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• Iraq: Map Sources [Updated February 13, 2003]

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  "This report identifies selected Web sites for maps of Iraq. Selected government, library, and organizational Web site addresses are provided. Maps of the Middle East, Iraq, the No-Fly Zone, and Facilities Used by U.S. Forces in the Gulf are also provided. This report will be updated as needed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nelson, Marilyn L.

  2003-02-13
• Liability Issues Associated with the Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster [February 12, 2003]

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  From the Document: "The loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia resulted in the tragic deaths of seven astronauts and a hail of debris strewed over parts of at least two states. Investigators remain uncertain why Columbia was lost; there have been no definitive determinations of underlying causes or fault. But while the facts of the Columbia disaster are unclear, the legal principles and processes that govern possible compensation for the resultant losses of life and property can be identified. This report provides an overview of these issues and will be updated as circumstances warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Inkelas, Daniel; Murnane, Andrew W.

  2003-02-12
• Iraq War? Current Situation and Issues for Congress [Updated February 12, 2003]

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  "On November 8, 2002, the United Nations Security Council, acting at U.S. urging, adopted Resolution 1441, giving Iraq a final opportunity to 'comply with its the disarmament obligations' or 'face serious consequences.' During January 2003, the U.S. military buildup in the Persian Gulf continued, amid reports that U.S. forces would be ready to launch a war by mid-February or early March. President Bush, other top U.S. officials, and British Prime Minister Tony Blair have indicated that Iraq has little time left to offer full cooperation with U.N. weapons inspectors. However, the inspectors themselves, with leaders of France, Germany, and other countries, are urging that the inspections process be allowed more time. The Administration asserts that Iraq is in defiance of 16 Security Council resolutions requiring that it fully declare and eliminate its weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Skeptics, including many foreign critics, maintain that the Administration is exaggerating the Iraqi WMD threat. [...] This CRS [Congressional Research Service] report summarizes the current situation and U.S. policy with respect to the confrontation with Iraq, and reviews a number of war-related issues.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2003-02-12
• Nuclear Nonproliferation Issues [Updated February 11, 2003]

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  "The United States has been a leader of worldwide efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. To this end, the international community and many individual states have agreed to a range of treaties, laws, and agreements, known collectively as the nuclear nonproliferation regime, aimed at keeping nations that do not have nuclear weapons from acquiring them. The nonproliferation regime has also been concerned with preventing terrorists from obtaining a nuclear weapon or the materials to craft one. The attacks on New York and Washington September 11, 2001, added a new level of reality to the threat that terrorists might acquire a nuclear weapon and explode it in a populated area. Other nonproliferation concerns include a number of regional crisis points. In the Middle East, the possibility that Iraq has resumed, or may resume, its nuclear weapons program is a major concern driving the U.S. campaign against Saddam Hussein's regime. Iran's nuclear weapons development is also a threat, with recently released satellite evidence indicating that it is constructing uranium enrichment and heavy water production facilities. North Korea's acknowledgment that it is developing uranium enrichment capability, and moves to restart its plutonium production reactor, have enhanced the danger of nuclear proliferation there. The India-Pakistan nuclear arms race makes the continuing confrontation between those two countries particularly sensitive. There is concern about China's actions in expanding its nuclear force, and of Chinese and Russian activities that may encourage proliferation in the other regions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Behrens, Carl E.

  2003-02-11
• Middle East Peace Talks [Updated February 11, 2003]

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  "The end of the Cold War, the decline of the Soviet Union, and the U.S.-led victory in the Gulf war facilitated the beginning of a new peace process in 1991. Israel and the Palestinians discussed a 5-year period of interim self-rule leading to a final settlement. Israel and Syria discussed Israeli withdrawal from the Golan Heights in exchange for peace. Israel and Jordan discussed relations. Israel and Lebanon focused on Israel's withdrawal from its self-declared security zone in south Lebanon and reciprocal Lebanese actions. On September 13, 1993, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed a Declaration of Principles (DOP), providing for Palestinian empowerment and some territorial control. Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty agenda on September 14, 1993; Prime Minister Rabin and King Hussein affirmed the end of the state of belligerency between Israel and Jordan on July 25; a Peace Treaty was signed on October 26, 1994. Israel and the Palestinians signed an Interim Self-Rule in the West Bank/Oslo II accord on September 28, 1995. Israel continued implementing it despite the November 4 assassination of Prime Minister Rabin. Israel suspended talks with Syria after terror attacks in February/March 1996. They resumed in December 1999, but were 'postponed indefinitely' after January 2000. A January 1997 protocol produced Israeli redeployment from Hebron. An October 15-23, 1998, summit resulted in the Wye River Memorandum on implementation of earlier agreements. The Israeli cabinet froze implementation on December 20. On September 4, 1999, Israeli Prime Minister Barak and Palestinian leader Arafat signed the Sharm al-Shaykh Memorandum on implementing Wye. Israel withdrew from south Lebanon on May 24, 2000. From July 11-24, President Clinton held a summit with Israeli and Palestinian leaders at Camp David to reach a framework accord, but they did not succeed. A Palestinian uprising or 'intifadah' began in September. On December 23, President Clinton presented bridging proposals."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Migdalovitz, Carol

  2003-02-11
• Critical Infrastructures: Background, Policy, and Implementation [Updated February 10, 2003]

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  "The nations health, wealth, and security rely on the production and distribution of certain goods and services. The array of physical assets, processes and organizations across which these goods and services move are called critical infrastructures (e.g. electricity, the power plants that generate it, and the electric grid upon which it is distributed). Computers and communications, themselves critical infrastructures, are increasingly tying these infrastructures together. There has been growing concern that this reliance on computers and computer networks raises the vulnerability of the nations critical infrastructures to 'cyber' attacks. In May 1998, President Clinton released Presidential Decision Directive No. 63. The Directive set up groups within the federal government to develop and implement plans that would protect government-operated infrastructures and called for a dialogue between government and the private sector to develop a National Infrastructure Assurance Plan that would protect all of the nations critical infrastructures by the year 2003. While the Directive called for both physical and cyber protection from both man-made and natural events, implementation focused on cyber protection against man-made cyber events (i.e. computer hackers). However, given the physical damage caused by the September 11 attacks and the subsequent impact on the communications, finance, and transportation services, physical protections of critical infrastructures is receiving greater attention."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Moteff, John D.

  2003-02-10
• Presidential Directives: Background and Overview [Updated February 10, 2003]

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  "From the earliest days of the federal government, Presidents, exercising magisterial or executive power not unlike that of a monarch, from time to time have issued directives establishing new policy, decreeing the commencement or cessation of some action, or ordaining that notice be given to some declaration. The instruments used by Presidents in these regards have come to be known by various names, and some have prescribed forms and purposes. Executive orders and proclamations are probably two of the best-known types, largely because of their long-standing use and publication in the Federal Register and the Code of Federal Regulations. Others are less familiar, some because they are cloaked in official secrecy. There is, as well, the oral presidential directive, the sense of which is captured in an announcement that records what the President has prescribed or instructed. This report provides an overview of the different kinds of directives that have primarily been utilized by twentieth-century Presidents. Presenting background on the historical development, accounting, use, and effect of such directives, it will be updated as events suggest."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Relyea, Harold

  2003-02-10
• Iraq: U.S. Regime Change Efforts and the Iraqi Opposition [Updated February 10, 2003]

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  "In his 2002 and 2003 State of the Union messages, President Bush characterized Iraq as a grave potential threat to the United States because of its insistence on developing weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and the potential for it to transfer WMD to terrorist groups. Since September 2002, the President has said that unless Iraq allows full disarmament of its WMD by United Nations weapons inspectors, the United States would lead a coalition in military action to achieve that disarmament. This would almost certainly include the ouster of Iraq's President Saddam Hussein and his Ba'th Party regime. Although the Administration has been less vocal about the regime change goal since the September 2002 decision to work through the United Nations to achieve Iraq's disarmament, the Administration maintains that regime change has been declared U.S. policy since November 1998 and remains the desired goal. Even before October 1998, U.S. efforts to oust Saddam had been pursued, with varying degrees of intensity, since the end of the Gulf war in 1991. These efforts primarily involved U.S. backing for opposition groups inside and outside Iraq, some of which are now receiving increased U.S. political and financial support and military training. According to several experts, past efforts to change the regime floundered because of limited U.S. engagement, disorganization of the Iraqi opposition, and the efficiency and ruthlessness of Iraq's several overlapping intelligence and security forces. Previous U.S. administrations ruled out major U.S. military action to change Iraq's regime, believing such action would be costly, risky, and not necessarily justified by the level of Iraq's non-compliance."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2003-02-10
• HIV/AIDS International Programs: Appropriations, FY2002 - FY2004 [Updated February 10, 2003]

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  "The Administration's FY2004 request for international HIV/AIDS spending would commit $450 million to a new Global AIDS Initiative to be administered by the Department of State. This is the principal component of the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, announced in the State of the Union Message on January 28, 2003. The Administration is seeking $300 million for the President's Mother and Child HIV Prevention Initiative in FY2004, up from $200 million in the FY2003 request. The request for a contribution to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria is $200 million, the same amount requested for FY2003. The Senate-passed omnibus appropriations bill for FY2003 would provide $400 million for the Global Fund."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2003-02-10
• Israeli-United States Relations [February 10, 2003]

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  "Israeli-U.S. relations are an important factor in U.S. policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship. The main vehicle for expressing support for Israel has been foreign aid; Israel currently receives about $3 billion per year in economic and military grants, refugee settlement assistance, and other aid. Congress has monitored the aid issue closely along with other issues in bilateral relations, and its concerns have affected Administration's policies. U.S.-Israeli relations have evolved from an initial American policy of sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in 1948 to an unusual partnership that links a small but militarily powerful Israel, dependent on the United States for its economic and military strength, with the U.S. superpower trying to balance competing interests in the region. Some in the United States question the levels of aid and general commitment to Israel, and argue that a U.S. bias toward Israel operates at the expense of improved U.S. relations with various Arab states. Others maintain that democratic Israel is a strategic ally, and that U.S. relations with Israel strengthens the U.S. presence in the Middle East."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2003-02-10
• Israel: U.S. Foreign Assistance [February 10, 2003]

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  "Israel is not economically self-sufficient, and relies on foreign assistance and borrowing to maintain its economy. Since 1985, the United States has provided $3 billion in grants annually to Israel. Since 1976, Israel has been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance, and is the largest cumulative recipient since World War II. In addition to U.S. assistance, it is estimated that Israel receives about $1 billion annually through philanthropy, an equal amount through short- and long- term commercial loans, and around $1 billion in Israel Bonds proceeds. Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu told a joint session of Congress on July 10, 1996, that Israel would reduce its need for U.S. aid over the next four years. In January 1998, Finance Minister Neeman proposed eliminating the $1.2 billion economic aid and increasing the $1.8 billion in military aid by $60 million per year during a 10-year period beginning in the year 2000. The FY1999, 2000, 2001, and 2002 appropriations bills included cuts of $120 million in economic aid and an increases of $60 million in military aid for each year."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mark, Clyde R.

  2003-02-10
• High Performance Computers and Export Control Policy: Issues for Congress [Updated February 10, 2003]

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  "Congress has a strong interest in export control policy and technologies that may have both commercial and military applications outside of the United States. Through its constitutionally delegated authority to regulate foreign commerce, it has the authority to control exports for national security or foreign policy purposes. The 107th Congress is closely examining issues of national export control policy, including reauthorization of the Export Administration Act (EAA), and control policies concerning key technologies...Congressional interest in HPCs has primarily, but not exclusively, been focused on the dual-use applications of HPCs...The 108th Congress likely will again consider the the reauthorization of the EAA...There are several issues that congressional policymakers are addressing concerning reauthorization of the Export Administration Act. One is proliferation-- who obtains this technology and how they use it. In response to concerns about proliferation, Congress legislated licensing, post-shipment verification and Congressional notification of exports and changes in licensing thresholds for HPCs. However, some contend that these safeguards and restrictions have not been effective. Another issue is the notification process, in which the executive branch not only notifies the legislative branch of HPC export control changes, but describes the national security implications as well...The U.S. computer industry has raised concerns about another issue-that restrictions only hurt U.S. commercial interests...Yet, there is no consensus as to what should replace MTOPS, if anything. Among the issues facing the 108th Congress are whether to maintain HPC export controls by using MTOPS, revise them by using a benchmark other than MTOPS, or completely eliminate controls in recognition of the worldwide availability of certain technology and rapid technological innovation." - From Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fergusson, Ian F.; McLoughlin, Glenn J.

  2003-02-10
• Federal Disaster Recovery Programs: Brief Summaries [February 7, 2003]

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  "This report summarizes principal federal disaster assistance programs. A number of federal agencies provide assistance to victims; state, territorial, and local governments; and nongovernmental entities following a disaster. Among other forms of assistance, federal programs can provide grants, loans, loan guarantees, temporary housing, and counseling. The programs summarized in this catalog fall into two broad categories. First are programs specifically for disaster situations; most of these programs are administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the Small Business Administration (SBA). The Homeland Security Act of 2002 transferred FEMA to the new Department of Homeland Security. Second are general assistance programs that may be used in disaster situations, as well as meet regular service needs. Many federal agencies, including the Departments of Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, and Justice, administer programs that may be brought to bear under certain circumstances. The programs may also be classified by recipients: primarily individuals, state and local governments, or businesses. They address such short-term needs as food and shelter, and such long-term needs as repair of public utilities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Canada, Ben

  2003-02-07
• War On Drugs: Legislation in the 108th Congress and Related Developments [Updated February 6, 2003]

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  "In recent years, Congress has taken an increasingly punitive stance toward drug addicts and casual users alike. A different approach has been taken by certain countries in Europe and elsewhere that are experimenting with less restrictive policies such as decriminalization and 'harm reduction' programs. The 108th Congress will receive strong encouragement from the Executive Branch to continue on its current path. [...] Drug control issues likely to be taken up in the first session of the 108th Congress include: (1) the drug control budgets for both FY2003 and FY2004, which involve most of the appropriations bills; (2) reauthorization of ONDCP [Office of National Drug Control Policy], the office of the 'drug czar,' which is set to expire on September 30, 2003; (3) reauthorization of the National Youth Anti- Drug Media Campaign, run by ONDCP; (4) nomination of a new administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) due to the confirmation of the current administrator as Under-Secretary in the new Department of Homeland Security; and (5) further measures to control the use of MDMA (Ecstasy) and other so-called 'club drugs.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Eddy, Mark

  2003-02-06
• Department of Homeland Security: State and Local Preparedness Issues [Updated February 6, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296) made the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) responsible for providing assistance to state and local governments to ensure adequate preparedness for all disasters, including terrorist attacks. Several federal entities with functions relating to state and local preparedness, ranging from entire independent agencies to units of agencies and departments, will be transferred to the new department."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Canada, Ben

  2003-02-06
• Appropriations for FY2003: Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs [Updated February 6, 2003]

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  "The annual Foreign Operations appropriations bill is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. foreign aid budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making generally. It contains the largest share -- about two-thirds -- of total U.S. international affairs spending. President Bush requested $16.45 billion (amended on September 3) for FY2003 Foreign Operations, an amount 7% higher than regular FY2002 appropriations, but less than enacted FY2002 foreign aid appropriations when amounts allocated from the two supplemental appropriations are included. The White House distributed nearly $1.4 billion in FY2002 from the $40 billion emergency terrorism supplemental appropriation (P.L. 107-38) enacted in mid-September 2001 following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Congress approved in July an additional $927 million (net rescissions) in FY2002 supplemental Foreign Operations amounts aimed at bolstering homeland security and fighting terrorism abroad. Combined with funds provided in the regular appropriation (P.L. 107-115), enacted Foreign Operations spending for FY2002 totals $17.7 billion."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nowels, Larry Q.

  2003-02-06
• Iraq War? Current Situation and Issues for Congress Update [Updated February 5, 2003]

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  On November 8, 2002, the United Nations Security Council, acting at U.S. urging, adopted Resolution 1441, giving Iraq a final opportunity to "comply with its the disarmament obligations" or "face serious consequences." During January 2003, the U.S. military buildup in the Persian Gulf continued, amid reports that U.S. forces would be ready to launch a war by mid-February or early March. President Bush, other top U.S. officials, and British Prime Minister Tony Blair have indicated that Iraq has little time left to offer full cooperation with U.N. weapons inspectors. However, the inspectors themselves, with leaders of France, Germany, and other countries, are urging that the inspections process be allowed more time. The Administration asserts that Iraq is in defiance of 17 Security Council resolutions requiring that it fully declare and eliminate its weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Skeptics, including many foreign critics, maintain that the Administration is exaggerating the Iraqi threat. In October 2002, Congress authorized the President to use the armed forces of the United States to defend U.S. national security against the threat posed by Iraq and to enforce all relevant U.N. resolutions regarding Iraq.Analysts and officials are concerned about instability and ethnic fragmentation in Iraq after any war. U.S. planners are reportedly planning for an occupation of the country that could last 18 months or longer. Whether the overthrow of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein leads to democratization in Iraq and the wider Middle East, or promotes instability and an intensification of anti-U.S. attitudes, is an issue in debate. The extent to which an Iraqi conflict would create a substantial humanitarian crisis, including refugee flows and civilian deaths, will likely depend on the length of the conflict and whether it involves fighting in urban areas. Constitutional issues concerning a possible war with Iraq were largely resolved by the enactment of P.L. 107-243, the October authorization. International legal issues remain, however, with respect to launching a pre-emptive war against Iraq if there is no new Security Council resolution authorizing such a war.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2003-02-05
• Border Security: Immigration Issues in the 108th Congress [February 4, 2003]

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  "Enhancing border security has emerged as a significant policy issue after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Prior to the terrorist attacks, the priorities for border security policy were beginning to shift from immigration-related issues to facilitating legitimate cross-border commerce. Although the 107th Congress enacted several pieces of legislation that dealt with enhancing immigration-related border security, legislation to strengthen the nation's borders had been enacted as early as the 104th Congress. The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA; P.L. 104-208) contained several immigration-related border security provisions that addressed illegal immigration and the smuggling of humans into the United States through the southwest border. IIRIRA also contained a provision that required the electronic tracking of every alien arriving in and departing from the United States. The deadline for implementing the electronic tracking system, commonly referred to as the entry and exit data system, was moved back in subsequent legislation. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, however, prompted Congress to speed up implementation of the entry and exit data system as well as enact new provisions aimed at enhancing border security. This report provides background information on the main immigration-related border security issues that have been raised as a result of the terrorist attacks. It describes enacted legislation in the 107th Congress as well as in previous Congresses that focus on immigration-related border security issues. The report also poses possible immigration-related border security issues the 108th Congress may consider. This report will be updated to reflect any additional related legislation in the 108th Congress, as well as implementation issues."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seghetti, Lisa M.

  2003-02-04
• Department of Homeland Security: Consolidation of Border and Transportation Security Agencies [Updated February 4, 2003]

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  "The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296) transfers several border and transportation security agencies to the newly established Department of Homeland Security, consolidating some of them in a Directorate of Border and Transportation Security. The Act charges this new directorate with securing the borders; territorial waters; terminals; waterways; and air, land and sea transportation systems of the United States; and managing the nations ports of entry. As in the past, the challenge for policymakers is to provide a level of border and transportation security that is commensurate with a multitude of threats, while facilitating legitimate travel and commerce, as well as protecting civil liberties. An immediate challenge for the 108th Congress will be to work with the Administration to get the new department operational " up and running" at a time when threats to borders and transportation systems are real and arguably imminent. Moreover, the success of the Directorate will depend in large measure on the effective and expedited coordination of transferred agencies and programs; development of a unified strategic vision for departmental and directorate operations; leverage of new and existing technologies to improve threat detection, but facilitate legitimate cross border travel and trade; adequate funding and staffing; efficient deployment of resources; and successful implementation of recently enacted border, port, and transportation security-related legislation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Krouse, William J.

  2003-02-04
• Persian Gulf: Issues for U.S. Policy, 2003 [Updated February 3, 2003]

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  The Persian Gulf region, rich in oil and gas resources but with a history of armed conflict that has necessitated occasional U.S. military action, remains crucial to United States interests. This report discusses U.S. efforts to manage both longstanding Gulf security interests as well the new challenges highlighted by the September 11 attacks on the United States and the U.S. insistence that Iraq end all its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs. The report is derived from a wide range of sources, including press reports, unclassified U.S. government documents, U.N. documents, observations by the author during visits to the Gulf, and conversations with U.S, European, Iranian, and Gulf state officials, journalists and academics. For further reading, see CRS Issue Brief IB92117, Iraq: Weapons Threat, Compliance, Sanctions, and U.S. Policy; CRS Issue Brief IB93033, Iran: Current Developments and U.S. Policy; and CRS Issue Brief IB93113, Saudi Arabia: Post-War Issues and U.S. Relations.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2003-02-03
• Space Launch Vehicles: Government Activities, Commercial Competition, and Satellite Exports [Updated February 3, 2006]

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  "Launching satellites into orbit, once the exclusive domain of the U.S. and Soviet governments, today is an industry in which companies in the United States, Europe, China, Russia, Ukraine, Japan, and India compete. In the United States, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) owns and launches its space shuttle. Private sector companies provide launch services for other NASA launches and most Department of Defense (DOD) launches. Commercial customers purchase launch services from the U.S. companies or their competitors. Since the early 1980s, Congress and successive Administrations have taken actions, including passing several laws, to facilitate the U.S. commercial space launch services business. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates the industry."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Smith, Marcia S.

  2003-02-03
• Space Stations [Updated February 3, 2003]

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  "Congress continues to debate NASA's International Space Station (ISS) program to build a permanently occupied space station in Earth orbit where astronauts live and conduct research. NASA expects that research performed in the near-zero gravity environment of the space station will result in new discoveries in life sciences, biomedicine, and materials sciences. The space station is being assembled in Earth orbit. Almost 90 launches are needed to take the various segments, crews, and cargo into orbit; more than two dozen have taken place already. ISS has been permanently occupied by successive 'Expedition' crews rotating on 4-6 month shifts since November 2000. 'Expedition 6' is now onboard. The ISS crews are routinely visited by other astronauts and cosmonauts on U.S. space shuttle or Russian Soyuz missions. The original date to complete ISS assembly, June 2002, slipped to April 2006, with at least 10 years of operations expected to follow. Cost overruns in 2001 forced additional changes, and the current date for completing assembly is uncertain. Congress appropriated about $30 billion for the program from FY1985-2002. The FY2003 request is $1.84 billion."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Smith, Marcia S.

  2003-02-03
• Homeland Security Proposals: Issues Regarding Transfer of Immigration Agencies and Functions [Updated February 3, 2003]

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  "As the 107th Congress considered the broader question of homeland security and the creation of a Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the issue of where to locate the various immigration and citizenship functions performed by the Department of Justice's (DOJ) Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and the Department of State's (DOS) Bureau of Consular Affairs posed a distinct set of questions. Congress weighed what immigration functions constituted border security, what were homeland security, and whether those immigration functions that may not have homeland security-related roles should be transferred to the proposed DHS. The debate centered on several options: place all of INS in a newly created DHS under a Border Security and Transportation Division; place INS's enforcement functions in DHS under the Border Security and Transportation Division but leave INS's service function in DOJ under a newly created Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services; place all of INS in DHS in its own Directorate of Immigration Affairs, which would have two separate bureaus for the enforcement and service functions; or place INS's enforcement functions in a DHS Bureau of Border Security and INS's service functions in a DHS Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services - the choice eventually enacted. In addition to the transfer of INS, there had been considerable debate over whether the issuances of visas should remain with the DOS."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wasem, Ruth Ellen; Seghetti, Lisa M.

  2003-02-03
• China-U.S. Relations [Updated January 31, 2003]

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  "In the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States, U.S. and PRC [People's Republic of China] foreign policy calculations appear to be changing. The Administration of George W. Bush assumed office in January 2001 viewing China as a U.S. 'strategic competitor.' Administration officials faced an early test in April 2001 when a Chinese jet collided with a U.S. Navy reconnaissance plane over the South China Sea, resulting in strained relations and PRC accusations that U.S. reconnaissance activities were unfriendly acts. Since September 11, though, U.S. officials have come to see Beijing as an important potential ally in the fight against global terrorism, while PRC officials see the anti-terrorism campaign as a chance to improve relations with Washington and perhaps gain policy concessions on issues important to Beijing. U.S. anti-terror priorities have led some to suggest that cooperation against terrorism could serve as a new strategic framework for Sino-U.S. relations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Dumbaugh, Kerry

  2003-01-31
• Iraq: Divergent Views on Military Action [Updated January 31, 2003]

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  "Officials of the Bush Administration believe military action against Iraq may be necessary to eliminate threats posed by the Iraqi regime to the U.S. and international communities. In October 2002, Congress passed a joint resolution (H.J.Res. 114) giving the President authority to use force if necessary to eliminate threats posed by Saddam Hussein's Iraq. Some Members of Congress, commentators, and analysts question the Administration's rationale for military action or favor delaying it to allow U.N. weapons inspectors more time to complete their findings in Iraq. This report summarizes arguments advanced by the Administration and by critics of the Administration's position. It will be updated as the situation continues to develop."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Prados, Alfred B.

  2003-01-31
• Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002: Summary and Comparison with Previous Law [January 31, 2003]

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  "This report summarizes the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (P.L. [Public Law] 107- 155) and compares it with the previous law (in most cases, the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), 2 U.S.C. § 431 'et seq'.). In general, the new Act took effect on November 6, 2002, the day after the 2002 general elections, although certain provisions had different effective dates, as noted herein. Much of the recent campaign finance debate has revolved around the issues of so-called hard and soft money. In general, the term 'hard money' has been used to refer to funds raised and spent according to the limits, prohibitions, and disclosure requirements of federal election law. By contrast, 'soft money' has been used to describe funds raised and spent outside the federal election regulatory framework, but which may have at least an indirect impact on federal elections. Since the new statute described herein became effective, however, regulation was extended to some aspects of soft money that hitherto had not been regulated by federal election law."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Cantor, Joseph E.; Whitaker, L. Paige

  2003-01-31
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 108th Congress [January 30, 2003]

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  "This report, which will be updated periodically, examines issues in U.S. policy toward Latin America and the Caribbean, focusing especially on the role of Congress and congressional concerns. For more details and discussion, see the listed CRS [Congressional Research Service] products after each section [...]Congressional attention to Latin America in the 108th Congress will likely focus on counter-narcotics and counter-terrorism efforts in the Andean region, trade issues, and potential threats to democracy and stability. U.S. counter-narcotics efforts will focus on continuation of the Andean Regional Initiative supporting Colombia and its neighbors in their struggle against drug trafficking and drug-financed terrorist groups. With regard to trade, now that negotiations with Chile for a bilateral free trade agreement are completed, Congress will likely consider implementing legislation for the agreement under fast track procedures. Congressional oversight also may focus on negotiations for a Free Trade Area of the Americas agreement, scheduled for completion in January 2005, and on negotiations for a free trade agreement with Central America. Congress may also pay increased attention to economic, social, and political tensions in South America that could threaten democratic order, particularly in Venezuela and Argentina. In the Caribbean, Congress will likely continue to debate the appropriate U.S. policy approach to Cuba, the region's only holdout to democracy, as it has for the past several years, while Haiti's persistent poverty and political instability may also remain a congressional concern. Finally, Congress will likely maintain an active interest in neighboring Mexico, with a myriad of trade, migration, border and drug trafficking issues dominating U.S.-Mexico bilateral relations."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937- . . .

  2003-01-30
• Detention of American Citizens as Enemy Combatants [January 30, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "This report, which will be updated as necessary, analyzes the authority to detain American citizens who are suspected of being members, agents, or associates of Al Qaeda, the Taliban and possibly other terrorist organizations as 'enemy combatants.' The Department of Justice cites two World War II era cases, 'Ex parte Quirin' and 'In re Territo,' to support its contention that the President may order that certain U.S. citizens as well as non-citizens be held as enemy combatants pursuant to the law of war and Article II of the Constitution. Critics, however, question the assertion of executive authority to detain U.S. citizens, without ordinary due process of law, in order to prevent terrorist acts or gather intelligence; and some argue that Congress has prohibited such detention of U.S. citizens when it enacted 18 U.S.C. 4001(a). So far, federal courts have agreed with the Bush Administration that Congress authorized such detentions in its authorization for the President to use force against those he determines are responsible for the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States. Many observers expect that the issue will reach the Supreme Court, where the debate may center on whether congressional authorization is necessary and whether Congress has in fact authorized the detentions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Elsea, Jennifer

  2003-01-30
• Congressional Action on Iraq 1990-2002: A Compilation of Legislation [Updated January 30, 2003]

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  "This report is a compilation of legislation on Iraq from 1990 to the present. The list is composed of resolutions and public laws relating to military action or diplomatic pressure to be taken against Iraq. The list does not include foreign aid appropriations bills passed since FY1994 that deny U.S. funds to any nation in violation of the United Nations sanctions regime against Iraq. Also, measures that were not passed only in either the House or the Senate are not included (with the exception of the proposals in the 108th Congress). For a more in-depth analysis of U.S. action against Iraq, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB92117, 'Iraq, Compliance, Sanctions and U.S. Policy'. This report will be updated as developments unfold."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2003-01-30
• Iraq: Weapons Threat, Compliance, Sanctions, and U.S. Policy [Updated January 30, 2003]

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  "On November 8, the Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1441, giving U.N. weapons inspectors new authorities; new U.N. inspections began November 27. On December 7, Iraq handed over a 12,000 page declaration of all its past WMD programs and WMD useful capabilities. U.N. weapons inspectors criticized Iraq in their report to the Security Council on January 27, 2003, maintaining Iraq has cooperated on 'process but not substance.' In his State of the Union message on January 28 and other statements, President Bush said that Iraq has not complied with Resolution 1441, that 'time is running out' for peaceful disarmament efforts, and that the United States would lead a coalition to disarm Iraq if peaceful efforts fail."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2003-01-30