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Terrorism Abroad: A Quick Look at Applicable Federal and State Laws [October 3, 2001]
"Terrorists' attacks on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City and the American Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania have stimulated demands that the terrorists responsible and those like them be brought to justice. American criminal law already proscribes many of these acts of terrorism and there have been proposals to expand that coverage. Ordinarily, crime is proscribed by the law of the place where it occurs, but more than a few American criminal laws apply to terrorism committed outside the United States. The power to enact such laws flows from the Constitution and is usually limited by little more than due process notice. Practicality and reluctance to offend other nations have traditionally limited American exercise of such authority to instances where there is a discernible nexus to the United States. Yet where there is a clear connection to the United States, American criminal law, primarily federal law generally permits prosecution of terrorism committed overseas."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles
2001-10-03
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Costs of Major U.S. Wars and Recent U.S. Overseas Military Operations [Updated October 3, 2001]
"The direct costs of U.S. military operations have varied greatly, with a high of some $4.7 trillion (in constant FY2002 dollars) for the incremental costs of World War II, to a few million per operation for U.S. peacekeeping efforts in Cambodia, Angola, and the Western Sahara. The incremental military costs of the war in Vietnam to the United States was $572 billion in FY2002 dollars, and the Persian Gulf War incremental costs totaled some $80 billion in FY2002 dollars, most of which was covered by allied contributions. For the decade after the war, from FY1991 through FY2000, the DOD has incurred some $9.2 billion in incremental costs (in FY2002 dollars) performing peacekeeping and related security missions in Southwest Asia, i.e., in and around Iraq. For the same period, the incremental costs of DOD peacekeeping and related operations in the Balkans was $17 billion in constant FY2002 dollars. The total of U.S. military costs for peacekeeping and related security efforts over that decade was $29.6 billion in FY2002 dollars."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Daggett, Stephen; Serafino, Nina M.
2001-10-03
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Latin America and the Caribbean: Legislative Issues in 2001 [Updated October 10, 2001]
"This report provides an overview of the major legislative issues facing Congress in 2001 relating to the Latin American and Caribbean region, and provides reference and linkages to other reports covering the issues in more detail. The report is organized by the regions and subregions of the Western Hemisphere."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Sullivan, Mark P. . . .
2001-10-01
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Campaign Finance [Updated September 28, 2001]
"Concerns over financing federal elections have become a seemingly perennial aspect of our political system, centered on the enduring issues of high campaign costs and reliance on interest groups for needed campaign funds. Rising election costs have long fostered a sense in some quarters that spending is out of control, with too much time spent raising funds and elections 'bought and sold.' Debate has also focused on the role of interest groups in campaign funding, especially through political action committees (PACs). The differences in perceptions of the campaign finance system have long been compounded bydifferent reform approaches of the major parties. Democrats have tended to favor more regulation, with spending limits and some form of public funding or benefits a part of their past proposals. Republicans have generally opposed such limits and public funding. [...] Reform supporters vowed a renewed effort in the 107th Congress. On April 2, the Senate passed S. 27 (McCain-Feingold), as amended, following a two-week debate. House debate, planned for July 12, did not occur because the proposed rule for consideration was rejected that day by the House."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cantor, Joseph E.
2001-09-28
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Campaign Finance: Constitutional and Legal Issues of Soft Money [Updated September 28, 2001]
"Soft money is a major issue in the campaign finance reform debate because these generally unregulated funds are perceived as resulting from a loophole in the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA). Generally, soft money is funds that are raised and spent according to applicable state laws, which FECA prohibits from being spent directly on federal elections, but that may have an indirect influence on federal elections. This Issue Brief discusses three major types of soft money: political party soft money, corporate and labor union soft money, and soft money used for issue advocacy communications."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Whitaker, L. Paige
2001-09-28
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Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Background and Legal Implications [September 27, 2001]
"This report provides historical background on the enactment of declarations of war and authorizations for the use of force and reproduces their texts in two appendices. It also provides extensive analysis of their effects under international and domestic law. [...] The report includes an extensive listing and summary of the statutes that are triggered by a declaration of national emergency, a state of war, and/or a declaration of war. The report concludes with a summary of the Congressional procedures applicable to a declaration of war and authorization for the use of force and to measures under the War Powers Resolution."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.; Ackerman, David M.
2001-09-27
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Martial Law and National Emergency [September 27, 2001]
"Crises in public order, both real and potential, often evoke comments concerning a resort to martial law. While some ambiguity exists regarding the conditions of a martial law setting, such a prospect, nonetheless, is disturbing to many Americans who cherish their liberties, expect civilian law enforcement to prevail, and support civilian control of military authority. An overview of the concept of, exercise of, and authority underlying martial law is provided in this report, which will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold
2001-09-27
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'Terrorism' and Related Terms in Statute and Regulation: Selected Language [September 26, 2001]
"Congress is considering revised definitions of 'terrorism' and related terms in the context of the proposed 'Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001.' While the proposed definitions relate to criminal law and immigration law, hundreds of other federal statutes and regulations already define 'terrorism' and related terms in a variety of other contexts. However, these statutes and regulations ultimately refer to an extremely small set of statutory definitions, current criminal law and immigration definitions being among them. This report provides the current text of these fundamental definitions. The report will be updated as action on new antiterrorism law proceeds."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Martin, Elizabeth
2001-09-26
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Global Climate Change [Updated September 26, 2001]
"There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. A warmer climate would probably have far reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and un-managed ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question is: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decisionmakers?"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.
2001-09-26
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National Emergency Powers [Updated September 23, 2004]
"The President of the United States has available certain powers that may be exercised in the event that the nation is threatened by crisis, exigency, or emergency circumstances (other than natural disasters, war, or near-war situations). The National Emergencies Act (50 U.S.C. 1601-1651) eliminated or modified some statutory grants of emergency authority, required the President to declare formally the existence of a national emergency and to specify what statutory authority, activated by the declaration, would be used, and provided Congress a means to countermand the President's declaration and the activated authority being sought. The development of this regulatory statute and subsequent declarations of national emergency are reviewed in this report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold
2001-09-25
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National Emergency Powers [September 25, 2001]
"The President of the United States has available certain powers that may be exercised in the event that the nation is threatened by crisis, exigency, or emergency circumstances (other than natural disasters, war, or near-war situations). Such powers may be stated explicitly or implied by the Constitution, assumed by the Chief Executive to be permissible constitutionally, or inferred from or specified by statute. Through legislation, Congress has made a great many delegations of authority in this regard over the past 200 years. There are, however, limits and restraints upon the President in his exercise of emergency powers. With the exception of the habeas corpus clause, the Constitution makes no allowance for the suspension of any of its provisions during a national emergency. Disputes over the constitutionality or legality of the exercise of emergency powers are judicially reviewable. Indeed, both the judiciary and Congress, as co-equal branches, can restrain the executive regarding emergency powers. So can public opinion. Furthermore, since 1976, the President has been subject to certain procedural formalities in utilizing some statutorily delegated emergency authority. The National Emergencies Act (50 U.S.C. 1601-1651) eliminated or modified some statutory grants of emergency authority, required the President to declare formally the existence of a national emergency and to specify what statutory authority, activated by the declaration, would be used, and provided Congress a means to countermand the President's declaration and the activated authority being sought. The development of this regulatory statute and subsequent declarations of national emergency are reviewed in this report, which is updated as events require."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold
2001-09-25
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Appropriations for FY2002: VA, HUD, and Independent Agencies [Updated September 20, 2001]
Following the September 11 terrorist attack, Congress enacted P.L. 107-38 to provide $40 billion in emergency supplemental appropriations (H.R. 2888/S. 1426) to aid victims, bolster counter-terrorism, and pursue the investigation and prosecution of those responsible.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Snook, Dennis W.; Bourdon, E. R.
2001-09-20
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Terrorism, the Future and U.S. Foreign Policy [Updated September 19, 2001]
"International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11th in New York, Washington, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement and military force."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Perl, Raphael
2001-09-19
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Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act: An Overview of the Statutory Framework for Electronic Surveillance [Updated September 18, 2001]
The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, 50 U.S.C. § 1801 et seq., provides a statutory framework for electronic surveillance in the context of foreign intelligence gathering. In so doing, the Congress sought to strike a delicate balance between national security interests and personal privacy rights. This report will examine the detailed statutory structure provided by this act and related provisions of E.O. 12333. This report is current through the changes to FISA in P.L. 106-567, Title VI (Dec. 27, 2000).
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bazan, Elizabeth B.
2001-09-18
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Insurance Coverage of the World Trade Center: Interpretation of 'War Risk' Exclusion Clauses under New York Contract Law [September 18, 2001]
This report addresses the interpretation of war risk exclusion clauses under New York contract and insurance law. The purpose of excluding "war risks" from insurance policies is to prevent the insurer from being bankrupted by shouldering countrywide losses from war. The widespread characterization of the events of September 11th as an "act of war" raises the possibility that insurable risks to life and property in the World Trade Center may not receive coverage due to the enforcement of these clauses. This report suggests that any such enforcement might not be successful under New York law, as the insured enjoy favorable state rules of procedure and norms of contract construction. However, as this issue essentially boils down to one of contract interpretation -- where courts will construe the "exclusions as the parties would reasonably have expected them to be construed" -- how public officials characterize the events of September 11th could inform a judicial determination of whether those events constitute "acts of war" for purposes of insurance law
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jennings, Christopher A.
2001-09-18
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National Emergency Powers [Updated September 18, 2001]
"The President of the United States has available certain powers that may be exercised in the event that the nation is threatened by crisis, exigency, or emergency circumstances (other than natural disasters, war, or near-war situations). Such powers may be stated explicitly or implied by the Constitution, assumed by the Chief Executive to be permissible constitutionally, or inferred from or specified by statute. Through legislation, Congress has made a great many delegations of authority in this regard over the past 200 years. There are, however, limits and restraints upon the President in his exercise of emergency powers. With the exception of the habeas corpus clause, the Constitution makes no allowance for the suspension of any of its provisions during a national emergency. Disputes over the constitutionality or legality of the exercise of emergency powers are judicially reviewable. Indeed, both the judiciary and Congress, as co-equal branches, can restrain the executive regarding emergency powers. So can public opinion. Furthermore, since 1976, the President has been subject to certain procedural formalities in utilizing some statutorily delegated emergency authority. The National Emergencies Act (50 U.S.C. 1601-1651) eliminated or modified some statutory grants of emergency authority, required the President to declare formally the existence of a national emergency and to specify what statutory authority, activated by the declaration, would be used, and provided Congress a means to countermand the President's declaration and the activated authority being sought. The development of this regulatory statute and subsequent declarations of national emergency are reviewed in this report, which is updated as events require."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold
2001-09-18
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Stock Market's Response to Dramatic Historical Events [September 14, 2001]
"The events of September 11, 2001 have caused speculation that the U.S. stock market may crash when trading resumes. History, however, suggests that there is no uniform pattern in which bad news is followed by a stock market plunge. This report presents data on the stock market response to four episodes: Pearl Harbor, the Kennedy assassination, the October 1987 stock market crash, and the Asian financial crisis of 1997. There is, of course, no guarantee that the market will behave now or in the future as it did then."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jickling, Mark
2001-09-14
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Terrorism: Some Legal Restrictions on Military Assistance to Domestic Authorities Following a Terrorist Attack [September 14, 2001]
"The Constitution empowers to the President to act as Commander in Chief of the armed forces and to see to the execution of federal law; it gives Congress the authority to make federal law including laws for the regulation of the armed forces. The Posse Comitatus Act prohibits use of the armed forces to perform civilian governmental tasks unless explicitly authorized to do so. There are statutory exceptions to ensure continued enforcement of state and federal law, to provide disaster assistance, and to provide technical support for law enforcement. There are constitutional impediments to the use of the military to nationalize an industry, to try civilians, and to compel state officials to perform federally-imposed duties. Unlawful use of the armed forces might result in criminal or civil liability and frustrate prosecution of terrorists. For a more complete discussion, see CRS Report 95-964, 'The Posse Comitatus Act &Related Matters: The Use of the Military to Execute Civilian Law'."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles
2001-09-14
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Response to Terrorism: Legal Aspects of the Use of Military Force [September 13, 2001]
The terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, has precipitated widespread calls for the use of military force in response. Under U.S. and international law a variety of legal considerations attach to such use. This report briefly summarizes several salient aspects with regards to the legal considerations concerning the use of force under U.S. and international law. Legal considerations outlined include (1) acts of war, (2) declaration of war, (3) the President's authority to use military force, (4) war powers resolution, and the (5) United Nations charter.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ackerman, David M.
2001-09-13
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Terrorism: World Trade Center and the Pentagon - Applicable Federal Criminal Law [September 13, 2001]
"The death and destruction associated with the hijacking of four commercial airliners constitute federal crimes that outlaw air piracy, murder, and kidnapping. Relevant statutes carry the death penalty and apply to any accomplices or coconspirators here or abroad. [...] On September 11, 2001, four commercial airliners were hijacked. Two crashed into the World Trade Center towers; one into the Pentagon; and a fourth in Pennsylvania. Casualties number in the thousands. [...] The existence of multiple murder victims; the risk of death of others; the heinous nature of a murder; and the fact a murder occurred during the commission of air piracy, destruction of federal buildings or those whose activities affect interstate commerce, kidnapping, or destruction of commercial aircraft, are all aggravating factors which a jury may consider in determining whether the death penalty should be imposed on those guilty of federal capital offenses."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles
2001-09-13
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Initial Federal Budget Response to the 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor [September 13, 2001]
"The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, occurred as the federal government was half way through FY1942. Congress and the President immediately responded by enacting into law declarations of war against Japan, Germany, and Italy, in which the President was directed to prosecute the war to its successful conclusion and Congress pledged 'all of the resources of the country' to the effort. [...] President Roosevelt did not seek, and Congress did not provide, a 'blank check' for war spending. Instead, the President made specific requests for funds, which Congress dealt with through the usual annual appropriations process."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Keith, Robert
2001-09-13
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War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance [September 11, 2001]
"Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. This issue brief does not deal with the substantive merits of using armed forces in specific cases, but rather with the congressional authorization for the action and the application and effectiveness of the War Powers Resolution. The purpose of the War Powers Resolution (P.L. 93-148, passed over President Nixon's veto on November 7, 1973) is to ensure that Congress and the President share in making decisions that may get the U.S. involved in hostilities. Compliance becomes an issue whenever the President introduces U.S. forces abroad in situations that might be construed as hostilities or imminent hostilities. Criteria for compliance include prior consultation with Congress, fulfillment of the reporting requirements, and congressional authorization. [...] A longer-term issue is whether the War Powers Resolution is an appropriate and effective means of assuring congressional participation in actions that might get the United States involved in war. Some observers contend that the War Powers Resolution has not significantly increased congressional participation, while others emphasize that it has promoted consultation and served as leverage. Proposals have been made to strengthen, change, or repeal the resolution. None have been enacted to date."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2001-09-11
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Terrorism: Near Eastern Groups and State Sponsors, 2001 [September 10, 2001]
Signs continue to point to a decline in state sponsorship of terrorism, as well as a rise in the scope of threat posed by the independent network of exiled Saudi dissident Usama bin Ladin. Although Iran continues to actively sponsor terrorist groups, since 1997 some major factions within Iran have sought to change Iran's image to that of a more constructive force in the region. Usama bin Ladin's network, which is independently financed and enjoys safe haven in Afghanistan, poses an increasingly significant threat to U.S. interests in the Near East and perhaps elsewhere. The primary goals of bin Ladin and his cohort are to oust pro-U.S. regimes in the Middle East and gain removal of U.S. troops from the region. U.S. allegations of past plotting by the bin Ladin network suggest that the network wants to strike within the United States itself. The Arab-Israeli peace process is a longstanding major U.S. foreign policy interest, and the Administration and Congress are concerned about any terrorist groups or state sponsors that oppose the Arab-Israeli peace process. There is no consensus on the strategies for countering terrorism in the Near East. The United States, in many cases, differs with its allies on how to deal with state sponsors of terrorism; most allied governments believe that engaging these countries diplomatically might sometimes be more effective than trying to isolate or punish them. The United States is more inclined than its European allies to employ sanctions, military action, and legal pressure to compel state sponsors and groups to abandon terrorism.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2001-09-10
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Farm Labor Shortages and Immigration Policy [Updated September 6, 2001]
"Slightly more than half of today's farmworkers are not legally eligible to hold U.S. jobs. Growers are concerned that if certain federal activities are effective, they could lose a considerable portion of their labor force and hence of their livelihood. These federal actions include increased border enforcement efforts, work eligibility verification pilot programs and audits of employees' work authorization documents to determine their authenticity. In addition, the Social Security Administration has more often been sending letters that notify employers of mismatches between their employees' names/social security numbers and those in SSA's [Social Security Administration] database in order to properly credit earnings to employee records. Growers contend that the sizeable presence of illegal aliens implies a shortage of legal farmworkers. Their advocacy groups argue that growers would rather not employ unauthorized workers because doing so puts them at risk of incurring penalties. Farmworker advocates counter that crop producers prefer illegal to legal employees because the former are in a weaker bargaining position with regard to wages and working conditions. If the supply of illegal workers were curtailed, it is claimed, growers could adjust to a smaller legal workforce by introducing laborefficient technologies and management practices, and by raising wages, which, in turn, would entice more legal workers to become farmworkers. Grower advocates respond that further mechanization would be difficult for some crops and that substantially higher wages would make the U.S. industry uncompetitive in the world marketplace without expanding the legal farm labor force. These remain untested arguments, as perishable crop growers have rarely, if ever, operated without illegal aliens in their workforces."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Levine, Linda (Linda H.)
2001-09-06
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Immigration of Agricultural Guest Workers: Policy, Trends, and Legislative Issues [Updated August 23, 2001]
"Proposals to revise U.S. immigration policy on agricultural guest workers are coming from various perspectives, and several major bills have already been introduced in the 107th Congress. Though bills were debated but not enacted in recent Congresses, now reform appears to have more momentum. President George Bush and Mexican President Vicente Fox established a Cabinet-level immigration working group that is expected to offer a guest worker program as part of its package. Although the current mechanism for bringing in agricultural guest workers, the H-2A nonimmigrant visa, has experienced a modest surge in recent years, the 28,560 H-2A nonimmigrants admitted in 1999 comprise only a tiny fraction of the 1.2 million farm workers in the United States. While 61% of farm workers in the United States worked in fruit, nut, or vegetable production, a disproportionate number of H-2A workers -- 42% -- worked in tobacco cultivation. States in the southeastern United States account for more than half of all H-2A job certifications. Agricultural employers argue that the H-2A visa in its current form is insufficiently flexible, entails burdensome regulations, and poses potential litigation expenses for employers. They point out that the growing cycle is the actual deadline and that workers must be available when the crops are ready or food costs will rise. Proponents of this view support extensive changes that they believe would increase the speed with which employers could hire foreign workers and reduce the government's ability to delay or block such employment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Collver, Geoffrey K.
2001-08-23
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Immigration Legalization and Status Adjustment Legislation [Updated August 22, 2001]
"Although President George Bush has said he opposes broad legalization for unauthorized migrants, there have been reports that the President will recommend legislation to legalize an estimated 3 million Mexicans working in the United States without legal authorization. President Bush and Mexican President Vicente Fox have established a Cabinet-level working group to develop 'an orderly framework for migration that ensures humane treatment and legal security, and dignifies labor conditions.' Initial speculation that the President would unveil a legalization proposal in early September has been tempered by recent reports that he will recommend a more gradual series of proposals. On August 2, Congressional Democrats announced a set of principles that will guide broad immigration legislation they intend to propose, and among those principles is a plan for 'earned legalization.' Their proposal would not be limited to nationals of any one country and would focus on 'longtime, hard-working residents of good moral character, with no criminal problems . . . who are otherwise eligible to become U.S. citizens.' While supporters characterize legalization provisions as fair treatment of aliens who have been living and working here for years as good neighbors and dedicated employees, opponents describe such proposals as an unfair reward to illegal aliens who violated the law to get into the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2001-08-22
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Airline Passenger Rights Legislation in the 107th Congress [Updated August 17, 2001]
"Congressional advocates of enhanced airline passenger rights have introduced legislation in the 107th Congress that proposes remedies to a variety of consumer complaints. Most of the bills include provisions requiring prompt and truthful disclosure of reasons for delays, cancellations, and diverted flights. Others, found in some of the bills, include: preventing airlines from assessing a fee against, or prohibiting a ticket holder from using, only part of a ticket; requiring airlines to make available information on all fares offered through any media (phone, internet, etc.); and giving passengers the right to exit flights delayed on the ground beyond a certain length of time. Some bills would increase penalties for violating aviation consumer protection law or increase the airlines' liability for mistreatment of passengers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kirk, Robert S.
2001-08-17
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Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1993-2000
This report is prepared annually to provide unclassified quantitative data on
conventional arms transfers to developing nations by the United States and foreign
countries for the preceding eight calendar years. Some general data are provided on
worldwide conventional arms transfers, but the principal focus is the level of arms
transfers by major weapons suppliers to nations in the developing world.
Developing nations continue to be the primary focus of foreign arms sales
activity by weapons suppliers. During the years 1993-2000, the value of arms transfer
agreements with developing nations comprised 67.7% of all such agreements
worldwide. More recently, arms transfer agreements with developing nations
constituted 67.6% of all such agreements globally from 1997-2000, and 69% of these
agreements in 2000.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2001-08-16
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Democratic Republic of the Congo: Peace Process and Background [August 14, 2001]
"The Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire, is a vast, resource-rich country of nearly 50 million people. In August 1998, Congo was plunged into its second civil war in 2 years. A peace accord was concluded in Lusaka, Zambia, in July and August 1999, and the United Nations later agreed to send peace monitors and protecting troops, in a force known as MONUC, to assist in the peace process. Deployment was slow, but the assassination of President Laurent Kabila on January 16, 2001, was followed by progress in the peace process under a new regime headed by Joseph Kabila, Laurent's son. On June 15, 2001, the U.N. Security Council approved plans to expand MONUC to its authorized level of 5,537 personnel. […] Congo was ill-prepared for independence in 1960; its first civil war broke out almost immediately, leading to U.N. intervention. U.S. policymakers took a strong interest in Zaire during the Cold War years because of its resources and central location, but relations with Mobutu cooled in the post-Cold War era. Policymakers initially welcomed Laurent Kabila's pledge of elections in 2 years, but problems in democratization and economic reform complicated relations. A limited aid program focusing on democracy, health, the private sector, and the environment was resumed. Secretary of State Colin Powell has urged all parties to respect the Lusaka agreement and said he is 'cautiously optimistic' about implementation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copson, Raymond W.
2001-08-14
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Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons and Missiles: The Current Situation and Trends [Updated August 10, 2001]
Nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons (NBCW) pose the most serious threats to the United States and its foreign interests. Ballistic and cruise missiles, aircraft, covert forces, and terrorist groups are considered possible means of delivering these weapons of mass destruction. U.S. and allied policy makers debate the rate of proliferation and the nature and extent of the threat to the United States and its allies, and the weapons' effects on international stability. The purpose of this paper is to assemble current information on the status of weapons programs around the globe and analyze patterns regarding the threats posed by these weapons.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shuey, Robert
2001-08-10
