a deferral of RIK [royalty-in-kind] fill- is a further policy option, but is not analyzed in depth here. Benefits might vary, depending upon the ability of refineries to absorb additional crude, and the amount of additional crude made available. However, if one considers that refining capacity is already strained and unlikely to benefit from extra crude supply, any softening in oil prices from a drawdown would be unlikely to be passed along in full to consumers. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bamberger, Robert; Pirog, Robert L.
2004-09-27
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S.Res. 445: Senate Committee Reorganization for Homeland Security and Intelligence Matters [October 15, 2004]
"Early in October 2004, a bipartisan Senate working group headed by Senators Mitch McConnell and Harry Reid issued a series of recommended reforms in Senate committee operation and jurisdiction with regard to homeland security and intelligence. The working group recommendations came in the wake of the final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (also known as the 9/11 Commission), which urged Congress to reorganize its committee structures to oversee these issues more effectively. Following four days of debate and amendment, on October 9, 2004, the Senate passed S.Res. 445, a resolution that implemented a number of the working group's suggestions regarding Senate Committee reorganization. These changes, which take effect on the convening of the 109th Congress, include lifting term limits on service on the Senate Intelligence Committee; raising the Intelligence Committee to category 'A' status; giving the majority and minority leaders power to select the Intelligence Committee chair and vice chair; reducing the size of the panel from 17 to 15 members; and changing certain staffing processes of the Intelligence Committee. S.Res. 445 also renames the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee to the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs and transfers to the new panel jurisdiction over matters relating to the Department of Homeland Security, with certain limitations. The resolution establishes a new Intelligence Subcommittee of the Senate Committee on Appropriations and a new Subcommittee on Oversight on the Intelligence Committee. It also makes changes to the confirmation process and the sequential referral of matters reported from the Intelligence Committee. This report will be updated in the event of further changes to these provisions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Davis, Christopher M., 1966-; Rundquist, Paul S.
2004-10-15
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Chemical Plant Security [Updated October 22, 2004]
"Chemical facilities might be vulnerable to direct attacks by terrorists or efforts to gain access to potentially dangerous chemicals. Because few terrorist attacks have been attempted against chemical facilities in the United States, the risk of death and injury in the near future is estimated to be low, relative to the likelihood of accidents at such facilities or attacks on other targets using conventional weapons. For any individual facility, the risk is very small, but risks may be increasing with potentially severe consequences for human health and the environment. Available evidence indicates that many chemical facilities may lack adequate safeguards. Two environmental laws require chemical facility planning to protect the general public from accidental releases of hazardous chemicals. The laws mandate public disclosure of hazards in order to stimulate public interest in planning. However, neither law addresses terrorism. Congress might rely on existing efforts in the public and private sectors to improve chemical site security, while waiting for better information about the potential harm from terrorist attacks. Alternatively, Congress could encourage the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to expand existing planning requirements to consider terrorism, or authorize the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to oversee security at potentially dangerous facilities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schierow, Linda-Jo
2004-10-22
