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Palestinians and Middle East Peace: Issues for the United States [Updated April 9, 2002]
"The United States began contacts with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in December 1988, after the PLO accepted Israel's right to exist, accepted U.N. Resolutions 242 and 338 that call for an exchange of land for peace, and renounced terrorism. The United States continues its contacts with the PLO and the Palestinian Authority elected in January 1996, and is an active broker in the continuing Middle East peace process. […] On May 4, 1994, Israel and the PLO signed an agreement providing for the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza and Jericho (withdrawal completed May 11, 1994). The Interim Agreement signed on September 28, 1995 (also called Oslo II or the Taba Agreement), provided for elections for the 88-seat Palestinian Assembly, the release of Israeli-held prisoners, Israeli withdrawal from six West Bank cities, and other issues. The Israelis withdrew from the West Bank cities by the end of 1995, and the Palestinian Assembly was elected on January 20, 1996, and sworn in on March 7, 1996. Israel and the Palestinians agreed to an Israeli withdrawal from Hebron in January 1997, and on October 23, 1998 signed the Wye agreement to meet previous commitments. The peace talks stalled at Camp David in July 2000, and remain suspended since the Palestinian uprising began in September. Some 600 Palestinians and 150 Israelis have died in the continuing confrontation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2002-04-09
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Afghanistan's Path to Reconstruction: Obstacles, Challenges, and Issues for Congress [April 8, 2002]
"For the past 22 years, Afghanistan has been embroiled in conflict. Humanitarian assistance programs have been a key part of the overall multilateral effort to relieve human suffering and assist refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). In the post-September 11 environment, while actions are being taken to eliminate Taliban and Al Qaeda forces and others supporting terrorism, the needs have only become more urgent. The case of Afghanistan may present a special category of crisis, in which the United States and others play a significant role in the war on terrorism while simultaneously providing humanitarian and reconstruction assistance to the innocent civilians caught in the crossfire. Moreover, the conditions in Afghanistan represent a challenging mix of infrastructure destruction, ongoing security concerns, and humanitarian needs requiring an immediate response. So far, the international community has recognized that large amounts of aid and resources will be required in the reconstruction effort. In addition, a long-term commitment will be necessary to ensure a stable, democratic Afghanistan emerges and will not fall prey to the twin evils of drugs and terrorism. As the Afghan phase of the war is concluded, transitional and reconstruction assistance will move ahead. It is anticipated that Congress will examine the early progress of reconstruction efforts, aid priorities, and the long-term role to be played by the United States. It will likely also look at the contributions by and responsibilities of key allies partnering in the efforts within Afghanistan. The current operating environment reveals some of the key challenges that lie ahead such as security issues, population movements, food security, environment and infrastructure, health, and education."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Margesson, Rhoda
2002-04-08
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Possible Impacts of Major Counter Terrorism Security Actions on Research, Development, and Higher Education [April 8, 2002]
"The Congress, the executive branch, and scientific and technical communities have adopted and are considering research and development (R&D) and education-related security measures to counteract terrorism. [...] The National Academy of Sciences, the American Chemical Society, the American Psychological Association, and other professional groups have offered to assist the government and are monitoring opportunities for their members to compete for federal awards for counter terrorism R&D and related activities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Knezo, Genevieve Johanna
2002-04-08
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Trade and the Americas [Updated April 8, 2002]
"The Summit of the Americas, held in December 1994, led to ongoing congressional interest in three inter-related trade policy issues. The first involves an invitation extended to Chile to join NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement]. The second focuses on preferential tariff treatment for Caribbean and Central American countries. The third concerns movement towards a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), the concept of making the entire hemisphere a free-trade zone. Two other issues that subsequently have emerged involve a request by the Andean countries to extend and expand the Andean Trade Preferences Act (ATPA), and consideration of a free trade agreement with five Central American countries. Following the Miami Summit, the U.S., Canada, and Mexico invited Chile to enter into negotiations to accede to NAFTA. Envisioned as a first step towards creation of an FTAA, preliminary negotiations started in July 1995. Chile, however, shortly thereafter suspended the negotiations pending renewal of U.S. 'fast-track' negotiating authority. In August 1999, Chile proposed to re-start discussions on a bilateral free trade agreement and negotiations eventually commenced December 6-7, 2000 in Washington. The Bush Administration has continued the negotiations with the hope of reaching an agreement sometime in 2002. A second issue concerns the treatment of the Caribbean and Central American countries that may have been hurt in trade and investment terms as a result of the implementation of NAFTA."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ahearn, Raymond J.
2002-04-08
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Egypt-United States Relations [April 5, 2002]
"U.S.-Egyptian relations are tied to maintaining regional stability, improving bilateral relations focused on Egyptian economic development and military cooperation, developing Egypt's democracy, sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, and continuing U.S. foreign assistance to Egypt. Experience gained from Egyptian-U.S. joint military exercises proved valuable in easing coordination during the February 1991 Desert Storm operation reversing Iraqi aggression against Kuwait. Egypt is a leader and moderating influence among many Arab, African, Islamic, and Third World states. Among the current issues in U.S.-Egyptian relations are the shared concerns over the terrorist attacks against Egyptian police, religious, government, and tourist facilities, and what those attacks maysignal for Egypt's domestic stability. The two nations may disagree over Egypt's interpretation of applying human rights practices to Islamic terrorists. The two countries disagree over the speed and depth, but not the need for some of Egypt's economic reforms. Egypt and the United States agree on the importance of the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, the need to continue current Arab-Israel peace talks, and the need for regional stability. The two nations agree on Egypt's determination to introduce democratic reforms to Egypt. The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of over $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. The United States will reduce Economic Support Funds (ESF) to about $400 million per year by 2008 in keeping with a plan to reduce aid to Israel. The Administration requested $655 million in economic grants and $1.3 billion in military grants for FY2002 for Egypt."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2002-04-05
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Israeli-United States Relations [April 5, 2002]
"Israeli-U.S. relations are an important factor in U.S. policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship. The main vehicle for expressing support for Israel has been foreign aid; Israel currently receives about $3 billion per year in economic and military grants, refugee settlement assistance, and other aid. Congress has monitored the aid issue closely along with other issues in bilateral relations, and its concerns have affected Administration's policies. U.S.-Israeli relations have evolved from an initial American policy of sympathy and support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in 1948 to an unusual partnership that links a small but militarily powerful Israel, dependent on the United States for its economic and military strength, with the U.S. superpower trying to balance competing interests in the region. Some in the United States question the levels of aid and general commitment to Israel, and argue that a U.S. bias toward Israel operates at the expense of improved U.S. relations with various Arab states. Others maintain that democratic Israel is a strategic ally, and that U.S. relations with Israel strengthens the U.S. presence in the Middle East. The United States fully supported the Israeli-PLO [Palestine Liberation Organization] Declaration of Principles signed in Washington on September 13, 1993, and the follow-up agreements in May 1994, September 1995, the Hebron agreement of January 15, 1997, and the Wye agreement of October 23, 1998, mediated by President Clinton. See also CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB85066, 'Israel: U.S. Foreign Assistance'; CRS Issue Brief IB91137, 'The Middle East Peace Talks'; CRS Report RS20339, 'Jerusalem: The U.S. Embassy and P.L. 104-45'; and CRS Report RS20001, 'Jonathan Pollard: Background and Consideration for Presidential Clemency.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2002-04-05
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Why Certain Trade Agreements Are Approved as Congressional-Executive Agreements Rather Than as Treaties [Updated April 5, 2002]
"Trade agreements such as the NAFTA [North American Free Trade Agreement] and the GATT [General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade] Uruguay Round agreements have been approved by majority vote of each House of Congress rather than by two-thirds vote of the Senate -- that is, they have been treated as congressional-executive agreements rather than as treaties. The congressional-executive agreement has been the vehicle for implementing Congress' long-standing policy of seeking trade benefits for the United States through reciprocal trade negotiations. In a succession of statutes, Congress has authorized the President to negotiate and enter into tariff and nontariff barrier (NTB) agreements for limited periods, while mandating that NTB and free trade area agreements negotiated under this authority could enter into force for the United States only if approved by both Houses in a bill enacted into public law and other statutory conditions were met. The President is currently seeking trade agreement authority utilizing this approval procedure: H.R. 3005, which contains such authority, passed the House December 6, 2001; an amended version of the bill was reported by the Senate Finance Committee February 28, 2002. In February 2001, a U.S. circuit court dismissed an appeal challenging the constitutionality of the NAFTA because it was not entered into as a treaty, the court ruling that the issue was a nonjusticiable political question (Made in the USA Foundation v. United States, 242 F.3d 1300 (11th Cir. 2001)); the U.S. Supreme Court has since denied review in the case."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Grimmett, Jeanne J.
2002-04-05
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North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Program [Updated April 5, 2002]
"North Korea's nuclear weapons program became an immediate foreign policy issue facing the United States because of North Korea's refusal to carry out its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other nuclear accords it had signed. North Korea has constructed nuclear reactors and a plutonium reprocessing plant at a site called Yongbyon. U.S. and other foreign intelligence assessments have concluded that North Korea probably has acquired enough weapons-grade plutonium for the manufacture of at least one nuclear weapon. The United States and North Korea signed an agreement on October 21, 1994, that offers North Korea a package of benefits in return for a freeze of North Korea's nuclear program. Benefits to North Korea include: light water nuclear reactors totaling 2,000 electric megawatts; shipments of 'heavy oil' to North Korea (50,000 tons in 1995 and 500,000 tons annually beginning in 1996 until the first light water reactor is built). The pace of implementation of the Agreed Framework has been very slow. Instead of the original target date of 2003, it generally is estimated that completion of the light water reactors will not take place until well beyond 2010. The United States has faced several policy problems since the signing of the Agreed Framework, including securing money annually to finance heavy oil shipments to North Korea (the cost of the oil has risen from about $30 million in 1995 to over $100 million), suspicions of clandestine North Korean nuclear activities, and North Korea's development of long range missiles."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Niksch, Larry A.
2002-04-05
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Middle East Peace Talks [Updated April 5, 2002]
"Since the founding of Israel, Arab-Israeli conflict marked every decade until the 1990s. With each clash, issues separating the parties multiplied and became more intractable. The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 provided a home for the Jewish people, but the ensuing conflict made refugees of thousands of Arab residents of the formerly British Palestine, with consequences troubling for Arabs and Israelis alike. The 1967 war ended with Israel occupying territory of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Egypt and Syria fought the 1973 war, in part, to regain their lands. In 1982, Israel invaded southern Lebanon to prevent terrorist incursions; it withdrew in 1985, retaining control of a 9-mile 'security zone' over which Lebanon seeks to reclaim. Middle East peace has been a U.S. and international diplomatic goal throughout the years of conflict. The 1978 Camp David talks, the only previous direct Arab-Israeli negotiations, brought about the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2002-04-05
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Presidential Advisers' Testimony Before Congressional Committees: A Brief Overview [April 5, 2002]
"Since the beginning of the federal government, Presidents have called upon executive branch officials to provide them with advice regarding matters of policy and administration. While Cabinet members were among the first to play such a role, the creation of the Executive Office of the President (EOP) in 1939 and the various agencies located within that structure resulted in a large increase the number and variety of presidential advisers. All senior staff members of the White House Office and the leaders of the various EOP agencies and instrumentalities could be said to serve as advisers to the President. Occasionally, these executive branch officials playing a presidential advisory role have been called upon to testify before congressional committees and subcommittees. Sometimes, such invited appearances have been prompted by allegations of personal misconduct on the part of the official, but they have also included instances when accountability for policymaking and administrative or managerial actions have instigated the request for testimony. Because such appearances before congressional committees or subcommittees seemingly could result in demands for advice proffered to the President, or the disclosure--inadvertent or otherwise--of such advice, there has been resistance, from time to time, by the Chief Executive to allowing such testimony. Congress has a constitutionally rooted right of access to the information it needs to perform its Article I legislative and oversight functions. Generally, a congressional committee with jurisdiction over the subject matter, which is conducting an authorized investigation for legislative or oversight purposes, has a right to information held by the executive branch in the absence of either a valid claim of constitutional privilege by the executive or a statutory provision whereby Congress has limited its constitutional right to information."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Relyea, Harold; Shampansky, Jay R.
2002-04-05
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Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues [Updated April 4, 2002]
"U.S.-Syrian relations, frequently strained by longstanding disagreements over regional and international policy, have warmed somewhat as a result of several developments: the collapse of the Soviet Union, Syria's participation in the allied coalition against Iraq in 1990-91, and Syrian agreement to participate in Arab-Israeli peace talks. This thaw in bilateral relations led some Members of Congress to inquire whether U.S. Administrations had made any private commitments to Syria, such as an undertaking to relax economic sanctions, in return for Syrian support on regional issues. Several legislative proposals have sought to condition relaxation of aid and trade restrictions on further changes in Syrian policy. Recent U.S. Administrations, though not inclined to lift sanctions on Syria at this time, tend to believe it is in U.S. interests to encourage Syria to play a positive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process. The issue for U.S. policy makers is the degree to which the United States should work for better relations with Syria in an effort to enlist Syrian cooperation on regional issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.
2002-04-04
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Science and Technology Policy: Issues For the 107th Congress, Second Session [April 3, 2002]
"Science and technology have a pervasive influence over a wide range of issues confronting the nation. Decisions on how much federal funding to invest in basic and applied research and in research and development (R&D), and determining what programs have the highest priority, may have implications for homeland security, new high technology industries, government/private sector cooperation in R&D, and myriad other areas. This report provides an overview of key science and technology policy issues pending before Congress, and identifies other CRS reports that treat them in more depth."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2002-04-03
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Korea: U.S.-South Korean Relations - Issues for Congress [Updated April 3, 2002]
"The United States maintains a strong, multifaceted alliance relationship with South Korea that has for decades served vital interests of both sides. Against the background of continuing difficulties in dealing with North Korea and the dramatic consequences of the Asian economic crisis, the two governments face a range of security, economic, and political issues that involve the Congress in its oversight and appropriations capacities, and in frequent exchanges between congressional offices and the South Korean government. Heading the list of issues is how to deal with the North Korean regime. The Bush Administration seeks policy changes from North Korea regarding weapons of mass destruction, conventional forces, and international inspections of its nuclear facilities. The Bush Administration also faces policy decisions on food aid to North Korea, North Korea's inclusion on the U.S. terrorism list, and U.S. responses to South Korea's 'sunshine policy' toward North Korea. President Kim Dae-jung seeks reconciliation with North Korea following the historical North-South summit meeting of June 2000. He has urged the United States to engage North Korea and make concessions to Pyongyang as a support for his policy. The Bush Administration's position on the sunshine policy is mixed, supporting some elements but having reservations about others."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Niksch, Larry A.
2002-04-03
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Iraq: Compliance, Sanctions, and U.S. Policy [Updated April 2, 2002]
"In recent years, the United States has been unable to maintain an international consensus for strict enforcement of all applicable U.N. Security Council resolutions on Iraq, but it has largely succeeded in preventing Iraq from reemerging as an immediate strategic threat to the region. There is U.S. concern about the long-term threat posed by Iraq and, in the wake of the September 11 attacks, the Bush Administration has said it will prevent Iraq from re-emerging as a significant threat to U.S. security. The exact form of that Administration stance has not yet been announced, whether it be through international sanctions and diplomacy, military action, or covert action."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2002-04-02
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China and the World Trade Organization [April 2, 2002]
"China has sought over the past several years to become a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the international agency that administers multilateral trade rules. China's WTO membership (as well as that of Taiwan's) was formally approved at the WTO Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. On December 11, 2001, China officially became a WTO member. WTO membership will require China to significantly liberalize its trade and investment regimes, which could produce significant new commercial opportunities for U.S. businesses. A main concern for Congress is to ensure that China fully complies with its WTO commitments. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morrison, Wayne M.
2002-04-02
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Electronic Commerce: An Introduction [Updated April 1, 2002]
"Electronic commercial transactions over the Internet, or "e-commerce," have grown so fast over the last five years that many experts continue to underestimate its growth and development. Whether retail business-to-customer or business-to-business transactions, e-commerce is now a significant part of commercial transactions. In turn, policymakers both in the United States and abroad are likely to face increasingly complex issues of security, privacy, taxation, infrastructure development and other issues in 2001 and beyond. This report will be updated periodically." -- Summary
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McLoughlin, Glenn J.
2002-04-01
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Nuclear Nonproliferation Issues [April 1, 2002]
"The United States has been a leader of worldwide efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. To this end, the international community and many individual states have agreed to a range of treaties, laws, and agreements, known collectively as the nuclear nonproliferation regime, aimed at keeping nations that do not have nuclear weapons from acquiring them. The nonproliferation regime has also been concerned with preventing terrorists from obtaining a nuclear weapon or the materials to craft one. The attacks on New York and Washington September 11 added a new level of reality to the threat that terrorists might acquire a nuclear weapon and explode it in a populated area. […] The terrorist attacks of September 11 added the suddenly more realistic threat of an even more unimaginable assault with a nuclear explosive. While terrorists have not been ignored in nonproliferation efforts, particularly with regard to Russian nuclear materials, the major focus has been on preventing nation states from developing weapons capabilities. While many features of the nonproliferation regime, such as export controls and monitoring, are applicable to the terrorist threat, some shift in focus may be necessary. Numerous U.S. agencies have programs related to nuclear nonproliferation, but the major activities are carried out by the Departments of State, Defense, and Energy. DOE's [Department of Energy] program is part of the National Nuclear Security Administration, which is responsible for the management of the U.S. nuclear weapons program."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Behrens, Carl E.
2002-04-01
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Terrorism: The New Occupational Hazard [March 29, 2002]
"Most of the direct victims of terrorism in the United States in recent years have been people at work. Employers, who have a legal responsibility to provide workplaces that are as free of 'generally recognized hazards' as feasible, must consider their exposure to this emerging threat. This report describes how workplace safety programs are being reconsidered in this new light."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rappaport, Edward B.
2002-03-29
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Defense Budget for FY2003: Data Summary [March 29, 2002]
This report is designed to be a readily accessible source of facts and figures on the FY2003 defense budget. Part I presents basic data on the national defense budget
request, including figures on budget authority and outlays for the Department of Defense and for the national defense budget function. Part II shows trends in overall
defense spending, including figures on the growth and decline of defense spending, on defense outlays as a share of federal expenditures, on defense outlays as a share
of gross domestic product, and on foreign military spending. Part III defines key defense budget terms.
To illustrate trends in the regular defense program, most of the data included in this report exclude costs of Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm, which was largely financed by allied contributions.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belasco, Amy; Daggett, Stephen
2002-03-29
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Africa: U.S. Foreign Assistance Issues [Updated March 29, 2002]
"The Bush Administration is requesting just over $1 billion in Development Assistance (DA) for sub-Saharan Africa in FY2003, as compared with an estimated $887 million going to the region in FY2002. The request for aid through the Economic Support Fund (ESF), however, has dropped to $77 million from estimated ESF assistance of $100 million in FY2002. […] U.S. assistance finds its way to Africa through a variety of channels, including the USAID-administered DA program, food aid programs, and indirect aid provided through international financial institutions and the United Nations. U.S. assistance through all such channels, though problematic to calculate, will probably total well above $2 billion in FY2002. […] USAID Administrator Andrew Natsios has testified that the Bush Administration is focusing on conflict prevention and resolution, working with NGOs [Non-Governmental Organizations] and faith-based organizations, poverty reduction, agricultural development, and health, including HIV/AIDS. The Clinton Administration pushed African recipients to undertake economic and political reforms, and placed increased emphasis on population and environmental programs. It also launched special Africa-related initiatives, including HIV/AIDS, democracy, and internet initiatives, as well as programs to promote African conflict resolution. Issues that might arise in 2002 include the overall level of funding and U.S. support for the New Partnership for African Development. This African initiative calls for intensified African efforts to eradicate poverty in exchange for debt relief, aid, and investment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Copson, Raymond W.
2002-03-29
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State and Local Preparedness for Terrorism: Policy Issues and Options [Updated March 28, 2002]
"The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have prompted Members of the 107th Congress to consider enhancing state and local response capabilities to better prepare for terrorist attacks, particularly attacks involving weapons of mass destruction. At present, Congress authorizes several programs designed to help state and local responders enhance their preparedness for terrorist attacks. These programs cover a range of activities, including emergency planning; training and equipment; response to chemical and biological attacks; law enforcement; and public health. Since the September attacks, however, emergency managers and analysts have asked Congress to address several issues in federal policy on state and local preparedness."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2002-03-28
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Enron Collapse: An Overview of Financial Issues [Updated March 28, 2002]
"Only months before Enron Corp.'s bankruptcy filing in December 2001, the firm was widely regarded as one of the most innovative, fastest growing, and best managed businesses in the United States. With the swift collapse, shareholders, including thousands of Enron workers who held company stock in their 401(k) retirement accounts, lost tens of billions of dollars. Investigations of wrongdoing may take years to conclude, but Enron's failure already raises financial oversight issues with wider applications. Why didn't the watchdogs bark? This report briefly examines the accounting system that failed to provide a clear picture of the firm's true condition, the independent auditors and board members who were unwilling to challenge Enron's management, the Wall Street stock analysts and bond raters who missed the trouble ahead, the rules governing employer stock in company pension plans, and the unregulated energy derivatives trading that was the core of Enron's business. The report also describes related legislation and will be updated regularly. An indexed list of all Enron-related bills is available on the CRS [Congressional Research Service] website."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shorter, Gary W.; Purcell, Patrick J.; Lyke, Bob . . .
2002-03-28
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Iraq-U.S. Confrontation [Updated March 28, 2002]
"On January 29, 2002, in his State of the Union address, President Bush described Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as constituting 'an axis of evil.' Secretary of State Colin Powell told a Senate committee on February 5 that Iraq 'remains a significant threat to the [Middle East] region's stability.' He added that 'we have not ruled out other options' with respect to Iraq and went on to say that 'we believe strongly in regime change in Iraq.' Speaking of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, President Bush told reporters on March 13, 2002, that 'he is a problem. And we're going to deal with him.' On March 23, Vice President Dick Cheney told reporters that during his just-completed trip to the Middle East, he found regional leaders 'uniformly concerned about the situation in Iraq, in particular about Saddam Hussein's failure to live up to the U.N. Security Council's resolutions.' Meanwhile, in testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee on March 19, Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet said 'the jury's out' regarding any Iraqi involvement in the September 11 attacks but added that 'it would be a mistake to dismiss the possibility of state sponsorship, whether Iranian or Iraqi, and we'll see where the evidence takes us.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.; Katzman, Kenneth
2002-03-28
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Iraq-U.S. Confrontation [Updated June 21, 2002]
"This issue brief covers the most recent U.S.-Iraqi confrontations, which began in the fall of 1998. It summarizes events that led to the crisis, the allied military build-up, military strikes against Iraq, international reactions, costs, and options for U.S. policy makers. It does not cover developments in the war in Afghanistan, except insofar as they may relate to the U.S.-Iraqi confrontation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Prados, Alfred B.; Katzman, Kenneth
2002-03-28
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Middle East: U.S. Foreign Assistance, FY2001, FY2002, and FY2003 Request [March 28, 2002]
"The report describes some aspects of U.S. foreign assistance to the Middle East and includes tables showing U.S. funding of the Wye agreement, and U.S. assistance to the Middle East and North Africa for FY2001, an estimated level for FY2002, the President's request for supplemental assistance for FY 2002, and the President's request for FY2003. Congress may decide if it will retain the cap or ceiling it placed on U.S. assistance to Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, the Palestinians and several multilateral operations, set at $5.1 billion for FY2002, or if it will provide the $5.3 billion for FY2003 requested by the Bush Administration. Also, Congress may reconsider restrictions and conditions on U.S. assistance for the Palestinians. The report will not be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mark, Clyde R.
2002-03-28
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Global Climate Change [Updated March 27, 2002]
"There is concern that human activities are affecting the heat/energy-exchange balance between Earth, the atmosphere, and space, and inducing global climate change, often termed 'global warming.' Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and other trace greenhouse gases. If these gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere at current rates, most scientists believe global warming would occur through intensification of Earth's natural heat-trapping 'greenhouse effect.' Possible impacts might be seen as both positive and negative. A warmer climate would probably have far reaching effects on agriculture and forestry, managed and un-managed ecosystems, including natural habitats, human health, water resources, and sea level depending on climate responses. Although causal relationships between projected long-range global climate trends and record-setting warmth and severe weather events of the past two decades have not been firmly established, attention has been focused on possible extremes of climate change and the need for better understanding of climate processes to improve climate model forecasts. The basic policy question remains: Given scientific uncertainties about the magnitude, timing, rate, and regional consequences of potential climatic change, what are the appropriate responses for U.S. and world decisionmakers? Fossil-fuel combustion is the primary source of CO2 emissions, and also emits other 'greenhouse' gases. Because the U.S. economy is so dependent upon energy, and so much of U.S. energy is derived from fossil fuels, reducing these emissions poses major challenges and controversy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Justus, John R.; Fletcher, Susan R.
2002-03-27
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Free Trade Area of the Americas: Status of Negotiations and Major Policy Issues [Updated March 27, 2002]
"At the second Summit of the Americas in Santiago, Chile (April 1998), 34 Western Hemisphere nations agreed to initiate formal negotiations to create a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) by 2005. The negotiating groups completed a draft agreement in January 2001, which was presented at the third Summit of the Americas held in Quebec City on April 20-22, 2001. President Bush expressed strong support for the FTAA and concrete progress has been made in moving it forward. Yet, differences in priorities among the negotiating countries are still evident, suggesting that the FTAA faces many policy hurdles in both the U.S. Congress and the hemisphere."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)
2002-03-27
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U.S.-European Union Trade Relations: Issues and Policy Challenges [Updated March 27, 2002]
"The United States and European Union (EU) share a huge and mutually beneficial economic partnership. Not only is the U.S.-EU trade and investment relationship the largest in the world, it is arguably the most important. Agreement between the two economic superpowers has been critical to making the world trading system more open and efficient. At the same time, a confluence of old and new trade disputes, entailing U.S. retaliation and EU threats of counter-retaliation have increased trade tensions in recent years. A final ruling issued January 14, 2002 by the World Trade Organization (WTO) against a U.S. export tax benefit figures prominently in current trade disputes, along with the EU's failure to approve pending applications for new biotechnology crops and the imposition of U.S. steel restraints in March. [...] The major U.S.-EU trade and investment policy challenges can be grouped into six categories: (1) avoiding a 'big ticket' trade dispute associated with tax breaks for U.S. exporters; (2) resolving longstanding trade disputes involving protection for domestic producers of airplanes and steel; (3) dealing with different public concerns over new technologies and new industries (4) fostering a receptive climate for mergers and acquisitions; (5) strengthening the multilateral trading system; and (6) reaching understandings on foreign policy sanctions that have a trade impact."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ahearn, Raymond J.
2002-03-27
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Trade Policymaking in the European Union: Institutional Framework [March 27, 2002]
This document describes the institutional framework and associated roles and functions of the European Union (EU), to include trade policy-making processes. "Trade policy in the EU is made in the context of legal provisions provided by the 1957 Treaty of Rome. As part of this treaty, an institutional framework for the making of trade policy-common commercial policy-was established. Despite relatively few changes in the treaty base of the EU's common commercial policy, its institutional framework has evolved over time as the scope of what constitutes trade policy has changed. The roles and functions of key institutions - the European Commission, the Council of Ministers, subordinate bodies of the Council, the European Parliament, and the European Court of Justice - are described in this report. The actual process of how the EU makes trade policy is of growing interest to the United States as the EU continues to play a larger and more assertive role in the world economy. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ahearn, Raymond J.
2002-03-27
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Afghanistan: Current Issues and U.S. Policy Concerns [March 26, 2002]
"U.S. and international officials are hopeful that Afghanistan is emerging from more than 22 years of warfare and instability, although substantial risk to Afghan stability remains. Before the U.S. military campaign against the orthodox Islamist Taliban movement began on October 7, 2001, Afghanistan had been mired in conflict since the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The Taliban ruled most of Afghanistan during 1996 until its collapse at the hands of the U.S. and Afghan opposition military campaign in November - December 2001. During its rule, the Taliban was opposed primarily by the Northern Alliance, a coalition of minority ethnic groups. During 1998 until its rule ended, the Taliban had come under increasing international pressure to cease hosting of terrorist leader Osama bin Laden and members of his Al Qaeda organization, the prime suspect in the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States. The collapse of the Taliban has enabled the United States to send in forces throughout Afghanistan to search for remaining Taliban and Al Qaeda fighters and leaders, including bin Laden himself, although bin Laden and most of the top Taliban leadership remain at large. […] As the war against remaining Al Qaeda and Taliban elements continues, the United States is working to stabilize the interim government, arrange humanitarian and reconstruction assistance, expand a new Afghan national army, and support the international security force (ISAF) that is helping the new government provide security. The United States has reopened its embassy in Kabul and allowed the interim Afghan administration to reopen Afghanistan's embassy in Washington."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth
2002-03-26
