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• Iran's Influence in Iraq [Updated September 12, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Iran is actively assisting the major Shiite Muslim political factions in Iraq, most of which have longstanding ideological, political, and religious sectarian ties to Tehran. A more pressing U.S. concern is that Iran is purportedly arming militias fielded by those factions, militias that are committing sectarian violence and attacking U.S. forces. The Administration is trying to reverse Iranian influence in Iraq while also engaging Iran diplomatically on Iraq. This report will be updated. See CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL32048, 'Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2007-09-12
• Health and Safety Concerns Over U.S. Imports of Chinese Products: An Overview [Updated September 19, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "China is the second largest source of U.S. imports, a major supplier of consumer products (such as toys), and an increasingly important supplier of various food products. Reports of unsafe seafood, pet food, toys, tires, and other products imported from China over the past year have raised concern in the United States over the health, safety, and quality of imported Chinese products. This report provides an overview of this issue and implications for U.S.-China trade relations and will be updated as events warrant. (For an overview of issues concerning U.S. food imports from China, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL34080, 'Food and Agricultural Imports from China', by Geoffrey S. Becker)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morrison, Wayne M.

  2007-09-19
• Iraq: Government Formation and Benchmarks [Updated September 20, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "Elections in 2005 produced a permanent constitution and a broad-based but Shiite-led government that has been unwilling or unable to take major steps to reduce Sunni popular resentment and is showing signs of fragmentation. An FY2007 supplemental appropriation (P.L. [Public Law] 110-28) mandated Administration reports by July 15 and September 15, 2007, and a GAO [Government Accountability Office] report by September 1, 2007, assessing Iraqi government progress on eighteen 'benchmarks' that are intended to promote political reconciliation. See CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31339, Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security, by Kenneth Katzman."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Katzman, Kenneth

  2007-09-20
• Terrorism Risk Insurance Program: Current Issues, Legislation, and Background [Updated September 20, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "After September 11, 2001, many businesses were no longer able to purchase insurance protecting against property losses that might occur in future terrorist attacks. Addressing this problem, Congress passed the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 (TRIA), creating a temporary three-year program to share future insured terrorism losses with the property-casualty insurance industry and commercial policyholders. The act required insurers to offer terrorism insurance to their commercial policyholders, preserved state regulation of this type of insurance, and directed the Secretary of the Treasury to administer a program for sharing terrorism losses. Once certain conditions were met, the initial program covered 90% of insurer losses up to $100 billion each year. Responding to concerns that three years was insufficient time to allow the private sector to develop the capacity to insure terrorism risk, the 109th Congress passed the Terrorism Risk Insurance Extension Act of 2005 (TRIEA) to extend the program two additional years. TREIA left the program essentially intact while increasing the private sector's exposure to terrorism risk through a higher trigger, higher deductibles, greater industry loss sharing and exclusion of certain lines of insurance. With less than one year left in the extended program, concerns are again being expressed that the private market will be unable to provide terrorism insurance without a government backstop. The House passed TRIA extension legislation (H.R. 2761) by a vote of 312-110 on September 19, 2007. Similar legislation has yet to be introduced in the Senate. This report provides an overview of the current TRIA program, general background on the issue, and a summary of current legislation. It will be updated as legislation is introduced, hearings are held, or other legislative events occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Webel, Baird

  2007-09-20
• U.S Forces in Afghanistan [Updated September 20, 2007]

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  From the Summary: "As interest in troop level deployments continues, President Bush announced in a February 15, 2007 speech the Administration's plans for an increase in U.S. forces in Afghanistan, including a planned gradual increase of 3,200 U.S. troops on the ground in the coming several months. This report provides official Department of Defense (DOD) statistical information on U.S. forces now serving in Afghanistan with comparisons to earlier force levels. It also provides brief official information on the military units extended or scheduled for the next rotation of duty into Afghanistan. As of September 1, 2007, according to DOD, the United States had 24,056 troops stationed in Afghanistan -- 20,775 active component and 3,281 National Guard or Reserves. They are serving in two missions -- a NATO-led peacekeeping mission and a separate U.S.-led combat effort called Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). For security reasons, DOD does not routinely report the composition, size, or specific destination of military forces deployed to the Persian Gulf. This report will be updated upon receipt of new DOD data. For additional information on U.S. forces, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL30588, 'Afghanistan: Post-War Governance, Security and U.S. Policy' by Kenneth Katzman, and CRS Report RL33503, 'U.S. and Coalition Military Operations in Afghanistan: Issues for Congress', by Andrew Feickert."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Bryant, JoAnne; Waterhouse, Michael

  2007-09-20
• Total Information Awareness Programs: Funding, Composition, and Oversight Issues [Updated March 21, 2003]

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  Late last year controversy erupted about a Department of Defense (DOD) R&D effort called Total Information Awareness (TIA) under an office headed by retired Admiral John D. Poindexter within the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). By integrating various new tools designed to detect, anticipate, train for, and provide warnings about potential terrorist attacks, DARPA hopes to develop a prototype Total Information Awareness system. This system would integrate a number of ongoing R&D efforts, referred to in this paper as Total Information Awareness programs. While concern has centered primarily on privacy issues, accounts of the program's funding have also differed. This report covers the funding, composition, oversight, and technical feasibility of TIA programs. The privacy implications are addressed in CRS Report RL31730, Privacy: Total Information Awareness Programs and Related Information Access, Collection, and Protection Laws, by Gina Marie Stevens.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Belasco, Amy

  2003-03-21
• How Large is China's Economy? Does it Matter? [February 13, 2008]

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  "China's rapid economic growth since 1979 has transformed it into a major economic power. Over the past few years, many analysts have contended that China could soon overtake the United States to become the world's largest economy, based on estimates of China's economy on a 'purchasing power parity' (PPP) basis, which attempts to factor in price differences across countries when estimating the size of a foreign economy in U.S. dollars. However, in December 2007, the World Bank issued a study that lowered its previous 2005 PPP estimate of the size of China's economy by 40%. If these new estimates are accurate, it will likely be many years before China's economy reaches U.S. levels. The new PPP data could also have an impact on U.S. and international perceptions over other aspects of China's economy, including its living standards, poverty levels, and government expenditures, such as on the military. This report will not be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morrison, Wayne M.; Martin, Michael F.

  2008-02-13
• Qualifications for President and the 'Natural Born' Citizenship Eligibility Requirement [November 14, 2011]

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  "The Constitution sets out three eligibility requirements to be President: one must be 35 years of age, a resident 'within the United States' for 14 years, and a 'natural born Citizen.' There is no Supreme Court case which has ruled specifically on the presidential eligibility requirements (although several cases have addressed the term 'natural born' citizen), and this clause has been the subject of several legal and historical treatises over the years, as well as more recent litigation. […] Although the eligibility of native born U.S. citizens has been settled law for more than a century, there have been legitimate legal issues raised concerning those born 'outside' of the country to U.S. citizens. From historical material and case law, it appears that the common understanding of the term 'natural born' in England and in the American colonies in the 1700s may have included both the strict common law meaning as born in the territory ('jus soli'), as well as the 'statutory' laws adopted in England since at least 1350, which included children born abroad to British fathers ('jus sanguinis', the law of descent). The weight of legal and historical authority indicates that the term 'natural born' citizen would mean a person who is entitled to U.S. citizenship 'by birth' or 'at birth,' either by being born 'in' the United States and under its jurisdiction, even those born to alien parents; by being born abroad to U.S. citizen-parents; or by being born in other situations meeting legal requirements for U.S. citizenship 'at birth.' Such term, however, would not include a person who was not a U.S. citizen by birth or at birth, and who was thus born an 'alien' required to go through the legal process of 'naturalization' to become a U.S. citizen."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Maskell, Jack

  2011-11-14
• Finance and the Economy: Occupy Wall Street in Historical Perspective [November 14, 2011]

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  "Wall Street and Main Street--the financial system and the real economy of goods and services-- are bound together. If businesses large and small had to fund investment projects out of their own pockets, society would be significantly poorer. The financial system aggregates the savings of millions of households and allocates them to the most productive uses. The importance and value of this function are almost universally acknowledged and are axiomatic in market economics. Nevertheless, the benefits of certain forms of financial intermediation to the real economy are not always apparent. American politics has a demonstrated history of attacks on Wall Street and financiers whose great personal fortunes appear disproportionate to their contribution to national prosperity. This tradition, which goes back at least to Thomas Jefferson, accuses high finance of siphoning off resources that could be better used elsewhere. A recurrent critique is that 'swapping pieces of paper' is not only less useful than, but morally inferior to, actual production of goods and services, and that great concentrations of wealth represent a threat to democratic values. For all their lack of a unified, coherent program, the Occupy Wall Street protestors can be seen as the latest in a long series of anti-financial sector critiques. This report presents examples of political statements about the fundamental costs and benefits of finance and recent economic research that points to aspects of financial activity that may not be advantageous to the real economy. The report does not attempt a comprehensive survey of either literature, but provides a reminder of the breadth of the historical debates that have shaped congressional oversight of financial institutions and markets. Some of the political remarks excerpted here strike the theme of conflict between the real economy and the paper profits derived from financial speculation, and include claims that the temptations of the latter draw resources away from the former, or that speculators misappropriate the rewards that would otherwise accrue to hardworking businessmen, farmers, and wage earners."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Jickling, Mark; Hoskins, Sean M.

  2011-11-14
• FY2021 Defense Appropriations Act: Context and Selected Issues for Congress [June 7, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "The Department of Defense Appropriations Act is one of 12 annual appropriations measures typically reported by the House and Senate Committees on Appropriations and the largest in terms of discretionary funding. The act funds activities of the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) except for military construction and family housing programs. The legislation also funds certain activities of the intelligence community. On February 10, 2020, President Donald J. Trump submitted a budget request for FY2021 that included $753.5 billion for national defense-related activities, including discretionary and mandatory programs. The request aligned with the statutory spending limit, or cap, for national defense-related activities in the Budget Control Act (BCA; P.L. [Public Law] 112-25), as amended by the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2019 (BBA; P.L. 116-37). The request included $69 billion in defense funding designated for Overseas Contingency Operations, or OCO, which is effectively exempt from the cap. [...] This report compares funding levels for certain defense accounts and programs in the enacted FY2020 appropriations, the Trump Administration's FY2021 request, and FY2021 legislation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.

  2021-06-07
• FY2021 National Defense Authorization Act: Selected Personnel and Health Care Issues [Updated June 4, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "The National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) authorizes appropriations for a wide range of national security programs and activities within the Department of Defense (DOD) and other executive agencies. Congress typically includes organizational reform, new or modified defense policies, and directed reports or studies among the legislation's provisions. For FY2021, the House-passed (H.R. 6395) and Senate-passed (S. 4049) bills sought to implement or supplement various categories of personnel and health care matters related to servicemembers, maritime personnel, servicemember families, and DOD civilian employees. Certain provisions address annual authorizations of military personnel end-strengths, others affect existing program authorities, and some are novel personnel and healthcare programs. The legislative process for these two bills culminated on January 1, 2021, when the FY2021 NDAA became P.L. [Public Law] 116-283 after Congress voted to override a Presidential veto."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ott, Alan; Kamarck, Kristy N.; Kapp, Lawrence . . .

  2021-06-04
• Food Insecurity Among College Students: Background and Policy Options [June 9, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "Food insecurity--the condition of having inadequate food due to a lack of resources--affected roughly 1 in 10 Americans in 2019, and this number increased during the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic. Among college students nationwide, the prevalence of food insecurity is unknown; however, studies have shown that food insecurity is a problem for some college students, particularly those attending two-year schools and those from lower-income households. [...] This report summarizes research on the extent and effects of food insecurity among college students and recent efforts by students, institutions, and governments to reduce food insecurity among this population. It also presents a selection of possible federal policy options to help inform proposals that seek to address food insecurity among college students should Congress continue to consider this topic. These options include ways to target food-insecure college students within existing federal student aid programs, SNAP [Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program], and programs that support food donations to campus pantries, as well as the creation of new programs to provide food aid to students."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Billings, Kara Clifford; Fountain, Joselynn H.; Aussenberg, Randy Alison . . .

  2021-06-09
• Department of Veterans Affairs: Burial Benefits and the National Cemetery Administration [June 7, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "The Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA) within Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides eligible veterans and their next of kin monetary and non-monetary burial benefits upon the veterans' deaths. Servicemembers and veterans have received non-monetary burial benefits since the Civil War and monetary burial benefits since World War I. Eligible veterans and active-duty servicemembers eligible for burial benefits can be interred in VA national cemeteries and can receive government-furnished headstones or markers, and in their honor, next of kin can receive presidential memorial certificates and burial flags. Spouses, minor children, and, under certain conditions, unmarried adult children may also be buried in national cemeteries. A deceased veteran interred in a private cemetery may be eligible for a medallion that can be affixed to a privately purchased headstone. Monetary burial benefits are partial reimbursements that an eligible veteran's next of kin can receive for burial and funeral costs. The amount of the reimbursement depends on the manner of the veteran's death: whether it was service-connected or was non-service-connected or occurred in a VA facility. The National Cemetery Administration (NCA) is responsible for maintaining VA national cemeteries and for providing grants to states or federally recognized tribal governments for establishing, expanding, or improving state, tribal, or territorial veterans cemeteries. [...] This report provides a description of both VA's monetary and non-monetary burial benefits and NCA's national cemeteries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Salazar, Heather M.; Breslauer, Tamar B.

  2021-06-07
• Djibouti [Updated June 3, 2021]

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  From the Document: "The small, arid East African country of Djibouti is strategically located along one of the world's busiest shipping routes on the Bab el Mandeb Strait, which serves as the gateway from the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Djibouti has become a hub for foreign militaries. It is home to U.S. Africa Command's Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA), based at Camp Lemonnier, the only enduring U.S. military installation in Africa. A former French colony, Djibouti also hosts a sizable French military presence and provides facilities for multinational antipiracy operations off Somalia's coast. [...] With almost no arable land, few natural resources, and little industry, Djibouti's economy depends heavily on its services sector and trade through its busy international port complex. Rents and related revenue from foreign militaries are an important source of revenue (reportedly over $125 million annually). The country is pursuing an ambitious agenda to become a commercial trade hub for the broader region. Neighboring Ethiopia, a landlocked country of over 100 million people, relies on Djibouti for the transit of 90% of its formal trade, recently facilitated by a new Chinese-built rail line between the two countries. China's growing engagement with Djibouti is multifaceted, ranging from major investments in infrastructure to China's establishment of a geostrategic naval base there. China, which holds a majority of Djibouti's external sovereign debt, considers the country as part of its Belt and Road Initiative, which aims to connect countries to Chinese global trade routes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Blanchard, Lauren Ploch; Collins, Sarah R.

  2021-06-03
• Energy and Water Development Appropriations for Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation: In Brief [Updated June 10, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "The Department of Energy's (DOE's) nonproliferation and national security programs provide technical capabilities to support U.S. efforts to 'prevent, counter, respond' to the proliferation of nuclear weapons worldwide, including by both states and non-state actors. These programs are administered by the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), a semiautonomous agency established within DOE in 2000. NNSA is responsible for maintaining the U.S. nuclear weapons stockpile, providing nuclear fuel to the Navy, nuclear and radiological emergency response, and nuclear nonproliferation activities. NNSA's Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation is funded under the Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation (DNN) account. This report addresses the programs in the DNN account, appropriated by the Energy and Water appropriations bill. The FY2022 request for DNN appropriations was $2.26 billion. The proposal included unobligated prior year balances. The reduction continues an earlier trend to reduce prior-year carryover balances. According to the budget justification, the increase of $4 million, or 0.2%, from the FY2021-enacted level includes increases in Nonproliferation and Arms Control and DNN R&D [research and development] programs, offset by the completion of Material Management and Minimization and Global Material Security."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham

  2021-06-10
• Formal Removal Proceedings: An Introduction [Updated June 9, 2021]

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  From the Document: "The Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause confers substantive and procedural protections to all persons within the United States, including non-U.S. nationals (aliens, as described in statute) whom the federal government seeks to remove. Once an alien has 'passed through our gates, even illegally,' the Supreme Court has declared, the alien 'may be expelled only after proceedings conforming to traditional standards of fairness encompassed in due process of law.' 'Shaughnessy v. Mezei', 345 U.S. 206 (1953). Against this backdrop, the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) and implementing regulations provide a framework for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to seek the removal of aliens from the United States. Aliens targeted for removal in the interior of the United States are typically placed in proceedings under INA § 240. These 'formal' removal proceedings afford more robust procedural protections than the expedited removal process under INA § 235, which applies to aliens apprehended at or near the border who lack entry documents or have attempted to enter the country surreptitiously."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Smith, Hillel R.

  2021-06-09
• EB-5 Immigrant Investor Regional Center Program [June 8, 2021]

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  From the Document: "The EB-5 Regional Center Program (RCP) allows foreign national investors to qualify for lawful permanent resident (LPR) status in exchange for foreign capital investment and job creation in specified geographic areas in the United States. The RCP is part of the EB-5 (fifth employment-based preference category) Immigrant Investor Program, established by Congress in 1990. [...] Since 2015, the RCP has been re-authorized on short-term bases of less than one year. Those reauthorizations typically had been included in consolidated appropriations bills. Most recently, P.L. [Public Law] 116-260, enacted in December 2020, extended the program through June 30, 2021. If Congress seeks to reauthorize the RCP prior to its June 30, 2021, sunset date, it would apparently do so separately from the annual appropriations process. A lapse in funding would likely put a pause on application processing for RCP investors and on regional center designations. [...] Since their establishment, EB-5 and the RCP have been subject to controversy. Some Members of Congress have expressed concerns over instances of fraud and abuse in the RCP and the EB-5 program--some have sought to reform the program, and others to eliminate it. The RCP has been scrutinized for TEA [targeted employment area] investments funding projects, such as luxury real estate, in affluent urban areas. The previously mentioned 2019 federal regulation implemented changes that addressed some concerns, including changes to the TEA designation process intended to avoid gerrymandering. In recent years, bipartisan measures have been introduced that would pair RCP extensions with reforms to address fraud and security concerns."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Straut-Eppsteiner, Holly

  2021-06-08
• Iraq War? Current Situation and Issues for Congress Update [Updated February 5, 2003]

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  On November 8, 2002, the United Nations Security Council, acting at U.S. urging, adopted Resolution 1441, giving Iraq a final opportunity to "comply with its the disarmament obligations" or "face serious consequences." During January 2003, the U.S. military buildup in the Persian Gulf continued, amid reports that U.S. forces would be ready to launch a war by mid-February or early March. President Bush, other top U.S. officials, and British Prime Minister Tony Blair have indicated that Iraq has little time left to offer full cooperation with U.N. weapons inspectors. However, the inspectors themselves, with leaders of France, Germany, and other countries, are urging that the inspections process be allowed more time. The Administration asserts that Iraq is in defiance of 17 Security Council resolutions requiring that it fully declare and eliminate its weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Skeptics, including many foreign critics, maintain that the Administration is exaggerating the Iraqi threat. In October 2002, Congress authorized the President to use the armed forces of the United States to defend U.S. national security against the threat posed by Iraq and to enforce all relevant U.N. resolutions regarding Iraq.Analysts and officials are concerned about instability and ethnic fragmentation in Iraq after any war. U.S. planners are reportedly planning for an occupation of the country that could last 18 months or longer. Whether the overthrow of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein leads to democratization in Iraq and the wider Middle East, or promotes instability and an intensification of anti-U.S. attitudes, is an issue in debate. The extent to which an Iraqi conflict would create a substantial humanitarian crisis, including refugee flows and civilian deaths, will likely depend on the length of the conflict and whether it involves fighting in urban areas. Constitutional issues concerning a possible war with Iraq were largely resolved by the enactment of P.L. 107-243, the October authorization. International legal issues remain, however, with respect to launching a pre-emptive war against Iraq if there is no new Security Council resolution authorizing such a war.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Copson, Raymond W.

  2003-02-05
• U.S.-India Security Relations [November 22, 2002]

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  From the Document: "This report discusses the reasons behind the U.S.-India relationship, how the United States benefits from this new relationship, and the potential problems that may emerge, both as a result of India's domestic constraints as well as its perceived foreign policy objectives. In the past two years, the United States and India have moved away from the misperceptions of the Cold War that prevented a strong relationship between the world's strongest democracy and its largest one. Instead, there has been an emphasis on common security interests that are both short term as well as those encompassing future concerns. These interests include joint operations and patrolling, transfers of weapons technologies to ensure interoperability, sharing information on and countering international terrorism, and India playing a role in multilateral peacekeeping and peace enforcement efforts. Ethnic tensions and conflicts with Pakistan over Kashmir have also forced the Indian government to divert resources from international issues to the maintenance of internal security. At the external level, doubts remain in India about the value of a full-fledged security relationship with the United States because it would mean moving away from the country's traditional policy of non-alignment. From the United States' perspective, U.S. relations with India need to be balanced by relations with Pakistan, the needs of the war on terror, and China's behavior."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gupta, Amit Kumar

  2002-11-22
• U.S. Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology Program (US-VISIT) [Updated February 18, 2004]

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  From the Summary: "Congress first mandated that the former Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) implement an automated entry and exit data system that would track the arrival and departure of every alien. The objective was, in part, to develop a mechanism that would be able to track nonimmigrants who overstayed their visas as part of a broader emphasis on immigration control. Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks there was a shift in priority for implementing the system. While the tracking of nonimmigrants who overstayed their visas remained an important goal, border security has become the paramount concern. Following the terrorist attacks, provisions in the USA PATRIOT Act and the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Reform Act of 2002 encouraged a more expeditious development of the system and directed that biometric identifiers be used in passports, visas and other travel documents. The Border Security Act requires all U.S. ports of entry to have equipment and software installed that will allow biometric comparison and the authentication of all visas and other travel and entry documents by October 26, 2004. Moreover, implementing the requirements of an automated entry and exit data system is not without controversy. The automated entry and exit data system was administratively renamed the United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (US-VISIT) Program by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). It is reportedly going to be implemented in phases over the next several years and include resources and services from a number of federal, state, local, and foreign entities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seghetti, Lisa M.; Viña, Stephen R.

  2004-02-18
• Current Economic Recession: How Long, How Deep, and How Different From the Past? [Updated January 10, 2002]

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  From the Summary: "In March 2001, the 10th recession of the post-World War II period began. Of these 10 recessions, only two have been long and deep- the recession of 1973-1975 and the recession of 1981-1982. This report examines the current recession and recessions of the previous three decades in detail. It gives a brief overview of the other post-war recessions. It outlines the fiscal and monetary policy response to each recession. It also looks at theories of why recessions occur. The report concludes by asking the question that many commentators in the news have asked recently: is this recession different from the past? It finds little evidence that this is the case."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Labonte, Marc; Makinen, Gail E.

  2002-01-10
• Australia: Background and U.S. Relations [Updated August 4, 2003]

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  The Commonwealth of Australia and the United States are close allies under the ANZUS treaty. Australia evoked the treaty to offer assistance to the United States after the attacks of September 11, 2001, in which 22 Australians were among the dead. Australia was one of the first countries to commit troops to United States military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. On October 12, 2002, a terrorist attack on Western tourists in Bali, Indonesia, killed over 200 including 89 Australians and seven Americans. Although Australia has extensive ties with its neighbors in Asia, it is seeking to strengthen its already close ties to the United States. Since November 14, 2002, the United States and Australia have been negotiating a bilateral Free Trade Agreement. Australia has led peace-keeping efforts in the Asia-Pacific region including East Timor and most recently in the Solomon Islands. This report will be updated as warranted.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lum, Thomas G. (Thomas Gong), 1961-; Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

  2003-08-04
• Omnibus Energy Legislation (H.R. 6): Side-by-side Comparison of Non-tax Provisions [August 13, 2003]

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  Continuing a legislative effort that began in the 107th Congress, the House and Senate in the first session of the 108th passed two distinct versions of an omnibus energy bill (H.R. 6), which would be the first comprehensive energy legislation in more than 10 years. Although Republicans are in the majority in both chambers, the conference on H.R. 6 will be complicated by deep divisions within the Senate on energy policy. Facing numerous amendments and limited floor time, the Senate set aside the energy bill it had been considering in the 108th Congress (S. 14) and passed the text of last year's Senate energy bill (H.R. 4). The House version of H.R. 6, which passed April 11, 2003, includes a key component of the Bush Administration's energy strategy: opening the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) to oil and gas exploration and development The Senate version, approved July 31, 2003, leaves ANWR off-limits to drilling. The electricity provisions of H.R. 6 would continue to change the regulatory requirements for the wholesale electric market. In general, with some differences, both the House and Senate versions would repeal the Public Utility Holding Company Act (PUHCA) and give the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and state utility commissions access to utility books and records. Both would also repeal the mandatory purchase requirement of the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) when a competitive electric market exists. Automobile and light truck fuel efficiency was the subject of considerable debate in both houses. Several other controversial environmental provisions are contained only in the Senate-passed bill, particularly programs to address global climate change and renewable energy requirements for electricity providers.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Holt, Mark; Glover, Carol F.

  2003-08-13
• Supplemental Appropriations for FY2000: Plan Colombia, Kosovo, Foreign Debt Relief, Home Energy Assistance, and Other Initiatives [Updated July 5, 2000]

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  From the Summary: "Early in each new session of Congress, the Administration routinely submits requests for supplemental appropriations for the current fiscal year. By late April 2000, through several submissions to Congress, President Clinton had requested $5 billion in FY2000 supplemental appropriations, including $955 million for a counternarcotics initiative in Colombia and the Andean region, about $2 billion for DOD peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, $600 million for diplomatic support and economic aid related to Kosovo and the Balkans, $210 million for poor country debt relief, $600 million for home energy assistance to low income American families affected by high home heating oil prices and weather emergencies, and $426 million for domestic disaster relief that mostly involves ongoing post-1999 hurricane cleanup efforts. The Administration designated nearly all as emergency requirements for FY2000, thereby eliminating the need to reduce existing appropriations to offset the costs of additional spending. The White House proposed a limited number of offsets, rescissions, transfers, and delays in funding obligations totaling about $750 million."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Daggett, Stephen; Nowels, Larry Q.; Tarnoff, Curt

  2000-07-05
• Illicit Drugs and the Terrorist Threat: Causal Links and Implications for Domestic Drug Control Policy [April 5, 2004]

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  The international traffic in illicit drugs contributes to terrorist risk through at least five mechanisms: supplying cash, creating chaos and instability, supporting corruption, providing "cover" and sustaining common infrastructures for illicit activity, and competing for law enforcement and intelligence attention. Of these, cash and chaos are likely to be the two most important. Different drugs, different trafficking routes, and different organizations have different relationships to terrorist threats. Therefore it might be possible to improve domestic security by targeting drug law enforcement on those drugs, routes, and organizations with the strongest known or potential links to terror. However, doing so would require new analytic capacities and decision-making strategies for all the agencies involved in drug law enforcement and there is no assurance that the policies that best implement the mission of protecting Americans from drug abuse will also perform best in protecting the country from terrorism. Any terrorist threats exacerbated by the illicit drug markets might be reduced by shrinking the markets themselves, both in physical volume and financial revenue. Reducing demand for illicit drugs can also shrink the markets. The total number of users is much less important in determining drug volumes and revenues than the behavior of a relatively small number of chronic, high-dose drug-takers. Acting to reduce the population of hard-core user-offenders, through treatment, drug courts, or testing-and-sanctions programs, may offer a better prospect for reducing the size of the drug markets, thus potentially reducing the contribution of drug trafficking to the terrorist threat.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kleiman, Mark A.R.

  2004-04-05
• Broadband Internet Access and the Digital Divide: Federal Assistance Programs [Updated January 17, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "The 'digital divide' is a term that has been used to characterize a gap between 'information haves and have-nots,' or in other words, between those Americans who use or have access to telecommunications technologies (e.g., telephones, computers, the Internet) and those who do not. One important subset of the digital divide debate concerns high-speed Internet access, also known as broadband. Broadband is provided by a series of technologies (e.g. cable, telephone wire, satellite, wireless) that give users the ability to send and receive data at volumes and speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. Broadband technologies are currently being deployed by the private sector throughout the United States. While the numbers of new broadband subscribers continue to grow, studies conducted by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the Department of Commerce (DOC), and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) suggest that the rate of broadband deployment in urban and high income areas may be outpacing deployment in rural and low-income areas. Some policymakers, believing that disparities in broadband access across American society could have adverse economic and social consequences on those left behind, assert that the federal government should play a more active role to avoid a 'digital divide' in broadband access. One approach is for the federal government to provide financial assistance to support broadband deployment in underserved areas. Others, however, believe that federal assistance for broadband deployment is not appropriate. Some opponents question the reality of the 'digital divide,' and argue that federal intervention in the broadband marketplace would be premature and, in some cases, counterproductive. Legislation introduced into the 107th Congress sought to provide federal financial assistance for broadband deployment in the form of grants, loans, subsidies, and tax credits. Similar legislation is likely to be introduced into the 108th Congress. In assessing this legislation, several policy issues arise. For example, is the current status of broadband deployment data an adequate basis on which to base policy decisions? Given the early stages of broadband deployment, is federal assistance premature, or do the risks of delaying assistance to underserved areas outweigh the benefits of avoiding federal intervention in the marketplace? And finally, if one assumes that governmental action is necessary to spur broadband deployment in underserved areas, which specific approaches, either separately or in combination, are likely to be most effective?"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kruger, Lennard G.

  2003-01-17
• Food Safety Issues in the 107th Congress [Updated November 7, 2001]

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  From the Summary: "The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that each year in the United States 76 million people get sick, 325,000 are hospitalized, and 5,000 die from food-related illnesses. Food-borne illness is a serious public health problem. Often, people do not seek medical help and their illness is not officially reported. Yet consumers have become aware of the serious consequences of illnesses linked to a growing variety of foods, produced domestically or imported. Consumers want the government to regulate the food supply, and industry is interested in producing foods that are safe at a reasonable price. As a result there is congressional interest in oversight and legislation in this area. Several federal agencies, along with cooperating agencies in the states, are responsible for assuring the safety, wholesomeness, and proper labeling of all foods for human consumption in the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Vogt, Donna U.

  2001-11-07
• Mining on Federal Lands [Updated October 3, 2003]

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  The General Mining Law of 1872 is one of the major statutes that direct the federal government's land management policy. The law grants free access to individuals and corporations to prospect for minerals in public domain lands, and allows them, upon making a discovery, to stake (or "locate") a claim on that deposit. A claim gives the holder the right to develop the minerals and may be "patented" to convey full title to the claimant. A continuing issue is whether this law should be reformed, and if so, how to balance mineral development with competing land uses. The right to enter the public domain and freely prospect for and develop minerals is the feature of the claim-patent system that draws the most vigorous support from the mining industry. Critics consider the claim-patent system a giveaway of publicly owned resources because of the small amounts paid to maintain a claim and to obtain a patent. In addition to the general issue of whether to reform the General Mining Law, two issues also have been controversial. One involves mining millsites. At issue is whether the General Mining Law limits claimants to one millsite of no more than five acres per mining claim, or whether multiple millsites are allowed. A second issue involves the Clinton Administration's revisions to the regulations governing hardrock mining operations on federal lands (43 CFR 3809), which took effect January 20, 2001. The revised regulations authorized BLM to deny mining operations if they would result in "substantial irreparable harm" to significant resources that cannot be mitigated, and made mining operators more responsible for reclaiming mined land.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Humphries, Marc

  2003-10-03
• Global Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol [Updated January 15, 2003]

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  From the Summary: "Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations to specified, legally binding reductions in emissions of six 'greenhouse gases.' The United States signed the Protocol on November 12, 1998. This treaty would commit the United States to a target of reducing greenhouse gases by 7% below 1990 levels during a 'commitment period' between 2008-2012. Because of the fact that 'sinks,' which remove and store carbon from the atmosphere, are counted and because of other provisions discussed in this report, the actual reduction of emissions within the United States required to meet the target is estimated to be lower than 7%. The Clinton Administration did not submit the protocol to the Senate for advice and consent, acknowledging that one condition outlined by S.Res. 98, passed in mid-1997-meaningful participation by developing countries in binding commitments limiting greenhouse gases-had not been met. However, in late March, the Bush Administration indicated its rejection of the Kyoto Protocol and announced a cabinet-level review of climate policy. This initiated a high-level but unsuccessful effort by the European nations to re-engage the United States in the Kyoto process. When the COP-6 meeting resumed in July 2001, the United States remained on the sidelines, following the Bush Administration's decision not to engage in negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol. To the surprise of many, negotiators at this meeting reached agreement on most of the outstanding political issues, with compromises allowing significant credit for carbon sinks, and at the following COP-7 meeting in Marrakech, Morocco, in October- November, 2001, most remaining operational decisions were completed. As of January 3, 2003, the UNFCCC Secretariat reported that 102 nations have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, representing 43.9% of the emissions of developed countries with obligations outlined in the Protocol. In order to enter into force, the Protocol must be ratified by nations representing 55% of these emissions. In February, 2002, President Bush announced a U.S. policy for climate change that will rely on domestic, voluntary actions to reduce the 'greenhouse gas intensity' (ratio of emissions to economic output) of the U.S. economy by 18% over the next 10 years."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Fletcher, Susan R.

  2003-01-15
• Crime Victims' Rights Act: A Summary and Legal Analysis of 18 U.S.C. § 3771 [Updated June 8, 2021]

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  From the Summary: "Section 3771 of Title 18 of the 'United States Code' is a statutory bill of rights for the victims of crimes committed in violation of federal law or the laws of the District of Columbia. It defines a victim as anyone directly and proximately harmed by such an offense, individuals and legal entities alike. It does not appear to otherwise include family members of a deceased, child, or incapacitated victim except in a representative capacity. Numbered among the rights it conveys are: (1) the right to be reasonably protected from the accused; (2) the right to notification of public court and parole proceedings and of any release of the accused; (3) the right not to be excluded from public court proceedings under most circumstances; (4) the right to be heard in public court proceedings relating to bail, the acceptance of a plea bargain, sentencing, or parole; (5) the right to confer with the prosecutor; (6) the right to restitution under the law; (7) the right to proceedings free from unwarranted delays; (8) the right to be treated fairly and with respect to one's dignity and privacy; (9) the right to be informed in a timely manner of any plea bargain or deferred prosecution agreement; and (10) the right to be informed of the statutory rights and services to which one is entitled. The section directs the federal courts and law enforcement officials to see to it that the rights it creates are honored. Both victims and prosecutors may assert the rights and seek review from the appellate courts should the rights be initially denied."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Doyle, Charles

  2021-06-08