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Unemployment Compensation (UC) and the Unemployment Trust Fund (UTF): Funding UC Benefits [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Summary: "This report provides a summary of how Unemployment Compensation (UC) benefits are funded through the Unemployment Trust Fund (UTF). The UTF in the U.S. Treasury is designated as a trust fund for federal accounting purposes. Although the UTF is a single trust fund, it has 59 accounts: the Employment Security Administration Account (ESAA), the Extended Unemployment Compensation Account (EUCA), the Federal Unemployment Account (FUA), 53 state accounts (including District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands), the Federal Employees Compensation Account (FECA), and two accounts related to the Railroad Retirement Board (RRB)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Whittaker, Julie M.
2020-12-15
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Defense Primer: Information Operations [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "While there is currently no official U.S. government (USG) definition of information warfare (IW), practitioners typically conceptualize it as 'a strategy for the use and management of information to pursue a competitive advantage, including both offensive and defensive operations.' Strategy can be defined as the process of planning to achieve objectives and goals in the national interest. Operations link strategic objectives with tactics, techniques, and procedures. For IW strategy, that link is information operations (IO). Past definitions within the DOD have conceptualized IO as a purely military activity involving a set of tactics or capabilities. In DOD Joint Publication (JP) 3-13 and the IO Roadmap, IO consisted of five pillars: computer network operations (CNO), which include computer network attack, computer network defense, and computer network exploitation; psychological operations (PSYOP); electronic warfare (EW); operations security (OPSEC); and military deception (MILDEC). With the advent of U.S. Cyber Command, CNO became cyberspace operations, offensive and defensive with its own doctrine in JP 3-12. In 2010, PSYOP became military information support operations (MISO), to reflect a broader range of activities and the existing Military Information Support Teams consisting of PSYOP personnel deployed at U.S. embassies overseas. Joint Publication 3-13.2 replaced the term PSYOP with MISO to 'more accurately reflect and convey the nature of planned peacetime or combat operations activities.' The name change reportedly caused administrative confusion, and the services are beginning to revert to the PSYOP label."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Theohary, Catherine A.
2020-12-15
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Defense Primer: Naval Forces [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "Although the term 'naval forces' is often used to refer specifically to Navy forces, it more properly refers to both Navy and Marine Corps forces, because both the Navy and Marine Corps are naval services. For further discussion, see 'Defense Primer: Department of the Navy.' For a discussion of the Marine Corps that focuses on its organization as a ground-combat force, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] In Focus IF10571, Defense Primer: 'Organization of U.S. Ground Forces', by Barbara Salazar Torreon and Andrew Feickert. U.S. naval forces give the United States the ability to convert the world's oceans--a global commons that covers more than two-thirds of the planet's surface--into a medium of maneuver and operations for projecting U.S. power ashore and otherwise defending U.S. interests around the world. The ability to use the world's oceans in this manner--and to deny other countries the use of the world's oceans for taking actions against U.S. interests--constitutes an immense asymmetric advantage for the United States. As discussed elsewhere (see 'Defense Primer: Geography, Strategy, and U.S. Force Design'), the size and composition of U.S. naval forces reflect the position of the United States as a Western Hemisphere power with a goal of preventing the emergence of regional hegemons in Eurasia. As a result, the U.S. Navy includes significant numbers of aircraft carriers, nuclear-powered attack submarines, large surface combatants, large amphibious ships, and underway replenishment ships."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald
2020-12-15
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Federal Employee Furloughs: Types and Implications [December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "Federal employees perform complex duties in pursuit of the diverse missions of their agencies. Some outcomes of the federal budget process have significant implications for employees. Among other impacts, certain budgetary situations may result in employee furloughs (i.e., placement in temporary non-duty, non-pay status because of lack of work or funds). Furloughs affect how agencies perform their missions and may affect the well-being of employees. This 'In Focus' discusses the two types of furloughs as well as related procedures, case studies, and some potential issues for Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Riccard, Taylor N.
2020-12-15
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Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Hazard Mitigation Assistance [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Introduction: "The majority of funding in the United States for both pre- and post-disaster mitigation comes from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), which defines mitigation as 'any sustained action to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to people and property from natural hazards and their effects.' Mitigation actions have a long-term impact, as opposed to actions associated with immediate preparedness, response, and recovery activities. Mitigation has been shown to save money. A recent study by the Multihazard Mitigation Council found that society saves $6 for every dollar spent on mitigation funded through major federal mitigation grants. FEMA administers three hazard mitigation grant programs, which it collectively refers to as Hazard Mitigation Assistance (HMA): [1] the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP); [2] the Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) Grant Program; [3] the Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM) Grant Program, replaced by Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC). Eligible applicants include state and local governments and federally-recognized tribes. Certain nonprofit organizations may apply for HMGP. Individuals may not apply for HMA funding, but they may benefit from a community application. Applicants to all three programs must have FEMA-approved hazard mitigation plans. Eligible activities differ for the three programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Horn, Diane P.
2020-12-15
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Funding for COVID-19 Vaccines: An Overview [December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "On December 11, 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for Pfizer/BioNTech's Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine. Several other COVID-19 vaccines are currently in clinical trials or under review; additional vaccines may become available by the end of 2020. Moderna has announced preliminary Phase 3 results and is under EUA consideration. As a part of Operation Warp Speed (OWS)--the Trump Administration's COVID-19 medical countermeasure initiative led by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Defense (DOD)--the U.S. government has entered into several contracts with vaccine manufacturers to purchase hundreds of millions of doses (including Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna's vaccine) and has also supported manufacturing and procurement of related supplies. Other OWS vaccine efforts include planning and implementation of a nationwide immunization program, public awareness, and vaccine data tracking, among others. OWS has thus far been financed largely by emergency funding provided in the coronavirus supplemental appropriations acts. To date, not much supplemental funding has been appropriated 'specifically' for COVID-19 vaccine-related efforts. Instead, funding has been provided to several accounts that 'may' be used toward relevant activities. [...] This Insight provides overviews of such appropriations for selected vaccine-related activities and available information on allocations and obligations. It does not address health care financing issues related to vaccine administration."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sekar, Kavya
2020-12-15
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Mexican Drug Trafficking and Cartel Operations Amid COVID-19 [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "Mexico is a primary foreign producer and transit country for illicit drugs destined for the United States. Policymakers, including many in Congress, have been closely watching how the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has affected drug flow patterns out of Mexico, including the flow of potent opioids and other illicit drugs. Any changes could affect the extent to which Mexico-based transnational criminal organizations, popularly described as 'cartels', pose a threat to U.S. national security. To date, U.S.-bound illicit drug supplies have persisted, despite early supply chain disruptions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Beittel, June S.; Rosen, Liana W.
2020-12-15
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Defense Primer: The Defense Logistics Agency [December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "Established under Title 10, Sections 191 and 192, of the United States Code (U.S.C.), the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) is a single Department of Defense (DOD) agency responsible for supply or service activities common to all military departments. Section 193 of Title 10 identifies DLA as a combat support agency, a designation that according to DLA, 'gives DLA a formal oversight relationship with the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and allows combatant commanders to request specific support from the agency.' Under these authorities, the agency manages the global supply chain for DOD and its partners by providing procurement, storage, distribution, disposition, and other technical services to its customers. DLA is one of several organizations that are essential to the Joint Logistics Enterprise (see Joint Publication 4-0). DLA is headquartered in Fort Belvoir, VA. The agency operates in most U.S. states and territories and in 28 foreign countries. Annually, it provides more than $42 billion worth of goods and services to DOD, other federal agencies, and partner and allied nations. DLA states it 'supplies 86 percent of the military's spare parts, and nearly 100 percent of fuel and troop support consumables, manages the reutilization of military equipment, provides catalogs and other logistics information products, and offers document automation and production services.' Through established DOD programs, DLA can also support tribal, state, and local government agencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Herrera, G. James; Hacker, Tyler F.
2020-12-15
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Defense Primer: The United States Air Force [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "When it was established as a separate service in 1947, the U.S. Air Force (USAF) was to be 'organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations ... necessary for the effective prosecution of war except as otherwise assigned.' That statutory language remains almost identical today. Similarly, although the words used to describe its core missions have changed, space and cyberspace joined air as operational domains, and the means used to carry them out have evolved with technology, the USAF's missions themselves have remained remarkably constant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gertler, Jeremiah
2020-12-15
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Defense Primer: United States Airpower [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "Almost since the invention of heavier-than-air flight, control of the air has been seen as a military advantage. Over time, the United States has come to treat air superiority as a necessity, and built such capable air forces that no enemy aircraft has killed U.S. ground troops since 1953. Modern airpower is able to provide a full range of effects, from strategic operations at intercontinental ranges to direct support of troops in combat. Today, every branch of the U.S. military employs air forces for various purposes, employing nearly 14,000 aircraft."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gertler, Jeremiah
2020-12-15
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Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 116th Congress [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report examines U.S. policy toward Cuba in the 116th Congress. It is divided into three major sections analyzing (1) Cuba's political and economic environment; (2) U.S. policy toward Cuba; and (3) selected issues in U.S.-Cuban relations, including restrictions on travel and trade, democracy and human rights funding for Cuba, U.S. government-sponsored radio and television broadcasting to Cuba (Radio and T Martí), migration issues, antidrug cooperation, property claims, and U.S. fugitives from justice in Cuba. Relevant legislative initiatives in the 116th Congress are noted throughout the report, and Appendix A lists enacted measures and other bills and resolutions. Appendix B provides links to U.S. government information and reports on Cuba."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2020-12-15
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Cyber Supply Chain Risk Management: An Introduction [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Introduction: "A supply chain consists of the system of organizations, people, activities, information, and resources that provide products or services to consumers. Like other types of goods, a global supply chain exists for the development, manufacture, and distribution of information technology (IT) products (i.e., hardware and software) and information communications technology (ICT). As with other goods and services, risks exist to this cyber supply chain. This field is known as cyber supply chain risk management (C-SCRM or Cyber SCRM). Congress and federal agencies have taken actions to bolster cyber supply chain security. [...] This In Focus reviews C-SCRM, discusses ways in which it is currently managed, and highlights issues that Congress may consider for federal agencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jaikaran, Chris
2020-12-15
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Defense Health Primer: U.S. Coast Guard Health Services [December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "Established in 1790, the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) is a military service in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and a branch of the armed forces of the United States. The role of USCG is to provide security, maritime safety, and environmental stewardship on the high seas and in the ports, inland waterways, and maritime economic zones of the United States. To support these tasks, 14 U.S.C. §504 authorizes USCG to administer a Health Services program to sustain the medical readiness of approximately 47,000 active duty and reserve servicemembers of the Coast Guard. The USCG program also collaborates with the Military Health System (MHS) of the Department of Defense (DOD) to offer health care services to 9.6 million beneficiaries eligible for TRICARE."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mendez, Bryce H. P.
2020-12-15
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Cybersecurity: A Primer [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Introduction: "There is a continued increase in both the utility and risk from networked devices. The very tools Americans use to chat with loved ones and make purchases are the same tools which can be turned against them to deny access to services, steal their information, or compromise the digital system they trust. These tools exist in cyberspace, and the security of that environment is a large endeavor involving government, the private sector, international partners, and others. This In Focus provides an overview of cybersecurity for policymaking purposes, describes issues that cybersecurity affects, and discusses potential actions Congress could take."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jaikaran, Chris
2020-12-15
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Defense Primer: Cyberspace Operations [Updated December 15, 2020]
From the Overview: "The Department of Defense (DOD) defines cyberspace as a global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures and resident data, including the internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded processors and controllers. The DOD Information Network (DODIN) is a global infrastructure carrying DOD, national security, and related intelligence community information and intelligence. Cyberspace operations are composed of the military, intelligence, and ordinary business operations of the DOD in and through cyberspace. Military cyberspace operations use cyberspace capabilities to create effects that support operations across the physical domains and cyberspace. Cyberspace operations differ from information operations (IO), which are specifically concerned with the use of information-related capabilities during military operations to affect the decision making of adversaries while protecting our own. IO may use cyberspace as a medium, but it may also employ capabilities from the physical domains."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Theohary, Catherine A.
2020-12-15
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U.S. Trade Concerns Regarding the EU's Farm to Fork Strategy [December 15, 2020]
From the Document: "In May 2020, the European Union (EU) proposed its Farm to Fork (F2F) Strategy and its Biodiversity Strategy, which would impose restrictions on EU agriculture through targeted reductions in the use of land, antimicrobials, fertilizers, and pesticides. These strategies are part of the European Green Deal, which if adopted by the EU, would make the continent 'climate-neutral' by 2050. U.S. officials contend that these proposed strategies could extend beyond the EU and result in additional restrictions on U.S. food and agricultural exports to the EU. They contend that the F2F's focus on specific agricultural practices and promotion of local production is protectionist and could impact U.S.-EU trade relations. Strategies underlying the European Green Deal come at a contentious time in U.S.-EU agricultural trade relations. In November 2020, the EU imposed additional tariffs on approximately $4.0 billion worth of EU imports annually from the United States, covering a range of agricultural and industrial products. Higher EU tariffs were in retaliation for higher U.S. tariffs imposed on certain EU products in 2019. Both the U.S. and EU tariff actions were in response to the Boeing-Airbus subsidy dispute at the World Trade Organization (WTO) and were approved by the WTO."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Johnson, Renée
2020-12-15
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Kyrgyz Republic Set to Hold Snap Presidential Election and Constitutional Referendum After Parliamentary Elections Annulled [Updated December 14, 2020]
From the Document: "The Kyrgyz Republic (commonly known as Kyrgyzstan) faces political upheaval following the annulment of disputed parliamentary elections that heavily favored pro-government parties. Opposition parties alleged widespread irregularities in the October 4, 2020, vote, including vote-buying and voter intimidation; these assertions were deemed credible by international election observers. While no date has been set for new parliamentary elections, a snap presidential election and a controversial constitutional referendum, both scheduled for January 10, 2021, are raising concerns among some observers about democracy and rule of law in the country. As a parliamentary republic that holds contested elections, Kyrgyzstan has long been considered the most democratic country in Central Asia, with a vibrant civil society and a higher degree of press freedom than found elsewhere in the region. Promoting a more inclusive and accountable democracy is a stated goal of U.S. foreign policy in Kyrgyzstan, and Kyrgyzstan is one of 21 countries worldwide that participate in the House Democracy Partnership. Many Members of Congress and other U.S. policymakers have long voiced support for consolidating Kyrgyzstan's gains as Central Asia's only parliamentary democracy. Corruption is pervasive, however, and political institutions remain weak. In light of recent developments, U.S. officials have expressed concerns about the influence of organized crime in Kyrgyz politics."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blackwood, Maria A.
2020-12-14
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Defense Primer: Military Health System [Updated December 14, 2020]
From the Document: "The Department of Defense (DOD) administers a statutory health entitlement (under Chapter 55 of Title 10, U.S. Code) through the Military Health System (MHS). The MHS offers health care benefits and services through its TRICARE program to approximately 9.5 million beneficiaries composed of servicemembers, military retirees, and family members. Health care services are available through DOD-operated hospitals and clinics, referred to collectively as 'military treatment facilities' (MTFs), or through civilian health care providers participating in the TRICARE program. The fundamental reason for an MHS is to support medical readiness. The medical readiness mission involves promoting 'a healthy and fit fighting force that is medically prepared to provide the Military Departments with the maximum ability to accomplish their deployment missions throughout the spectrum of military operations.' The MHS also serves to 'create and maintain high morale in the uniformed services by providing an improved and uniform program of medical and dental care for members and certain former members of those services, and for their dependents' (10 U.S.C. §1071). In addition, the resources of the MHS may be used to provide humanitarian assistance (10 U.S.C. §401) and to perform medical research (10 U.S.C. §2358)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mendez, Bryce H. P.
2020-12-14
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COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment-- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated December 14, 2020]
From the Summary: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. Observers who argue the COVID-19 pandemic could be world-changing for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world have focused on several areas of potential change[.] [...] Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. Congress's decisions regarding these issues could have significant and even profound implications for U.S. foreign and defense policy, and for the status of Congress as a co-equal branch relative to the executive branch in setting and overseeing the implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Moodie, Michael, 1948-; McInnis, Kathleen J.
2020-12-14
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Issues Raised by a Federal Government Shutdown: Grants to State and Local Governments and the COVID-19 Pandemic [December 14, 2020]
From the Document: "At the end of the day on December 18, 2020, the second continuing appropriations measure for FY2021, Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2021 (Division A of H.R. 8900, signed into law December 11, 2020) will expire. If additional funding is not provided, funding for federal agencies and activities funded through all 12 of the regular annual appropriations acts will lapse on December 19. The resulting lapse in appropriations will require a shutdown of most federal agency operations, including those necessary to administer federal aid to state and local governments. [...] The Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act (P.L. 116-136) provided additional funding to states and local governments to address needs arising from the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic, including $150 billion for the Coronavirus Relief Fund, and $5 billion for the Community Development Fund for grants provided under the Community Development Block Grant program. A federal government shutdown may cause disruption to, or may result in the cessation of, grant administration activities depending on the following factors: [1] the timing and duration of a federal government shutdown; and [2] the choices made by federal, state, and local officials in anticipation of, or during, a shutdown regarding grant program administration."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Keegan, Natalie
2020-12-14
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High Court to Review Tribal Police Search and Seizure Case [December 14, 2020]
From the Document: "On November 20, 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court added 'United States v. Cooley' to the cases it will hear this term. 'Cooley' brings into focus the jurisdictional maze complicating criminal law enforcement on Indian reservations. The Court is to evaluate whether (or to what extent) a tribal police officer may detain and search a non-Indian on a public highway running through an Indian reservation. More specifically, the parties disagree about the scope of a tribal police officer's authority to investigate--through questioning or search--when criminal behavior is reasonably suspected, but is not 'apparent' or 'obvious.' This case implicates the constitutional right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures, but it also raises questions about the scope of tribal sovereignty and tribes' authority to protect their lands and members from criminal activity. Congress may wish to consider legislation to clarify the rights and responsibilities of tribal and non-Indian parties when conflicts like this arise. [...] Before discussing the lower court decisions and Supreme Court petition, this Sidebar will briefly describe how the courts have distinguished tribal authority for conducting investigations of non-Indians within an Indian reservation from general non-tribal police authority to conduct searches and seizures."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Murphy, M. Maureen; Schwartz, Mainon A.
2020-12-14
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Department of Veterans Affairs FY2021 Appropriations [Updated December 14, 2020]
From the Summary: "The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) administers numerous programs that provide benefits and services to eligible veterans and their families. These benefits include medical care; disability compensation and pensions; education; vocational rehabilitation and employment services; assistance to homeless veterans; home loan guarantees; administration of life insurance, as well as traumatic injury protection insurance for servicemembers; and death benefits that cover burial expenses. President Trump submitted his budget proposal for FY2021 on February 10, 2020. The President's budget is requesting $240.2 billion for the VA. This amount includes $135.4 billion in mandatory benefits funding and $104.8 billion in discretionary funding. When compared with the FY2020-enacted amount for the VA of $237.5 billion--which includes regular appropriations provided by the Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020 (P.L. 116-94), and supplemental funding provided by the Families First Coronavirus Response Act (P.L. 116-127) and the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (P.L. 116-136)--this is an increase of $2.752 billion. Additionally, the budget request includes an advance appropriation request of $239.5 billion for FY2022 to fund the seven advance appropriations accounts--compensation and pensions, readjustment benefits, insurance and indemnities, medical services, medical community care, medical support and compliance, and medical facilities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Panangala, Sidath Viranga; Sussman, Jared S.; Salazar, Heather M.
2020-12-14
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'Court Packing': Legislative Control Over the Size of the Supreme Court [December 14, 2020]
From the Document: "In the past year, legal commentators, policymakers, and the national press have devoted significant attention to proposals to increase the size of the Supreme Court, sometimes colloquially called 'court packing.' Many recent court expansion proposals are premised on the belief that, if more seats were added to the Supreme Court, it would give the President who nominates the new Justices significant power to shape the Court in a way that aligns with the policy preferences of the President and the controlling political party. The Constitution generally grants Congress control over the size and structure of the federal courts and, during the first century of the Republic, Congress enacted multiple statutes changing the size of the Supreme Court. However, since the Reconstruction era, the Court's size has been set at nine Justices. [...] This Legal Sidebar provides an overview of the legal issues surrounding Supreme Court expansion. It first briefly discusses Congress's constitutional power to structure the federal courts, then surveys past legislation changing the size of the Supreme Court. The Sidebar next considers constitutional constraints on Congress's power to change the size and structure of the Supreme Court, including both express textual limits and implied limits that may restrict Congress's ability to alter the Court's makeup. Finally, the Sidebar surveys selected proposals to modify the size or composition of the Court through legislation or constitutional amendment."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lampe, Joanna R.
2020-12-14
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Defense Primer: Future Years Defense Program (FYDP) [Updated December 14, 2020]
From the Background: "The Future Years Defense Program (FYDP) is a projection of the forces, resources, and programs to support Department of Defense (DOD) operations. The FYDP is compiled every year and typically completed during the programming phase of the Planning, Programming, Budgeting, and Execution (PPBE) process. The projection is updated during the budgeting phase to reflect DOD's final funding decisions presented in the annual President's budget request. The FYDP reflects the planned allocation of DOD resources to major strategic efforts over a multiyear period. According to the department's Future Years Defense Program (FYDP) Structure Handbook, the FYDP is intended in part to link DOD's internal review structure for programs with Congress's review structure for resources, including funding. The FYDP projects DOD funding, manpower, and force structure needs over a five-year period. The projection is typically depicted with defense resources for the two previous fiscal years and force structure estimates for the three subsequent fiscal years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McGarry, Brendan W.; Peters, Heidi M.
2020-12-14
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U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [Updated December 14, 2020]
From the Summary: "Special Operations Forces (SOF) play a significant role in U.S. military operations and, in recent years, have been given greater responsibility for planning and conducting worldwide counterterrorism operations. U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) has about 70,000 Active Duty, National Guard, and reserve personnel from all four services and Department of Defense (DOD) civilians assigned to its headquarters, its four service component commands, and eight sub-unified commands. [...] On November 18, 2020, Acting Secretary of Defense Christopher C. Miller announced that he was implementing the reforms outlined in Section 922 of the Fiscal Year 2017 National Defense Authorization Act by 'elevating Special Operations forces to a level on par with military departments as authorized and directed by Congress.' Potential issues for Congress include policy concerns relating to Acting Secretary of Defense Miller's decision to elevate the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict (ASD [SOLIC]) within DOD and DOD's review of DOD and USSOCOM support to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2020-12-14
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Methane Emissions: A Primer [Updated December 11, 2020]
From the Document: "Methane, however, when released or allowed to escape into the atmosphere (commonly referred to as 'vented' and 'fugitive' emissions, respectively), can affect human health and safety and the environment. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration lists methane as both an asphyxiant and an explosive, as increased concentrations in local settings can jeopardize worker safety. Further, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies methane as both a precursor to ground-level ozone formation (commonly referred to as 'smog') and a potent greenhouse gas (GHG), albeit with a shorter atmospheric life than CO2 [carbon dioxide]. Methane's effect on climate change is up to 34 times greater than that of CO2 when averaged over a 100-year time period and even greater when considered over the first 20 years after it is emitted. Arguably, any increase in methane emissions may counteract some of the environmental benefits that the U.S. economy has to gain by switching from coal or oil to natural gas."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lattanzio, Richard K.
2020-12-11
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Major Disaster Declarations for Snowstorms and Severe Winter Storms [December 11, 2020]
From the Document: "A presidential major disaster declaration pursuant to the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (hereinafter the Stafford Act, P.L. 93-288, as amended; 42 U.S.C. §§5121 et seq.) for a 'Snowstorm' or a 'Severe Winter Storm' authorizes the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to provide Public Assistance funding for snow-related activities. Snow assistance is authorized for counties based on the finding that the county has a record or near-record snowfall or is contiguous to a county that meets the criteria."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lindsay, Bruce R.
2020-12-11
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Defense Primer: Planning, Programming, Budgeting and Execution (PPBE) Process [Updated December 11, 2020]
From the Introduction: "Planning, Programming, Budgeting, and Execution (PPBE) is the Department of Defense (DOD) process for allocating resources. The annual process serves as the framework for DOD civilian and military leaders to decide which programs and force structure requirements to fund based on strategic objectives. This product describes the notional process from the perspective of the Office of the Secretary of Defense. In practice, aspects of the process can change based on current events or leadership preferences. DOD policy states that PPBE serves as the annual resource allocation process for the department over a multi-year planning cycle. According to DOD policy, the objective of the process is 'to provide the DOD with the most effective mix of forces, equipment, manpower, and support attainable within fiscal constraints.' Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction describes the process as 'the Secretary of Defense's institutional strategic planning system' and the 'primary decision-making process for translating strategic guidance into resource allocation decisions.' The process is designed to produce DOD's portion of the President's annual budget request to Congress and updates to the department's five-year spending plan known as the Future Years Defense Program, or FYDP (sometimes pronounced 'fiddip'). The process is also one leg of a triad of acquisition-related decision support systems that includes the Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System (JCIDS) for developing requirements to address capability gaps and the Defense Acquisition System (DAS) for managing acquisition programs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
McGarry, Brendan W.
2020-12-11
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Defense Primer: Organization of U.S. Ground Forces [Updated December 11, 2020]
From the Overview: "The Army is the U.S. military's primary ground force. Title 10, Subtitle B, Part I, Chapter 307 of the 'U.S. Code' addresses the organization of the Army. The Marine Corps serves as the Navy's land-based fighting force. Title 10, Subtitle C, Part I, Chapter 507, Section 5063 addresses Marine Corps composition and functions. For the National Guard and Reserves, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] In Focus IF10540, 'Defense Primer: Reserve Forces.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Torreon, Barbara Salazar; Feickert, Andrew
2020-12-11
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Federal Election Commission: Membership and Policymaking Quorum, In Brief [Updated December 11, 2020]
From the Summary: "The Federal Election Commission (FEC) is the nation's civil campaign finance regulator. The agency ensures that campaign fundraising and spending is publicly reported; that those regulated by the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) and by commission regulations comply and have access to guidance; and that publicly financed presidential campaigns receive funding. Senate confirmations of three commissioners on December 9, 2020, restored the FEC to a policymaking quorum. Previously, the commission lacked a policymaking quorum because only three commissioners remained in office. At least four agreeing votes are required to take policymaking or enforcement actions. The 2020 quorum loss marked the third such episode in the FEC's history. If, in the future, fewer than four commissioners remained in office, the agency would again be unable to reach a policymaking quorum. This CRS [Congressional Research Service] report, which remains available for historical reference, briefly explains the kinds of actions that FECA precludes when a quorum is not possible because fewer than four FEC members are in office. Among other powers, without a quorum, the commission cannot hold hearings, issue rules, or enforce campaign finance law and regulation. Campaign finance law and regulation remain in effect and may be enforced once a quorum is restored. Agency operations continue with remaining commissioners and staff. [...] This report will be updated in the event of substantial changes in the Federal Election Commission's policymaking quorum or the status of commission nominations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-
2020-12-11
