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• Federal Crime Control: Background, Legislation, and Issues [Updated May 6, 2005]

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  "States and localities have the primary responsibility for prevention and control of domestic crime, while the federal government's role is limited. As crime became more rampant, the federal government has increased its involvement in crime control efforts. Over a period of 20 years, Congress enacted five major anti-crime bills and increased appropriations for federal assistance to state and local law enforcement agencies. Since the terrorist attacks, however, federal law enforcement efforts have been focused more on countering terrorism and maintaining homeland security. Amid these efforts, however, Congress continues to address many crime-related issues. [...] Recently passed legislation aimed at protecting the public from sex offenders has come into question with respect to its effectiveness. Congress may want to examine more closely registration and notification laws and the sufficiency of federal funding for state registration enforcement. Other possible issues include providing oversight to the Department of Justice with respect to the development of national standards for preventing sexual assaults in prisons. Additionally, Congress may consider broadening the federal definition of hate crimes. Congress has begun to consider a measure (H.R. 1279) that would broaden the scope of the federal government's role in prosecuting violent crimes committed by members of youth gangs. With respect to gun control, Congress may consider legislation that would extend the semiautomatic assault weapons ban, which expired last year, as well as legislation that would regulate gun shows, among other things. This report will be updated as legislation warrants."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seghetti, Lisa M.; Hill, Cindy; Franco, Celinda

  2005-05-06
• Post-9/11 National Threat Notification Efforts: Issues, Actions, and Options for Congress [April 29, 2005]

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  "Congress is now considering legislation (H.R. 1817, The Department of Homeland Security Authorization Act for FY2006) to reform the Homeland Security Advisor System to allow for greater confidence in the threat information conveyed to the Nation. Since September 11, 2001, numerous federal government organizations have notified the public of threats to the Nation. At times, warnings have been issued in a government-wide coordinated manner; other times this has not been the case. In each situation that has led to increasing the threat level, a number of organizations have made public pronouncements regarding the nature of the threat prior to, during, or after the raising of the alert-level. The information conveyed to the public often has been inconsistent regarding the threat or the timing of a suspected attack. This lack of coordination and unity in message has led to a dilution in the American public's belief in the pronouncements and a questioning of the utility of the Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS). The focus of this paper is the federal government's coordination efforts in publicly alerting the Nation of threats to the homeland. The report reviews past warnings and changes in the alert level, organizations that have made public statements regarding threats to the Nation, and examples of how this lack of unity might lead to confusion and misinterpretations of the threat level. Options for Congress are provided regarding delineation of roles and responsibilities and which government entity should be held accountable for warning the Nation of threats to the homeland."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rollins, John; Cunningham, L. J.

  2005-04-29
• Public Safety, Interoperability and the Transition to Digital Television [Updated June 30, 2005]

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  "The 9/11 Commission Report recommended in 2004 that 'Congress should support pending legislation which provides for the expedited and increased assignment of radio spectrum for public safety purposes.' This was a reference to the Homeland Emergency Response Operations Act (HERO Act) -- introduced by Representative Jane Harman -- that would have required the FCC to 'take all actions necessary to complete assignments' for these channels so that operations could begin no later than January 1, 2007, in line with the deadline originally envisioned for the completion of the transition to DTV for all affected channels. Plans to release the spectrum were included in both the key House (H.R. 10) and Senate (S.2845) versions of the bills proposed to respond to the 9/11 Commission. The Senate version included language that would have released the needed channels by the end of 2007. The House version and the final Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) expressed the preference that the transition to digital television be considered in its entirety. Language in the act conveys the sense of Congress that the first session of the 109th Congress must act to establish a comprehensive approach to the timely return of spectrum and that any delay in doing this will delay planning by the public safety sector. There are also provisions in the Act for studies that could provide the foundation for achieving significant improvements in public safety communications. […] This report summarizes issues relevant to the clearing of the frequencies or channels designated for public safety."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Moore, L. K. S. (Linda K. S.)

  2005-06-30
• Homeland Security Act of 2002: Legislative History and Pagination Key [Updated April 11, 2003]

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  "President George W. Bush, on November 25, 2002, signed the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296). On November 22, 2002, Congress completed its action on the proposal to establish a Department of Homeland Security when the House agreed to the amendment to H.R. 5005, as passed by the Senate on November 19, 2002. H.R. 5005, as amended, passed the House on July 26, 2002. H.R. 5710, an expanded proposal, was introduced November 13, 2002 and passed the House, with one amendment, the same day. An amendment (S.Amdt. 4901) identical to H.R. 5710 was offered in the Senate to H.R. 5005 on November 13. On November 19, 2002, the Senate adopted that amendment and passed H.R. 5005. This report presents an abbreviated legislative history of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, providing information on the sequence of events leading up to passage and references to related legislative proposals. A pagination key is provided. The pagination is based on the text of P.L. 107- 296, as published by the Government Printing Office. It can be referenced under H.R. 5005, as enacted (enrolled version), accessible on the Legislative Information System (LIS) at [http://www.congress.gov]. Also available at that site is a link to the CRS Web page, which links to CRS Current Legislative Issues and the Homeland Security topic."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gressle, Sharon S.

  2003-04-11
• 'Dirty Bombs': Technical Background, Attack Prevention and Response, Issues for Congress [June 24, 2011]

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  "Congress has long sought, through legislation and oversight, to protect the United States against terrorist threats, especially from chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) weapons. Radiological dispersal devices (RDDs) are one type of CBRN weapon. Explosive-driven 'dirty bombs' are an often-discussed type of RDD, though radioactive material can also be dispersed in other ways. This report provides background for understanding the RDD threat and responses, and presents issues for Congress. Radioactive material is the necessary ingredient for an RDD. This material is composed of atoms that decay, emitting radiation. Some types and amounts of radiation are harmful to human health. […] To address these and related problems, this report provides background on RDDs and issues they raise; it does not track policy actions concerning RDDs in detail. It attempts to help understanding of these weapons in order to aid Congress in its oversight and funding of programs to counter them"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Medalia, Jonathan E.

  2011-06-24
• China/Taiwan: Evolution of the 'One China' Policy-Key Statements from Washington, Beijing, and Taipei [June 24, 2011]

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  "Despite apparently consistent statements in four decades, the U.S. 'one China' policy concerning Taiwan remains somewhat ambiguous and subject to different interpretations. Apart from questions about what the 'one China' policy entails, issues have arisen about whether U.S. Presidents have stated clear positions and have changed or should change policy, affecting U.S. interests in security and democracy. In Part I, this Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report, updated as warranted, discusses the 'one China' policy since the United States began in 1971 to reach presidential understandings with the People's Republic of China (PRC) government in Beijing. Part II records the evolution of policy as affected by legislation and key statements by Washington, Beijing, and Taipei. Taiwan formally calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), celebrating in 2011 the 100th anniversary of its founding. Policy covers three major issue areas: sovereignty over Taiwan; PRC use of force or coercion against Taiwan; and cross-strait dialogue. The United States recognized the ROC until the end of 1978 and has maintained an official, non-diplomatic relationship with Taiwan after recognition of the PRC in 1979. The United States did not explicitly state the sovereign status of Taiwan in the U.S.-PRC Joint Communiques of 1972, 1979, and 1982. The United States 'acknowledged' the 'one China' position of both sides of the Taiwan Strait. […]Based on open sources and interviews, this report also reviews comprehensively the evolution of the 'one China' issue, as it has been articulated in key statements by Washington, Beijing, and Taipei."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kan, Shirley

  2011-06-24
• Foreign Assistance: Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) [June 13, 2011]

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  "The flow of private sector resources to developing countries has increased significantly in recent decades. Seeking opportunity in this changing environment, government development assistance agencies such as the U.S. Agency for International Development and the State Department are working with private sector entities in unprecedented ways to determine when and if such partnerships can lead to improved development results. As explained in the Obama Administration's 2010 Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review (QDDR), 'private sector partners can add value to our missions through their resources, their capacity to establish presence in places we cannot, through the technologies, networks, and contacts they can tap, and through their specialized expertise or knowledge.' More than 1,000 such partnerships, involving more than 3,000 private entities, have been established since 2001. […] This report discusses the evolution of private sector involvement in U.S. foreign assistance programs over recent decades, how globalization has driven the modern approach to development partnerships, potential benefits and drawbacks of PPPs, and how partnerships are being used by other bilateral donors and multilateral development agencies. The report then discusses partnership-related issues that may be of interest to Congress as part of the foreign assistance authorization and reform process."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lawson, Marian Leonardo

  2011-06-13
• 'Dirty Bombs': Background in Brief [June 24, 2011]

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  "Congress has long sought, through legislation and oversight, to protect the United States against terrorist threats, especially from chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) weapons. Radiological dispersal devices (RDDs) are one type of CBRN weapon. Explosive-driven 'dirty bombs' are an often-discussed type of RDD, though radioactive material can also be dispersed in other ways. This report provides background for understanding the RDD threat and responses, and presents issues for Congress. Radioactive material is the necessary ingredient for an RDD. This material is composed of atoms that decay, emitting radiation. Some types and amounts of radiation are harmful to human health. Terrorists have shown some interest in RDDs. They could use these weapons in an attempt to cause panic, area denial, and economic dislocation. While RDDs would be far less harmful than nuclear weapons, they are much simpler to build and the needed materials are used worldwide. […] Governments and organizations have taken steps to prevent an RDD attack. Domestically, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission has issued regulations to secure radioactive sources. The Department of Homeland Security develops and operates equipment to detect radioactive material. The National Nuclear Security Administration has recovered thousands of disused or abandoned sources. Some state and local governments have taken steps to prepare for an RDD attack. Internationally, the International Atomic Energy Agency has led efforts to secure radioactive sources. Its Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of Radioactive Sources offers guidance for protecting sources. The G8 Global Partnership has secured sources in Russia and elsewhere."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Medalia, Jonathan E.

  2011-06-24
• 2010 Oil Spill: MMS/BOEMRE and NEPA [March 2, 2011]

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  "On April 20, 2010, an exploratory oil well in the Gulf of Mexico exploded, killing 11 people and causing the worst oil spill in American history. The oil well was on a tract leased by BP, having obtained a lease and the relevant permits from the federal government. Under relevant federal law, federal actions that may have adverse environmental effects are required to be reviewed for potential environmental harm under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). This report will review those environmental procedures. While there are additional environmental obligations imposed on Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) drilling by other acts, this report will not review those requirements. Multiple environmental reviews were conducted by the Minerals Management Service (MMS) at each stage of OCS development. (MMS was reorganized in May 2010, and the relevant office for the environmental reviews is the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement (BOEMRE). This report will refer to MMS for actions before the reorganization and BOEMRE going forward.) For the particular well in question, MMS addressed the environmental impacts on four occasions, including two full environmental impact statements, an environmental assessment, and a categorical exclusion. The fact that MMS categorically excluded the exploration plan from a NEPA analysis is controversial, since that is the first step in which drilling would be conducted. It appears MMS followed its internal procedure for NEPA reviews in the western and central areas of the Gulf of Mexico by employing a categorical exclusion for an exploration plan. However, that procedure has never been reviewed by a court to see if it is consistent with the law or whether an exception to the categorical exclusion may apply in this case. Had this project occurred in a different geographical area, including the eastern area of the Gulf of Mexico, it likely would have undergone a higher level of environmental scrutiny. Following a White House report suggesting that BOEMRE review its NEPA exclusions, BOEMRE announced it would not apply the categorical exclusion used in the Gulf until its review was complete."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Alexander, Kristina

  2011-03-02
• Animal Identification and Meat Traceability [Updated January 18, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Many animal producers support establishment of a nationwide identification (ID) system capable of quickly tracking animals from birth to slaughter. While they believe such a system is needed to better deal with animal diseases or meet foreign market specifications, some consumer groups and others believe it also would be useful for food safety or retail informational purposes -- and that the program should be able to trace meat products through processing and consumption. However, despite years of effort on at least an animal ID program for disease purposes, many contentious issues remain unresolved. For example, should it be mandatory or voluntary? What types of information should be collected, on what animal species, and who should hold it, government or private entities? How much will it cost, and who should pay? Following the first U.S. report of a cow with BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy or 'mad cow disease') in late December 2003, the Secretary of Agriculture promised to take the lead in implementing an animal ID program capable of identifying all animals of interest within 48 hours of a disease discovery (BSE or other). The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has committed, through FY2006, $85 million to this effort, and all states now have systems for registering animal premises."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Becker, Geoffrey S.

  2007-01-18
• Anaerobic Digestion: Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction and Energy Generation [May 4, 2010]

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  "Anaerobic digestion technology may help to address two congressional concerns that have some measure of interdependence: development of clean energy sources and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Anaerobic digestion technology breaks down a feedstock--usually manure from livestock operations--to produce a variety of outputs including methane. An anaerobic digestion system may reduce greenhouse gas emissions because it captures the methane from manure that might otherwise be released into the atmosphere as a potent greenhouse gas. The technology may contribute to the development of clean energy because the captured methane can be used as an energy source to produce heat or generate electricity. Anaerobic digestion technology has been implemented sparingly, with 151 anaerobic digestion systems operating nationwide. Some barriers to adoption include high capital costs, questions about reliability, and varying payment rates for the electricity generated by anaerobic digestion systems. Two sources of federal financial assistance that may make the technology more attractive are the Section 9007 Rural Energy for America Program of the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (2008 farm bill, P.L. 110-246), and the Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit (26 U.S.C. §45)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bracmort, Kelsi

  2010-05-04
• Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses [June 9, 2011]

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  "The Obama Administration views Iran as a major threat to U.S. national security interests, a perception generated not only by Iran's nuclear program but also by its materiel assistance to armed groups in Iraq and Afghanistan, to the Palestinian group Hamas, and to Lebanese Hezbollah. Throughout its first year, the Obama Administration offered Iran's leaders consistent and sustained engagement with the potential for closer integration with and acceptance by the West. To try to convince Iranian leaders of peaceful U.S. intent, the Obama Administration downplayed any discussion of potential U.S. military action against Iranian nuclear facilities or efforts to try to change Iran's regime. […] Others in and outside the 112th Congress believe that the U.S. focus should remain on pressing Iran economically and diplomatically. Sanctions, by some accounts, have slowed Iran's nuclear program directly and may be contributing to a widening schism between Iran's Supreme Leader and its President, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad but have not evidently caused Iran to fundamentally rethink its nuclear negotiating position. The apparent slowing of Iran's nuclear program has, at least temporarily, quieted discussion in Israeli and U.S. expert circles about using military action to set Iran's nuclear program back. The Administration has stepped up arms sales to regional states that share the U.S. suspicions of Iran's intentions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2011-06-09
• Federal R&D, Drug Discovery, and Pricing: Insights from the NIH-University-Industry Relationship [June 10, 2011]

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  "Public interest in approaches that might provide prescription drugs at lower cost, particularly for the elderly, has rekindled discussion over the role the federal government plays in facilitating the creation of new pharmaceuticals for the marketplace. In the current debate, some argue that the government's financial, scientific, and/or clinical support of health-related research and development (R&D) entitles the public to commensurate considerations in the prices charged for any resulting drugs. Others view government intervention in price decisions based upon initial federal funding as contrary to a long-term trend of government promotion of innovation, technological advancement, and the commercialization of technology by the business community leading to new products and processes for the marketplace. […] The particular nature and expense of health-related R&D have focused attention on the manner in which the National Institutes of Health (NIH) undertakes research activities. Critics maintain that any need for technology development incentives in the pharmaceutical and/or biotechnology sectors is mitigated by industry access to government-supported work at no cost, monopoly power through patent protection, and additional regulatory and tax advantages such as those conveyed through the Hatch-Waxman Act, the Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act, and the Orphan Drug Act. Supporters of the existing approach argue that these incentives are precisely what are required and have given rise to robust pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. It remains to be seen whether or not decisions related to federal involvement in issues related to pharmaceutical R&D will change the nature of the current approach to governmentindustry- university cooperation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2011-06-10
• Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments [June 8, 2011]

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  "Eastern Congo has been in a state of chaos for over a decade. The first rebellion to oust the late President Mobutu Sese Seko began in the city of Goma in the mid-1990s. The second rebellion in the late 1990s began also in eastern Congo. The root causes of the current crisis are the presence of over a dozen militia and extremist groups, both foreign and Congolese, in eastern Congo, and the failure to fully implement peace agreements signed by the parties. Over the past 14 years, the former Rwandese armed forces and the Interhamwe militia have been given a safe haven in eastern Congo and have carried out many attacks inside Rwanda and against Congolese civilians. A Ugandan rebel group, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), is also in Congo, despite an agreement reached between the LRA and the government of Uganda. […] The United States has been actively engaged in facilitating the Tripartite Plus talks among the four key players in the Great Lakes region: Rwanda, DRC, Burundi, and Uganda. The Tripartite Plus process has led to a number of agreements over the past several years, including the creation of a Joint Verification Mechanism (JVM) to address cross-border issues. The United States provided $205.1 million in FY2008 and $111.6 million in FY2009. The DRC received a total of $296.5 million in FY2009 and an estimated $183 million in FY2010. The Obama Administration has requested $213.2 million for FY2011 and $230.8 million for FY2012."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dagne, Theodore S.

  2011-06-08
• Amendments to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) Extended Until June 1, 2015 [June 16, 2011]

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  From the Document: "The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) provides a statutory framework by which government agencies may, when gathering foreign intelligence investigation, obtain authorization to conduct electronic surveillance or physical searches, utilize pen registers and trap and trace devices, or access specified business records and other tangible things. Authorization for such activities is typically obtained via a court order from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC), a specialized court created to act as a neutral judicial decision maker in the context of FISA. Shortly after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Congress enacted the USA PATRIOT Act, in part, to 'provid[e] enhanced investigative tools' to 'assist in the prevention of future terrorist activities and the preliminary acts and crimes which further such activities.' That act and subsequent measures amended FISA to enable the government to obtain information in a greater number of circumstances."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Liu, Edward C.

  2011-06-16
• Federal Agency Actions Following the Supreme Court's Climate Change Decision: A Chronology [April 6, 2011]

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  "On April 2, 2007, the Supreme Court rendered one of its most important environmental decisions of all time. In Massachusetts v. EPA, the Court held that greenhouse gases (GHGs), widely viewed as contributing to climate change, constitute 'air pollutants' as that phrase is used in the Clean Air Act (CAA). As a result, said the Court, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had improperly denied a petition seeking CAA regulation of GHGs from new motor vehicles by saying the agency lacked authority over such emissions. This report presents a chronology of major federal agency actions, mainly by EPA, in the wake of Massachusetts v. EPA. Most of the listed actions trace directly or indirectly back to the decision-- EPA's 'endangerment finding' for GHG emissions from new motor vehicles, the agency's standards for GHG emissions from new motor vehicles, its interpretation of the phrase 'pollutants subject to regulation' (the CAA trigger for requiring BACT for such pollutants in 'prevention of significant deterioration' areas), guidance for determining BACT for GHG emissions, the 'tailoring rule' (limiting the stationary sources that initially will have to install BACT and obtain CAA Title V permits based on GHG emissions), and recently announced settlements of litigation seeking to compel EPA to promulgate new source performance standards (NSPSs) for GHG emissions from electric generating units (power plants) and petroleum refineries. A few agency actions were included solely because of their relevance to climate change and their post- Massachusetts occurrence--for example, EPA's responses to California's request for a waiver of CAA preemption allowing that state to set its own limits for GHG emissions from new motor vehicles, and EPA's monitoring rule for GHG emissions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Meltz, Robert

  2011-04-06
• Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV): Background and Issues for Congress [March 10, 2011]

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  "The Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) is being developed by the Army and the Marine Corps as a successor to the 11 different versions of the High Mobility, Multi-Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) that have been in service since 1985. On October 28, 2008, three awards were made for the JLTV Technology Development (TD) Phase, which is scheduled to conclude in the June 2011 timeframe to three industry teams: (1) BAE Systems, (2) the team of Lockheed Martin and General Tactical Vehicle, and (3) AM General and General Dynamics Land Systems. Once testing is completed and technology requirements established, a full and open competition was expected to be conducted in the late summer, 2011 for the Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) Phase and the Department of Defense (DOD) planned to award two contracts for the EMD phase, which was scheduled to last 24 months."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Feickert, Andrew

  2011-03-10
• Operation Odyssey Dawn (Libya): Background and Issues for Congress [March 28, 2011]

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  "The ongoing uprising in Libya against the government of Muammar al Qadhafi has been the subject of evolving domestic and international debate about potential international military intervention, including the proposed establishment of a no-fly zone over Libya. On March 17, 2011, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1973, establishing a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace, authorizing robust enforcement measures for the arms embargo established by Resolution 1970, and authorizing member states 'to take all necessary measures … to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, including Benghazi, while excluding a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan territory.' In response, the United States established Operation Odyssey Dawn, the U.S. contribution to a multilateral military effort to enforce a no-fly zone and protect civilians in Libya. Military operations under Odyssey Dawn commenced on March 19, 2011. U.S. and coalition forces quickly established command of the air over Libya's major cities, destroying portions of the Libyan air defense network and attacking pro-Qadhafi forces deemed to pose a threat to civilian populations. From the outset of operations, the Obama administration declared its intent to transfer command of operations over Libya to a coalition entity. On March 28, 2011, the NATO Secretary General announced that NATO [North American Treaty Organization] would take over command of all aspects of military operations within a few days."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gertler, Jeremiah

  2011-03-28
• War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [March 25, 2011]

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  "Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution (WPR). The other issue is whether or not Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This report does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with congressional authorization for military action, and the application and effectiveness of the WPR. The purpose of the WPR (P.L. 93-148, passed over President Nixon's veto on November 7, 1973) is to ensure that Congress and the President share in making decisions that may get the United States involved in hostilities. Compliance becomes an issue whenever the President introduces U.S. forces abroad in situations that might be construed as hostilities or imminent hostilities. Criteria for compliance include prior consultation with Congress, fulfillment of the reporting requirements, and congressional authorization. If the President has not complied fully, the issue becomes what action Congress should take to bring about compliance or to influence U.S. policy. A related issue has been congressional authorization of U.N. peacekeeping or other U.N.-sponsored actions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Richard F.

  2011-03-25
• Japanese Nuclear Incident: Technical Aspects [March 29, 2011]

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  From the Document: "Japan's nuclear incident has engendered much public and congressional concern about the possible impact of radiation on the Japanese public, as well as possible fallout on U.S. citizens. This report provides information on technical aspects of the nuclear incident, with reference to human health. While some radioactive material from the Japanese incident may reach the United States, it appears most unlikely that this material will result in harmful levels of radiation. In traveling thousands of miles between the two countries, some radioactive material will decay, rain will wash some of it out of the air, and its concentration will diminish as it disperses. Many atoms are stable; they remain in their current form indefinitely. Other atoms are unstable, or radioactive. They 'decay' or 'disintegrate,' emitting energy through various forms of radiation. Each form has its own characteristics and potential for human health effects. Nuclear reactors use uranium or mixed oxides (uranium oxide and plutonium oxide, or MOX) for fuel. Uranium and plutonium atoms fission, or split, releasing neutrons that cause additional fissions in a chain reaction, and also releasing energy. A nuclear reactor's core consists of fuel rods made of uranium or MOX encased in zirconium, and neutron-absorbing control rods that are removed or inserted to start or stop the chain reaction. This assembly is placed underwater to carry off excess heat. The incident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant prevented water from circulating in the core of several reactors, causing water to evaporate and temperature to rise. High heat could melt the fuel rods and lead to a release of radioactive material into the air."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Medalia, Jonathan E.

  2011-03-29
• Nuclear Power Plant Sites: Maps of Seismic Hazards and Population Centers [March 29, 2011]

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  "Currently, 104 commercial nuclear power plants operate on 64 sites in the 48 contiguous United States. Sixty-nine of the 104 are pressurized water reactors (PWR) and the 35 remaining are boiling water reactors (BWR). The PWR plants are based on Babcock & Wilcox, Combustion Engineering, and Westinghouse designs. The BWR plants are based on a series of General Electric designs. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has received 28 Combined License (COL) applications for new reactors based on advanced reactor designs (Table 2). Three COL applications will involve new sites. CRS determined the coordinates of plant sites using web-based applications and overlaid the sites on base maps of: 1. Quaternary faults, 2. Seismic hazards in terms of percent gravitational acceleration, 3. Levels of horizontal ground shaking (gravitational acceleration) that have a 2-in- 100 (2%) probability of being exceeded in a 50-year period, and 4. Metropolitan populations To map the proximity of plant sites to faults (Figure 1), CRS referred to the USGS Quaternary Fault and Fold Database of the United States. This database contains information on faults and associated folds in the United States that are believed to be sources of greater than magnitude 6 (M>6) earthquakes during the Quaternary (the past 1,600,000 years). It is important to note that this map is not a prediction of an earthquake event."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Andrews, Anthony

  2011-03-29
• U.S.-China Relations: Policy Issues [March 11, 2011]

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  "The 112th Congress faces important questions about what sort of relationship the United States should have with China and how the United States should respond to China's 'rise.' After 30 years of fast-paced economic growth, China's economy is now the second largest in the world after the United States. China is driving global economic growth and has become an Asian economic hub. With economic success, China has developed significant global strategic clout. It is also engaged in an ambitious military modernization drive, including efforts to develop extended-range power projection capabilities and such advanced weapons as a stealth bomber. It continues to suppress all perceived challenges to the Communist Party's monopoly on power. [...] The first part of this report provides an overview of the U.S.-China relationship and Obama Administration policy toward China. A summary of major policy issues in the relationship follows, beginning with security issues and Taiwan, and continuing with economic issues, climate change and clean energy cooperation, and human rights. The report includes five appendices. Appendix A provides a chronology of meetings between the U.S. and Chinese presidents and information about select bilateral dialogues. Appendix B analyzes the Joint Statement issued during President Hu's January 2011 state visit. Appendix C lists congressionally mandated annual reports related to China. Appendices D and E list China-related legislation introduced in the 112th and 111th Congresses. Throughout, this report directs the reader to other CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports for more detailed information about individual topics."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lawrence, Susan V.

  2011-03-11
• International Criminal Court Cases in Africa: Status and Policy Issues [March 7, 2011]

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  "The International Criminal Court (ICC) has, to date, opened cases exclusively in Sub-Saharan Africa. Twenty-two cases are currently before the ICC, all of them pertaining to crimes allegedly committed in five African states: Kenya, Sudan (Darfur), Uganda (the Lord's Resistance Army, LRA), the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Central African Republic. The ICC Prosecutor has yet to secure any convictions. In addition, the Prosecutor has opened an investigation in Libya as well as preliminary examinations in Guinea, Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire, and several countries outside of Africa, such as Afghanistan, Colombia, Georgia, Honduras, and the Republic of Korea. Although ICC prosecutions have been praised by human rights advocates, the perception that the Court has focused on Africa and the ICC Prosecutor's choice of cases have been controversial among leaders and commentators on the continent. The Statute of the ICC, also known as the Rome Statute, entered into force on July 1, 2002, and established a permanent, independent Court to investigate and bring to justice individuals who commit war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. As of October 2010, 114 countries-- including 31 African countries, the largest regional block--were parties to the Statute. The United States is not a party."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Margesson, Rhoda; Browne, Marjorie Ann; Arieff, Alexis

  2011-03-07
• U.S. Trade Deficit, the Dollar, and the Price of Oil [March 2, 2011]

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  "Rapid changes in the price of oil and the impact of such price changes on economies around the globe have attracted considerable attention. In mid-2008 as the price of oil rose to unprecedented heights and then dropped sharply, the international exchange value of the dollar fell and then rose relative to a broad basket of currencies. For some, these two events seem to indicate a cause and effect relationship between changes in the price of oil and changes in the value of the dollar. Despite common perceptions that there is a direct cause and effect relationship between changes in the international exchange value of the dollar and the price of oil, an analysis of data during recent periods indicates that changes in the price of oil are driven by changes in the demand for oil that is different from the supply of oil, rather than changes in the value of the dollar. The rapid increase in oil prices in early 2011 reflects rising demand for oil and other commodities and uncertainty in global markets keyed to political turmoil in North Africa and the Middle East. This report analyzes the relationship between the dollar and the price of oil and how the two might interact. While the data do not support a strong cause and effect relationship between the value of the dollar and the price of oil, there likely are various channels through which changes in the price of oil and in the value of the dollar may be indirectly correlated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jackson, James K., 1949-

  2011-03-02
• Telecommunications Act: Competition, Innovation, and Reform [August 12, 2005]

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  "There is consensus that the current statutory framework is not effective in the current market environment, but not on how to modify it. The debate focuses on how to foster investment, innovation, and competition in both the physical broadband network and in the applications that ride over that network while also meeting the many non-economic objectives of U.S. telecommunications policy: universal service, homeland security, public safety, diversity of voices, localism, consumer protection, etc. Given the underlying cost structure of broadband networks - huge sunk up-front fixed costs - the marketplace will likely support only a limited number of such networks. Today, the market is largely a duopoly: the telephone company network and the cable company network. The physical network providers argue that they will be discouraged from undertaking costly and risky build-outs if their networks are subject to open access and/or non-discrimination requirements. On the other hand, independent applications providers argue that in order for them to best meet the needs of end users and offer innovative services they must have nondiscriminatory access to the physical network. There is much debate over the advantages and disadvantages of structural regulation, such as open access, ex ante non-discrimination rules, ex post adjudication of abuses of market power on a caseby- case basis, and reliance on non-mandatory principles. There is general agreement that there would be great benefits from entry by a wireless broadband network to compete with the telephone and cable networks. There also is debate about how to modify the universal service program and intercarrier compensation rules in light of the major market changes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Goldfarb, Charles B.

  2005-08-12
• FY2012 National Defense Authorization Act: Selected Military Personnel Policy Issues [June 20, 2011]

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  "Military personnel issues typically generate significant interest from many Members of Congress and their staffs. Ongoing military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, along with the operational role of the Reserve Components, further heighten interest in a wide range of military personnel policies and issues. The Congressional Research Service (CRS) has selected a number of the military personnel issues considered in deliberations on the House and Senate versions of the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2012. This report provides a brief synopsis of sections that pertain to personnel policy. These include end strengths, pay raises, health care issues, and language affecting the repeal of the 'Don't Ask, Don't Tell' policy, as well as congressional concerns over the handling of sexual assaults in the military. […] Where appropriate, related CRS products are identified to provide more detailed background information and analysis of the issue. For each issue, a CRS analyst is identified and contact information is provided. This report focuses exclusively on the annual defense authorization process. It does not include language concerning appropriations, veterans' affairs, tax implications of policy choices, or any discussion of separately introduced legislation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kapp, Lawrence; Burrelli, David F., 1958-; Henning, Charles A. . . .

  2011-06-20
• Proposed U.S.-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA): Automobile Rules of Origin [June 15, 2011]

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  "The U.S.-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA) was signed on June 30, 2007. The provisions on the automotive sector were among the most difficult areas negotiated, and were among those in which the Obama Administration and South Korean officials reached further agreement on December 3, 2010. The agreement's effect on the automotive sector has drawn particular scrutiny as Congress considers implementation of the KORUS FTA. In particular, the specific rules of origin (ROO) for automobiles and auto parts have become a matter of debate. These rules determine whether the products imported into an FTA participating country are eligible to receive the duty-free or reduced tariff benefits of the agreement. For autos and auto parts, a certain percentage of the parts, labor, and other associated costs must come from the region. This is known as a regional value content (RVC) test. […] Content produced in North Korea is not presently allowed into the United States, a situation that the KORUS FTA would not change. If at some future time the United States were to ease trade restrictions on North Korea, U.S. and South Korean negotiators would then need to discuss the treatment of North Korean inputs to South Korean products under the agreement. The KORUS FTA contains provisions to promote cooperation between the two countries' customs officials. Nonetheless, ensuring that North Korean parts are not used in South Korean products exported to the United States will remain a challenge, whether or not the KORUS FTA takes effect."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jones, Vivian Catherine; Platzer, Michaela D.

  2011-06-15
• U.S.-Canada Energy Relationship: Joined at the Well [June 17, 2011]

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  "The United States and Canada, while independent countries, effectively comprise a single integrated market for petroleum and natural gas. Canada is the single largest foreign supplier of petroleum products and natural gas to the United States--and the United States is the dominant consumer of Canada's energy exports. The value of the petroleum and natural gas trade between the two countries totaled nearly $100 billion in 2010, helping to promote general economic growth and directly support thousands of energy industry and related jobs on both sides of the border. Increased energy trade between the United States and Canada--a stable, friendly neighbor--is viewed by many as a major contributor to U.S. energy security. The U.S.-Canada energy relationship is increasingly complex, however, and is undergoing fundamental change, particularly in the petroleum and natural gas sectors. […] As Congress debates legislative proposals affecting the petroleum and natural gas industries, it may be helpful to consider these proposals in the broadest possible North American context, recognizing that the energy sector in Canada may be moved in one direction or another based on policies in Washington, DC. To date, the judgment of Congress has favored a growing U.S.- Canada energy partnership--but ensuring that this relationship continues to be as mutually beneficial as possible will likely remain a key oversight challenge for the next decades."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Parfomak, Paul W.; Ratner, Michael

  2011-06-17
• Western Sahara [February 15, 2011]

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  "Since the 1970s, Morocco and the independence-seeking Popular Front for the Liberation of Saqiat al Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario) have vied for control of the Western Sahara, a former Spanish territory. In 1991, the United Nations arranged a cease-fire and proposed a settlement plan that called for a referendum to allow the people of the Western Sahara to choose between independence and integration into Morocco. A long deadlock on determining the electorate for a referendum ensued. The U.N. then unsuccessfully suggested alternatives to the unfulfilled settlement plan and later called on the parties to negotiate. In April 2007, Morocco offered an autonomy plan for the region. The two sides have since met on several occasions under U.N. auspices, but have made no progress due to their unwillingness to compromise. Informal talks were reconvened between November 2010 and January 2011 by U.N. Special Envoy Christopher Ross. In November 2010, Moroccan security forces dismantled a Sahrawi protest camp near the Moroccan-administered regional capital, Laayoune, sparking violent confrontations and criticism from rights advocates. The Western Sahara issue has affected Algerian-Moroccan bilateral relations, Moroccan relations with the African Union, and regional cooperation on economic and security issues. The United States supports the U.N. effort and has urged the parties to focus on autonomy--a solution that would not destabilize its ally, Morocco. Some Members of Congress support a referendum and are frustrated by delays; others support Morocco's autonomy initiative. The United States contributes funds, but no manpower, for the United Nations Mission for the Organization of a Referendum in the Western Sahara (MINURSO). In an explanatory statement accompanying the FY2009 Omnibus Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-8, March 11, 2009), appropriators expressed concern about human rights in the Western Sahara. Similar provisions have not appeared in subsequent appropriations legislation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Arieff, Alexis

  2011-02-15
• Insourcing Functions Performed by Federal Contractors: An Overview of the Legal Issues [June 8, 2011]

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  "Recent Congresses and the Obama Administration have taken numerous actions to promote 'insourcing,' or the use of government personnel to perform functions that contractors previously performed on behalf of federal agencies. Among other things, the 109th through the 111th Congresses enacted several statutes requiring the development of policies and guidelines to ensure that agencies 'consider' using government employees to perform functions previously performed by contractors, as well as any new functions. These statutes also require that 'special consideration' be given to using government personnel to perform certain functions, including those functions (1) performed by government employees in the recent past, (2) closely associated with the performance of inherently governmental functions, (3) performed pursuant to a contract awarded on a non-competitive basis, or (4) performed poorly by a contractor because of excessive costs or inferior quality. The Obama Administration has similarly promoted insourcing. Among other things, on July 29, 2009, the Office of Management and Budget directed federal agencies to conduct pilot human capital analyses of programs where the agency has concerns about its reliance on contractors, as a prelude to potentially insourcing functions performed by contractors. […] The 112th Congress is considering legislation that could constrain insourcing initiatives by requiring agencies to conduct a public-private competition and determine that provision of goods or services by federal employees provides 'best value' prior to insourcing (H.R. 1474, S. 785). A provision of the House-passed National Defense Authorization Act for FY2012 (H.R. 1540, § 939) could also limit agencies' ability to insource functions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Maskell, Jack; Manuel, Kate

  2011-06-08