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Iraqi Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons: A Deepening Humanitarian Crisis? [October 3, 2007]
"The humanitarian crisis many feared would take place in March 2003 as a result of the war in Iraq continues to unfold as a result of post-war insurgency and sectarian violence. It is estimated that in total (including those displaced prior to the war) there may be as many as 2 million Iraqi refugees who have fled to Jordan, Syria, and other neighboring states, and approximately 2.2 million Iraqis who have been displaced within Iraq itself. The violence and insecurity resulting from the ongoing sectarian strife, terrorism, and insurgency in Iraq has had a marked impact on civilian displacement in different parts of the country. Many of Iraq's neighbors fear that they are being overwhelmed by refugees fleeing over Iraq's borders. There are now heightened concerns about the absorptive capacity of neighboring countries, whether they can provide adequately for the populations moving across borders, and the impact of refugee flows on stability in general. Some experts think that the Iraq situation could well begin to outpace other refugee crises worldwide. This report provides an analysis of the current crisis, including the conditions for those displaced in Iraq and the refugee situations in Syria, Jordan, and elsewhere. It also provides information on the U.S. and international response and examines refugee resettlement options in the United States. Aspects of this crisis that may be of particular interest to the 110th Congress include a focus on an immediate response (providing humanitarian relief funding), examining resettlement policies, and developing a strategy to manage the displaced, particularly within Iraq."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Margesson, Rhoda; Bruno, Andorra
2007-10-03
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Iraq's Debt Relief: Procedure and Potential Implications for International Debt Relief [Updated October 10, 2007]
"Following the ouster of the Saddam Hussein regime in spring 2003, Iraq's external debt was estimated to be $125 billion. Reducing this debt to a sustainable level has been a priority of the U.S. government. Since 2003, debt relief negotiations have taken place in a variety of fora and led to the cancellation of a significant amount of Iraq's external debt. Iraq's external debt comprised four components: Paris Club bilateral debt […], non-Paris Club bilateral debt[…], commercial debt[…] and multilateral debt[…]. Debt relief negotiations first led to an 80% reduction of the Paris Club debt. […] A provision of the Paris Club agreement is that Iraq cannot accept a debt cancellation agreement with other creditors on less favorable terms than those reached with the Paris Club. Thus, Iraq is expected to receive no more than an 80% cancellation from all of its creditors. Negotiations with non-Paris Club creditors are ongoing, and resolution of the commercial debt is largely complete. The negotiations and process of providing debt relief to Iraq may shed some light on the approaches bilateral and corporate creditors take toward providing international debt relief to middle-income countries who would not be eligible for the debt relief already provided to the poorest countries. In light of Iraq's experience, three new precedents appear to have taken shape: (1) a willingness by the international community to grant a stay on the enforcement of creditor rights to collect unpaid sovereign debt; (2) an increased flexibility in Paris Club debt relief decisions; and (3) an unwillingness by successor regimes to claim that their debt is odious and repudiate it. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Weiss, Martin A.
2007-10-10
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Public-Private Partnership Options for Managing Wireless Networks [June 25, 2007]
"For the last decade, the primary method by which the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has assigned access to radio spectrum is through the auctioning of licenses for specific frequencies in designated geographical areas. Subsequently, with the recognition by capital markets that a spectrum license is a valuable asset, and with the relaxation of rules regarding ownership, sale, and trading of licenses, radio spectrum licenses have been increasingly treated like other financial holdings. […] A number of these debates have been addressed in the form of hearings held by the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation and the House Committee on Energy and Commerce. Recent hearings have sought testimony regarding the upcoming auction of licenses for radio spectrum at 700 MHz being vacated by television broadcasters as part of the transition from analog to digital technologies. Preparation for this auction has prompted a policy debate about a governance structure that would permit public sector entities -- in this case first responders and other emergency workers -- to share spectrum rights and network capacity with commercial interests. The FCC has received numerous proposals for setting up a governance model; this report discusses three: creating an entity to build a shared network on new spectrum at 700 MHz; building a shared network on spectrum already allocated to public safety users; and combining spectrum licensed for public safety with a commercial license for a shared, nationwide network."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moore, L. K. S. (Linda K. S.)
2007-06-25
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NAFTA Superhighway: Background [August 1, 2007]
"Many constituents have written or called congressional offices to express concern about the creation of a 'NAFTA Superhighway' that would connect Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Ostensibly, the highway would run from Laredo, Texas to the Canadian border north of Duluth, Minnesota, along the route of already existing Interstate 35 (I-35). Numerous articles, blogs, and web sites have suggested that a NAFTA Superhighway would impinge on U.S. sovereignty and lead to a North American Union similar to the European Union.1 A Mexico to Canada 'Super Corridor' has been promoted by various groups interested in promoting increased trade with Mexico, Canada, and the Far East. Private groups exist to promote nearly all the major north-south corridors in the United States, such as the I-5 Corridor, Camino Real corridor, the Ports-to-Plains corridor, among others. One such organization is the North America's SuperCorridor Coalition Inc. (NASCO), whose members include cities, counties, states, provinces and private sector representatives along the I-35 Corridor in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. NASCO also has Mexican and 2 Canadian public and private sector members. […] However, NASCO maintains that, 'in actual fact, there are no plans to build 'a new NAFTA Superhighway.' It already exists today as I-35 and branches.'4 Although NASCO may be supportive of the Trans-Texas Corridor, the corridor is to be independent of I-35 and is part of a larger Texas DOT plan to connect all of Texas (east-west as well as north-south) with toll corridors. Outside of Texas nothing similar has progressed 5 beyond the informal discussion stage. Only the Trans-Texas proposal would result in a corridor that would meet the description of a 'huge NAFTA super highway, four footballfields-wide.' "
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Harrison, Glennon J.
2007-08-01
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Defense: FY2008 Authorization and Appropriations [Updated September 28, 2007]
"The annual consideration of appropriations bills (regular, continuing, and supplemental) by Congress is part of a complex set of budget processes that also encompasses the consideration of budget resolutions, revenue and debt-limit legislation, other spending measures, and reconciliation bills. In addition, the operation of programs and the spending of appropriated funds are subject to constraints established in authorizing statutes. Congressional action on the budget for a fiscal year usually begins following the submission of the President's budget at the beginning of each annual session of Congress. Congressional practices governing the consideration of appropriations and other budgetary measures are rooted in the Constitution, the standing rules of the House and Senate, and statutes, such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. This report is a guide to one of the regular appropriations bills that Congress considers each year. It is designed to supplement the information provided by the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees on Defense. For both defense authorization and appropriations, this report summarizes the status of the bills, their scope, major issues, funding levels, and related congressional activity. This report is updated as events warrant and lists the key CRS staff relevant to the issues covered as well as related CRS products."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belasco, Amy; Daggett, Stephen; Towell, Pat
2007-09-28
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Congress's Contempt Power: Law, History, Practice, and Procedure [Updated September 17, 2007]
"Congress's contempt power is the means by which Congress responds to certain acts that in its view obstruct the legislative process. Contempt may be used either to coerce compliance (inherent contempt), punish the contemnor (criminal contempt), and/or to remove the obstruction (civil contempt). Although arguably any action that directly obstructs the effort of Congress to exercise its constitutional powers may constitute a contempt, in the last seventy years the contempt power (primarily through the criminal contempt process) has generally been employed only in instances of refusals of witnesses to appear before committees, to respond to questions, or to produce documents. This report examines the source of the contempt power, reviews the historical development of the early case law, outlines the statutory and common law basis for Congress's contempt power, and analyzes the procedures associated with each of the three different types of contempt proceedings. In addition, the report discusses limitations both non-constitutional and constitutionally based on the power."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Tatelman, Todd; Rosenberg, Morton, 1935-
2007-09-17
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Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security [Updated September 21, 2007]
"Operation Iraqi Freedom overthrew Saddam Hussein's regime, but much of Iraq remains violent because of Sunni Arab resentment and a related insurgency, compounded by Sunni-Shiite sectarian violence and increased violent competition among Shiite groups as well. Mounting U.S. casualties and financial costs -- without clear movement toward national political reconciliation among Iraq's major communities -- have intensified a debate within the United States over whether to reduce U.S. involvement without completely accomplishing initial U.S. goals. […] Some in Congress -- as well as the Iraq Study Group -- believe that the United States should begin winding down U.S. combat involvement in Iraq. However, in the face of the Administration's insistence on pursuing the 'New Way Forward' strategy that the Administration says is starting to show results, there has not been the needed level of support in Congress to mandate a troop withdrawal, a timetable for withdrawal, or a significant change in U.S. strategy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2007-09-21
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China-U.S. Relations: Current Issues and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated October 1, 2007]
"U.S.-China relations have been remarkably smooth since late 2001, although there are signs that U.S. China policy now is subject to competing reassessments. State Department officials in 2005 unveiled what they said was a new framework for the relationship-with the United States willing to work cooperatively with a nondemocratic China while encouraging Beijing to become a 'responsible stakeholder' in the global system. U.S. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson in December 2006 established a U.S.-China Strategic Economic Dialogue with Beijing, the most senior regular dialogue yet held with China. But other U.S. policymakers have adopted tougher stances on issues involving China and U.S.-China relations, concerned about the impact of the PRC's strong economic growth and a more assertive PRC diplomacy in the international arena. Another matter of growing concern is China's increasing global 'reach' and the consequences that expanding PRC international influence has for U.S. interests. To feed its appetite for resources, China has been steadily signing trade agreements, oil and gas contracts, scientific cooperation agreements, and multilateral security arrangements with countries around the world, some of which are key U.S. allies. Taiwan, which China considers a 'renegade province,' remains the most sensitive issue the two countries face and the one many observers fear could lead to Sino-U.S. conflict."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dumbaugh, Kerry
2007-10-01
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North Korean Refugees in China and Human Rights Issues: International Response and U.S. Policy Options [September 26, 2007]
"This report examines both the situation of North Korean refugees in China and human rights issues because they are frequently raised simultaneously, particularly in a congressional context. Although the issues surrounding those North Koreans seeking to leave their country and the situation for those who remain inside its borders pose different questions and may call for separate responses, both also focus on the regime in Pyongyang. Critics of the North Korean government have raised both issues together to put pressure on the regime, particularly when nuclear weapons program negotiations stalled, Some advocates decry the practice of linking refugee and human rights issues, claiming that former calls for a quieter, cooperative approach, while the latter requires a more outspoken response to the North Korean government's practices. Although some policy experts insist the United States has a moral imperative to stand up for he oppressed, others say that this creates obstacles in the nuclear disarmament negotiations. In 2007, the Bush administration entered into bilateral talks with North Korea and linked the prospect of diplomatic relations and Pyongyang's re-entry into the international community with only the nuclear issue, leaving out human rights and refugee concerns."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Margesson, Rhoda; Bruno, Andorra; Chanlett-Avery, Emma
2007-09-26
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German Foreign and Security Policy [October 3, 2007]
"German Chancellor Angela Merkel took office in November 2005 promising a foreign policy anchored in a revitalized transatlantic partnership. Most observers agree that since reaching a low-point in the lead-up to the Iraq war in 2003, relations between the United States and Germany have improved. With recent leadership changes in the United Kingdom and France, and a fragile coalition government in Italy, U.S. officials view Germany under Chancellor Merkel as a key U.S. ally in Europe. Despite continuing areas of divergence, President Bush and many Members of Congress have welcomed German leadership in Europe and have voiced expectations for increased U.S.-German cooperation on the international stage. German unification in 1990 and the end of the Cold War represented monumental shifts in the geopolitical realities that had traditionally defined German foreign policy. Germany was once again Europe's largest country, and the Soviet threat, which had served to unite West Germany with its pro-western neighbors and the United States, was no longer. Since the early 1990s, German leaders have been challenged to exercise a foreign policy grounded in a long-standing commitment to multilateralism and an aversion to military force while simultaneously seeking to assume the more proactive global role many argue is necessary to confront emerging security threats. Until 1994, Germany was constitutionally barred from deploying its armed forces abroad. Today, over 7,000 German troops are deployed in peacekeeping, stabilization, and reconstruction missions worldwide. As Germany's foreign and security policy continues to evolve, some experts perceive a widening gap between the global ambitions of Germany's political class, and an increasingly skeptical German public."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belkin, Paul
2007-10-03
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U.S. Trade Policy and the Caribbean: From Trade Preferences to Free Trade Agreements [Updated June 6, 2007]
From the Summary: "For over 40 years, the United States has relied on unilateral trade preferences to promote export-led development in poor countries. Congressionally authorized trade preferences give market access to selected developing country goods, duty-free or at tariffs below normal rates, without requiring reciprocal trade concessions. The Caribbean Basin has benefitted from multiple preferential trade arrangements, the best known being those linked to the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) begun in the mid-1980s. Since then, the growing number of reciprocal U.S. free trade agreements (FTAs) in the region have effectively replaced preferential trade arrangements, signaling a shift in U.S. trade policy and raising questions with respect to the future of those mostly smaller countries still relying on trade preferences. This report discusses the evolution of U.S. trade policy toward the Caribbean, focusing on the implications of moving from unilateral tariff preferences to reciprocal FTAs. The U.S. Congress has approved multiple trade preference programs over the past three decades (production sharing, GSP [Generalized System of Preferences], CBERA [Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act], CBI II [Caribbean Basin Economic Expansion Act of 1990], CBTPA [Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act], and HOPE [Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement] Act of 2006). Each one amended trade rules and tariff preferences in ways designed to increase imports from CBI countries. Trade grew and many of the goals for development were supported. Evaluations of the benefits, however, suggested that they may not have been as robust as originally expected. Benefits tended to be concentrated in a few countries and products, often skirting industries with the greatest potential to stimulate exports. Also, the benefits of preferences are being eroded by multilateral trade liberalization and recently implemented FTAs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.); Ewing, Walter A.
2007-06-06
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Programs Funded by the H-1B Visa Education and Training Fee, and Labor Market Conditions for Information Technology (IT) Workers [Updated October 5, 2007]
"Congress has repeatedly turned to immigration as a means of immediately alleviating a perceived shortage of U.S. workers with information technology (IT) skills. It temporarily raised the ceiling on newly approved H-1B professional specialty visas in 1998 and in 2000, from the level of 65,000 set by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1990. The H-1B visa cap was allowed to revert to 65,000 in October 2003. Because the cap was reached before the start of fiscal years 2006 to 2008, employers have been urging Congress to give them greater access to foreign professionals through various changes to the H-1B program. At the same time, supporters of IT workers have asserted that their jobs and those of IT-enabled workers are now being threatened not only by temporarily importing foreign-born professional specialty workers but also by offshoring. When the 105th Congress raised the H-1B visa ceiling, it also initiated what was intended as a longer term strategy to remedy the seeming mismatch between the qualifications of U.S. workers and the skill requirements of U.S. employers: the imposition of a user fee on employers that seek to utilize nonimmigrant professionals to fund programs that prepare U.S. students and workers for computer-related and other high-skilled fields (e.g., biotechnology). The fee, like the higher visa cap, expired in October 2003. But, in P.L. 108-447, Congress permanently reauthorized a larger education and training user fee, effective December 2004."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Levine, Linda (Linda H.); Naughton, Blake Alan
2007-10-05
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FY2008 National Defense Authorization Act: Selected Military Personnel Policy Issues [Updated September 17, 2007]
"Military personnel issues typically generate significant interest from many Members of Congress and their staffs. Ongoing military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan in support of what the Bush Administration terms the Global War on Terror, along with the emerging operational role of the Reserve Components, further heightened interest and support for a wide range of military personnel policies and issues. CRS selected a number of issues considered by Congress as it considers the FY2008 National Defense Authorization Act. In each case, a brief synopsis is provided that includes background information, a comparison of the House-passed provisions and the provisions reported by the Senate Armed Services Committee, if any, and a brief discussion of the issue. Where appropriate, other CRS products are identified to provide more detailed background information and analysis of the issue. For each issue, a CRS analyst is identified and contact information is provided. Note: some issues were addressed in last year's National Defense Authorization Act and discussed in CRS Report RL33571, The FY2007 National Defense Authorization Act: Selected Military Personnel Policy Issues, concerning that legislation. Those issues that were previously considered in CRS Report RL33571 are designated with a '*' in the relevant section titles of this report. This report focuses exclusively on the annual defense authorization process. It does not include appropriations, veterans' affairs, tax implications of policy choices or any discussion of separately introduced legislation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.; Burrelli, David F., 1958-; Henning, Charles A.
2007-09-17
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Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard (RPS): Background and Debate Over a National Requirement [Updated September 6, 2007]
"Under a renewable energy portfolio standard (RPS), retail electricity suppliers (electric utilities) must provide a minimum amount of electricity from renewable energy resources or purchase tradable credits that represent an equivalent amount of renewable energy production. The minimum requirement is often set as a percentage share of retail electricity sales. More than 20 states have established an RPS, with most targets ranging from 10% to 20% and most target deadlines ranging from 2010 to 2025. Most states have established tradable credits as a way to lower costs and facilitate compliance. State RPS action has provided an experience base for the design of a possible national requirement. RPS proponents contend that a national system of tradable credits would enable retail suppliers in states with fewer resources to comply at the least cost by purchasing credits from organizations in states with a surplus of low-cost production. Opponents counter that regional differences in availability, amount, and types of renewable energy resources would make a federal RPS unfair and costly. In Senate floor action on H.R. 6 in the 110th Congress, S.Amdt. 1537 proposed a 15% RPS target. The proposal triggered a lively debate, but was ultimately ruled non-germane. In that debate, opponents argued that a national RPS would disadvantage certain regions of the country, particularly the Southeastern states. They contended that the South lacks a sufficient amount of renewable energy resources to meet a 15% renewables requirement. They further concluded that an RPS would cause retail electricity prices to rise for many consumers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sissine, Fred J.
2007-09-06
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Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad, 1798-2007 [Updated September 12, 2007]
"This report lists hundreds of instances in which the United States has used its armed forces abroad in situations of military conflict or potential conflict or for other than normal peacetime purposes. It was compiled in part from various older lists and is intended primarily to provide a rough survey of past U.S. military ventures abroad, without reference to the magnitude of the given instance noted. The listing often contains references, especially from 1980 forward, to continuing military deployments especially U.S. military participation in multinational operations associated with NATO or the United Nations. Most of these post-1980 instances are summaries based on Presidential reports to Congress related to the War Powers Resolution. A comprehensive commentary regarding any of the instances listed is not undertaken here. […] The majority of the instances listed prior to World War II were brief Marine or Navy actions to protect U.S. citizens or promote U.S. interests. A number were actions against pirates or bandits. Covert actions, disaster relief, and routine alliance stationing and training exercises are not included here, nor are the Civil and Revolutionary Wars and the continual use of U.S. military units in the exploration, settlement, and pacification of the Western part of the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Richard F.
2007-09-12
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Private Immigration Legislation [August 9, 2005]
"Private immigration bills warrant careful consideration with regard to precedent since they are a special form of relief allowing the circumvention of the public laws concerning immigration and nationality in uniquely meritorious cases. This report will give an overview of the congressional subcommittee procedure and precedents concerning private immigration bills. This report will not cover parliamentary procedural issues for private bills, which are covered by CRS Report 98-628, Private Bills: Procedure in the House, by Richard S. Beth. Congressional authority over immigration is not explicit in the U.S. Constitution, but generally is considered to derive from several constitutional clauses. The U.S. Supreme Court has noted that, 'The Constitution grants Congress the power to establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization.' Art. I., § 8, cl. 4. Drawing upon this power, upon its plenary authority with respect to foreign relations and international commerce, and upon the inherent power of a sovereign to close its borders, Congress has developed a complex scheme governing admission to our Nation and status within our borders.' Further, the Fourteenth Amendment defines citizens as 'all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof.' Amend. XIV, § 1, cl. 1. Although some legal scholars have argued that the phrase 'uniform Rule of Naturalization' precludes Congress from enacting legislation granting relief to a specific individual, the courts have interpreted the phrase as simply requiring geographic uniformity throughout the States, meaning that Congress cannot enact legislation applying different rules to different States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lee, Margaret Mikyung
2005-08-09
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Immigration: Policy Considerations Related to Guest Worker Programs [Updated May 31, 2005]
"At present, the United States has two main programs for temporarily importing low-skilled workers, sometimes referred to as guest workers. Agricultural guest workers enter through the H-2A visa program and other guest workers enter through the H-2B visa program. Employers interested in importing workers under either program must first apply to the U.S. Labor Department for a certification that U.S. workers capable of performing the work are not available and that the employment of alien workers will not adversely affect the wages and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers. Other requirements of the programs differ. The 109th Congress has enacted language as part the FY2005 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 109-13) to revise the H-2B program. Other bills before the 109th Congress propose to make changes to the H-2A program (S. 359/H.R. 884) and the H-2B program (S. 278), and to establish new temporary worker visas (S. 1033/H.R. 2330). S. 359/H.R. 884 and S. 1033/H.R. 2330 also would establish mechanisms for certain foreign workers to become U.S. legal permanent residents (LPRs). Other guest worker legislation is expected to be introduced later in this Congress. Various guest worker measures were introduced in the 108th Congress, but they saw no action beyond committee referrals. President George W. Bush proposed a new expanded guest worker program in January 2004 when he announced his principles for immigration reform. The President featured his proposal in his 2004 and 2005 State of the Union addresses."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bruno, Andorra
2005-05-31
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PEPFAR: From Emergency to Sustainability [September 28, 2007]
"The Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimates that HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), and malaria kill more than 6 million people each year. At the end of 2006, about 39.5 million people were living with HIV/AIDS, 2.3 million (6%) of whom were children under 15 years. Nearly 90% of all children infected with HIV are African. […] In January 2003, President George Bush proposed that the United States spend $15 billion over five years to combat the three diseases and established the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). The President proposed concentrating most of the resources ($9 billion) in 15 Focus Countries, where the Administration estimated 50% of all HIV-positive people lived. The proposal allotted $5 billion of the funds to research and other bilateral HIV/AIDS, TB, and malaria programs, and $1 billion for contributions to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (Global Fund). The President estimated that from FY2004 to FY2008, PEPFAR would support the provision of anti-retroviral treatment (ARV) to 2 million HIV-infected people; prevent 7 million new HIV infections; and care for 10 million people affected by HIV/AIDS, including children orphaned by AIDS. […] On May 30, 2007, President Bush requested that Congress authorize $30 billion to extend PEPFAR an additional five years. The President anticipates that from FY2009 to FY2013, the plan would support treatment for 2.5 million people, prevent more than 12 million new infections, and care for more than 12 million people, including 5 million orphans and vulnerable children."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji
2007-09-28
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Immigration Issues in Trade Agreements [Updated July 11, 2005]
"The connections between trade and migration are as longstanding as the historic movements of goods and people. The desire for commerce may often be the principal motivation, but the need to send people to facilitate the transactions soon follows. Recognition of this phenomenon is incorporated into the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), which includes provisions for aliens who are entering the United States solely as 'treaty traders' and 'treaty investors.' Although the United States has not created a common market for the movement of labor with our trading partners, there are immigration provisions in existing free trade agreements (FTAs) that spell out reciprocal terms regulating the 'temporary entry of business persons.' Immigration issues often raised in the context of the FTAs include whether FTAs should contain provisions that expressly expand immigration between the countries as well as whether FTAs should require that the immigrant-sending countries restrain unwanted migration (typically expressed as illegal aliens). The question of whether the movement of people-especially temporary workers-is subsumed under the broader category of 'provision of services' and thus an inherent part of any free trade agreement also arises. Even in FTAs that do not have explicit immigration provisions, such as the United States-Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), there is a debate over the effects that FTAs may have on future migration. There are a variety of approaches to study the impact of trade agreements on migration, and this report draws on several different perspectives."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Wasem, Ruth Ellen
2005-07-11
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FDA's Authority to Recall Products [September 11, 2007]
"Over the past few months, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has fielded increasing numbers of questions regarding recalls of unsafe food imports, including pet food and toothpaste. Additionally, several domestic food products, from peanut butter contaminated with Salmonella to spinach linked to E. coli 0157:H7 to canned meat products such as chili sauce spoiled by Clostridium botulinum (botulism), have been voluntarily recalled by businesses in the last year. Recalls may decrease consumer confidence in the recalling company, food imports, or food safety agencies such as the FDA; products later subject to a recall may have sickened or killed people or pets. While the FDA only has the authority to order recalls of infant formula, medical devices, and human tissue products, the agency may request that a company recall other products, such as food, drugs, and cosmetics. This report provides an overview of the FDA's statutory authority with regard to the three types of products that it can recall, as well as FDA regulations for designating the particular class of recall, publicizing and monitoring the effectiveness of recalls, and carrying out recalls. Additionally, this report reviews the recall provisions in legislation proposed in the 110th Congress, which would give the FDA authority to require recalls of additional products. The 110th Congress has shown significant interest in the issue of food safety and several bills would grant the FDA the ability to order recalls of food products. The Senate approved, by a vote of 94-0, Senator Durbin's amendment to the FDA Revitalization Act (S. 1082), which would provide the FDA with greater recall and notification authority."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Burrows, Vanessa K.
2007-09-11
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China-U.S. Relations: Current Issues and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated September 21, 2007]
"U.S.-China relations have been remarkably smooth since late 2001, although there are signs that U.S. China policy now is subject to competing reassessments. State Department officials in 2005 unveiled what they said was a new framework for the relationship-with the United States willing to work cooperatively with a nondemocratic China while encouraging Beijing to become a 'responsible stakeholder' in the global system. U.S. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson in December 2006 established a U.S.-China Strategic Economic Dialogue with Beijing, the most senior regular dialogue yet held with China. But other U.S. policymakers have adopted tougher stances on issues involving China and U.S.-China relations, concerned about the impact of the PRC's strong economic growth and a more assertive PRC diplomacy in the international arena. Another matter of growing concern is China's increasing global 'reach' and the consequences that expanding PRC international influence has for U.S. interests. To feed its appetite for resources, China has been steadily signing trade agreements, oil and gas contracts, scientific cooperation agreements, and multilateral security arrangements with countries around the world, some of which are key U.S. allies. Taiwan, which China considers a 'renegade province,' remains the most sensitive issue the two countries face and the one many observers fear could lead to Sino-U.S. conflict."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dumbaugh, Kerry
2007-09-21
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Coast Guard Deepwater Program: Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress [Updated October 10, 2007]
"The Integrated Deepwater Systems (IDS) program, or Deepwater program for short, is a $24-billion, 25-year project to replace and modernize the Coast Guard's aging fleet of deepwater-capable ships and aircraft. It is the largest and most complex acquisition effort in Coast Guard history, encompassing 91 new cutters, 124 new small surface craft, and 244 new or converted airplanes, helicopters, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The Deepwater program has received a total of about $4.4 billion through FY2007, including about $1.14 billion in FY2007. For FY2008, the Coast Guard requested $836.9 million in new appropriations and the rescission of $48.8 million in prior-year appropriations for the program, for a net total request of $788.1 million. The management and execution of the Deepwater program has been strongly criticized in recent months by the Department of Homeland Security Inspector General (DHS IG), the Government Accountability Office (GAO), the Defense Acquisition University (DAU), several Members of Congress from committees and subcommittees that oversee the Coast Guard, and other observers. The Coast Guard in 2007 has announced a number of actions intended to reform its management and execution of the Deepwater program and Coast Guard acquisition in general. House and Senate committees and subcommittees have conducted several oversight hearings this year devoted partly or entirely to problems and concerns regarding the management and execution of the program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2007-10-10
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Palestinian Territories: Background and U.S. Relations [October 12, 2007]
"This report provides an overview of Palestinian society and current issues in U.S.-Palestinian relations. It contains a brief historical review of modern Palestine, an overview of Palestinian society and politics, and a look at the Palestinians' relations with the international community. U.S. policy toward the Palestinians since the advent of the Oslo process in the early 1990s has been marked by efforts to establish a Palestinian state through a negotiated two-state solution with Israel, counter Palestinian terrorist groups, and establish norms of democracy, accountability, and good governance within the Palestinian Authority (PA). President Bush made these goals explicit in his June 24, 2002 Rose Garden speech. Congressional views of the issue have reflected concern that U.S. bilateral assistance not fall into the hands of Palestinian rejectionists who advocate terrorism and violence against Israelis and, at times, against Americans. Congress also has expressed concern that U.S. funds for Palestinian refugees channeled through the United Nations have been mismanaged or found their way into the wrong hands. Among the current issues in U.S.-Palestinian relations is how to deal with the political leadership of Palestinian society, which is divided between Fatah and its rival, Hamas, a State Department designated Foreign Terrorist Organization. Following Hamas's victory in the 2006 legislative election and the formation of a Hamas-led PA cabinet, the United States halted aid to the PA, but continued humanitarian aid along with efforts to bolster Fatah leader and PA President Mahmoud Abbas."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morro, Paul
2007-10-12
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Army's Future Combat System (FCS): Background and Issues for Congress [Updated October 11, 2007]
"The Future Combat System (FCS) is the U.S. Army's multiyear, multibilliondollar [sic] program at the heart of the Army's transformation efforts. It is to be the Army's major research, development, and acquisition program consisting of 18 manned and unmanned systems tied together by an extensive communications and information network. FCS is intended to replace such current systems as the M-1 Abrams tank and the M-2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicle with advanced, networked combat systems. The FCS program has been characterized by the Army and others as a high-risk venture due to the advanced technologies involved as well as the challenge of networking all of the FCS subsystems together so that FCS equipped units can function as intended. The FCS program exists in a dynamic national security environment which could significantly influence the program's outcome. The Administration has committed the United States to 'the Long War,' a struggle that could last for decades as the United States and its allies attempt to locate and destroy terrorist networks worldwide. Some question if FCS, envisioned and designed prior to September 11, 2001 to combat conventional land forces, is relevant in this 'Long War.' The FCS program has achieved a number of programmatic milestones and is transitioning from a purely conceptual program to one where prototypes of many of the 18 FCS systems are under development. With a variety of estimates on the total cost of the FCS program, questions have been raised about FCS affordability, and the Army cites anticipated budgetary constraints for the recent restructuring of the program from 18 to 14 systems."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2007-10-11
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Foreign Investment in U.S. Securities [Updated October 19, 2007]
"Foreign capital inflows are playing an important role in the U.S. economy by bridging the gap between domestic supplies of and demand for capital. Foreign investors now hold more than 50% of the publicly held and traded U.S. Treasury securities. The large foreign accumulation of U.S. securities has spurred some observers to argue that this large foreign presence in U.S. financial markets increases the risk of a financial crisis, whether as a result of the uncoordinated actions of market participants or by a coordinated withdrawal from U.S. financial markets by foreign investors for economic or political reasons. Congress likely would find itself embroiled in any such financial crisis through its direct role in conducting fiscal policy and in its indirect role in the conduct of monetary policy through its supervisory responsibility over the Federal Reserve. Such a coordinated withdrawal seems highly unlikely, particularly since the vast majority of the investors are private entities that presumably would find it difficult to coordinate a withdrawal. It is uncertain, though, what types of events could provoke a coordinated withdrawal from U.S. securities markets. Short of a financial crisis, events that cause foreign investors to curtail or limit their purchases of U.S. securities likely would complicate efforts to finance budget deficits in the current environment […]. This report analyzes the extent of foreign portfolio investment in the U.S. economy and assesses the economic conditions that are attracting such investment and the impact such investments are having on the economy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jackson, James K., 1949-
2007-10-19
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Climate Change Legislation in the 110th Congress [Updated October 4, 2007]
"Congressional interest in climate change legislation has grown in recent years. In the 110th Congress, Members have introduced multiple bills that directly address various aspects of climate change. These bills cover a wide spectrum, ranging from climate change research to comprehensive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions cap-and-trade programs. Additional bills focus on GHG reporting or registration, or on power plant emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) as part of wider controls on pollutant emissions. Within several broad categories, the bills vary in their approaches to climate change issues. For example, some bills covering research issues focus solely on modeling the effects of future climate change, whereas others address the development of monitoring systems. Bills focusing on technology deployment do so through tax incentives and credit-based programs within the United States or by promoting technology deployment in developing countries. Bills that include GHG registries are designed either as a part of a larger reduction bill or as a method for establishing a baseline for some future reduction program. Bills with mandatory emission reductions differ by the entities covered, the gases limited, and the emission targets required. This report briefly discusses the basic concepts on which these bills are based, and compares major provisions of the bills in each of the following categories: climate change research; emissions reduction technologies; U.S. actions pursuant to international emission reduction agreements; adaptation to the effects of climate change; GHG reporting and registration; and GHG emissions reduction programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Yacobucci, Brent D.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2007-10-04
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Defense Authorization and Appropriations Bills: FY1970-FY2007 [Update October 18, 2007]
"The passage of the Department of Defense (DOD) authorization and appropriations bills through Congress often does not follow the course laid out in textbooks on legislative procedure. Tracking DOD authorization or appropriation bills can often be confusing and time-consuming; this has been particularly true in recent years, when continuing resolutions (CRs) containing the DOD and other appropriation bills have been passed in lieu of the 12 regular appropriations bills for the entire U.S. government. This report is a research aid, which lists the DOD authorization bills (Table 1) and appropriations bills (Table 2) for FY1970-FY2007. This report includes all the pertinent information on the passage of these bills through the legislative process: bill numbers, report numbers, dates reported and passed, recorded vote numbers and vote tallies, dates of passage of the conference reports with their numbers and votes, vetoes, substitutions, dates of final passage, and public law numbers. Table 3 shows real growth or decline in national defense funding for FY1940-FY2009. Table 4 gives a more detailed picture of both regular and supplemental defense appropriations from the 103rd Congress to the 109th Congress, first session (FY1993-FY2005). Table 5 shows the President's DOD appropriations budget requests for FY1950-FY2005 vs. final amount enacted. Finally, key definitions are included. This report will be updated as legislative activity warrants."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Coipuram, Tom
2007-10-18
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Homeland Security: Evolving Roles and Missions for United States Northern Command [Updated January 22, 2007]
From the Summary: "In 2002, the Department of Defense (DOD) established United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM). Four years later, the organization continues to mature and adapt to evolving national homeland security policy. Current issue areas for Congress include DOD reorganization, formalizing interagency processes and an increasing reliance on Reserve Component forces. This report will be updated as events dictate."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bowman, Steve; Crowhurst, James
2007-01-22
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Addressing Lead in Drinking Water: The Lead and Copper Rule Revisions (LCRR) [Updated June 22, 2021]
From the Summary: "Lead's adverse health effects--especially for children, even at low levels of exposure--have driven continuing efforts to reduce lead exposure through drinking water. Primarily, lead enters drinking water after leaving the treatment plant, when lead may leach into water from plumbing materials or pipes. Accordingly, controlling corrosion of plumbing and pipes has been the principal method used to keep lead from entering public water supplies. Congress has used several approaches under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) to limit lead in drinking water. These approaches include limiting the lead content of plumbing materials and fixtures; establishing public notification and education requirements; authorizing the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to regulate contaminants in public water supplies; and authorizing grant programs for lead reduction projects, testing for lead in water at schools and child care programs, and removing lead-lined drinking water coolers from schools. Using SDWA authorities, EPA developed the 1991 Lead and Copper Rule (LCR). The LCR is unlike most drinking water regulations. It does not include a health-based standard (i.e., maximum contaminant level [MCL]); rather, the rule established a treatment technique and 'action' levels."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humphreys, Elena H.
2021-06-22
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Resources for Tracking Federal COVID-19 Spending [Updated June 22, 2021]
From the Summary: "Congress has responded to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic with supplemental appropriations measures providing relief and assistance to individuals and families, state and local governments, businesses, health care providers, and other entities. [...] This report provides selected sources for tracking COVID-19 relief and assistance spending. It contains links to and information on government sources detailing spending amounts at various levels, including consolidated spending by multiple government agencies,spending by individual government agencies, and spending for specific recipients and geographies. The sources themselves are large government databases, individual agencies, oversight entities, and selected nongovernmental entities that attempt to repackage information on spending amounts obtained from available government sources. Due to the continually evolving nature of information provided by sources that track federal COVID-19 spending, this report may be updated frequently. Data currency varies among sources."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Teefy, Jennifer; Kreiser, Maria
2021-06-22
