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Department of Defense Contractors in Afghanistan and Iraq: Background and Analysis [March 29. 2011]

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From the Document: "The critical role contractors play in supporting military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq necessitates that the Department of Defense (DOD) effectively manage contractors during contingency operations. Lack of sufficient contract management can delay or even prevent troops from receiving needed support and can also result in wasteful spending. Some analysts believe that poor contract management has played a role in permitting abuses and crimes committed by certain contractors against local nationals, which may have undermined U.S. counterinsurgency efforts in Afghanistan and Iraq. DOD relies extensively upon contractors to support overseas contingency operations. As of December 2010, DOD had more contractor personnel in Afghanistan and Iraq (159,000) than uniformed personnel (144,000). Contractors made up 52% of DOD's workforce in Afghanistan and Iraq. Since December 2009, the number of DOD contractors in Afghanistan has exceeded the number in Iraq. According to DOD, in Afghanistan, as of December 2010, there were 87,483 DOD contractor personnel, compared to approximately 96,900 uniformed personnel. Contractors made up 47% of DOD's workforce in Afghanistan at that time. This compares to December 2008, when contractors represented 69% of DOD's workforce in Afghanistan. According to DOD data, the recent surge of uniformed personnel in Afghanistan and the increase in contract obligations did not result in a corresponding increase in contractor personnel."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Schwartz, Moshe; Swain, Joyprada

2011-03-29
Japan's 2011 Earthquake and Tsunami: Economic Effects and Implications for the United States [April 6, 2011]

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"The March 11, 2011, earthquake and tsunami that occurred in Japan followed by a nuclear crisis and shortage of electricity is having a large negative economic impact on the country but a lesser effect on world markets. Japan has lost considerable physical and human capital. Physical damage has been estimated as ranging from $250 billion1 to as much as $309 billion,2 the latter figure being nearly four times as much as Hurricane Katrina ($81 billion) and roughly equivalent to the GDP [Gross Domestic Product] of Greece and twice that of New Zealand. In excess of 27,000 persons in Japan are killed or missing, and more than 146,000 homes and other buildings have been totally or partially damaged.3 Analysts expect that over the next quarter or so, Japan's economy will contract, but may expand because of rebuilding activity later in the year and into 2012. As the third-largest economy in the world, Japan's GDP at $5.5 trillion accounts for 8.7% of global GDP. Congressional interest centers on humanitarian concerns, the impact on U.S. citizens and American companies in Japan, and the effects of the disaster on the exchange of both goods and services, and on Japanese and U.S. financial markets, interest rates, and the yen-dollar exchange rate."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Donnelly, J. Michael; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Nanto, Dick Kazuyuki

2011-04-06
Japanese Nuclear Incident: Technical Aspects [April 5, 2011]

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From the Document: "The Japanese earthquake and tsunami of March 2011 caused extensive damage to the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (NPP). This damage has released some radioactive materials, and there are widespread fears about the health effects of current and possible future releases. These fears, and public concern about radiation in general, have attracted the world's attention. This report presents scientific and technical aspects of these issues in order to provide a basis for understanding the risks associated with this event. [...] While some radioactive material from the Japanese incident may reach the United States, it appears most unlikely that this material will result in harmful levels of radiation. In traveling thousands of miles between the two countries, some radioactive material will decay, rain will wash some out of the air, and its concentration will diminish as it disperses."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Medalia, Jonathan E.

2011-04-05
Assistance to Firefighters Program: Distribution of Fire Grant Funding [March 11, 2011]

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"The Assistance to Firefighters Grant (AFG) Program, also known as fire grants or the FIRE Act grant program, was established by Title XVII of the FY2001 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 106-398). Currently administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the program provides federal grants directly to local fire departments and unaffiliated Emergency Medical Services (EMS) organizations to help address a variety of equipment, training, and other firefighter-related and EMS needs. A related program is the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Firefighters (SAFER) program, which provides grants for hiring, recruiting, and retaining firefighters. The fire grant program is now in its 11th year. The Fire Act statute was reauthorized in 2004 (Title XXXVI of P.L. 108-375) and provides overall guidelines on how fire grant money should be distributed. There is no set geographical formula for the distribution of fire grants--fire departments throughout the nation apply, and award decisions are made by a peer panel based on the merits of the application and the needs of the community. However, the law does require that fire grants be distributed to a diverse mix of fire departments, with respect to type of department (paid, volunteer, or combination), geographic location, and type of community served (e.g., urban, suburban, or rural). [...] S. 550, the Fire Grants Authorization Act of 2011, was introduced into the 112th Congress on March 10, 2011. The 112th Congress is also likely to consider appropriate funding levels for firefighter assistance in FY2011 and FY2012."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kruger, Lennard G.

2011-03-11
Origination Clause of the U.S. Constitution: Interpretation and Enforcement [March 15, 2011]

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"Article I, Section 7, clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution is known as the Origination Clause because it provides that 'All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives.' The meaning and application of this clause has evolved through practice and precedent since the Constitution was drafted. The Constitution does not provide specific guidelines as to what constitutes a 'bill for raising revenue.' This report analyzes congressional and court precedents regarding what constitutes such a bill. [...] Second, this report describes the various ways in which the Origination Clause has been enforced. Given the fact that originating revenue measures is the House's prerogative, it falls to the House to enforce this provision of the Constitution most frequently. The House's primary method for enforcement is through a process known as 'blue-slipping.' Blue-slipping is the term applied to the act of returning to the Senate a measure that the House has determined violates its prerogatives. [...] Finally, this report looks at the application of the Origination Clause to other types of legislation. It examines precedents concerning public debt legislation, as well as the unanswered question of whether the Origination Clause grants the House the exclusive prerogative to originate bills to appropriate money, as well as to raise revenues. This report will be updated to reflect any changes in practice."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Saturno, James

2011-03-15
Continuing Resolutions: Latest Action and Brief Overview of Recent Practices [March 23, 2011]

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"Most routine operations of federal departments and agencies are funded each year through the enactment of 12 regular appropriations acts. Because these bills are annual, expiring at the end of the fiscal year (September 30), regular appropriations bills for the subsequent fiscal year must be enacted by October 1. Final action on most regular appropriations bills, however, is frequently delayed beyond the start of the fiscal year. When this occurs, the affected departments and agencies are generally funded under temporary continuing appropriations acts until the final funding decisions become law. Because continuing appropriations acts are generally enacted in the form of joint resolutions, such acts are referred to as continuing resolutions (or CRs). […] Since Congress and the President have not completed action on any of the 12 FY2011 regular appropriations acts, several FY2011 interim CRs have been enacted to provide more time to resolve differences within Congress and between Congress and the President. In 2010, Congress enacted four FY2011 interim CRs that sequentially extended funding from October 1, 2010, through March 4, 2011 (P.L. 111-242, P.L. 111-290, P.L. 111-317, and P.L. 111-322). These acts maintained funding at generally FY2010 discretionary spending levels. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates the total annualized discretionary spending level provided in these CRs at $1,247 billion, in budget authority (or BA). In 2011, President Barack H. Obama signed two additional FY2011 interim CRs, P.L. 112-4 and P.L. 112-6, that, in total, would reduce the amount provided in 2011 by $10 billion, in BA. The two acts sequentially extends spending through April 8, 2011."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Streeter, Sandy

2011-03-23
Duration of Continuing Resolutions in Recent Years [March 22, 2011]

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From the Document: "Continuing appropriations acts, commonly known as 'continuing resolutions', which provide interim funding in the event that regular appropriations have not been enacted, have been an integral component of the annual appropriations process for decades. Whenever action on one or more of the regular appropriations acts for a fiscal year is incomplete, one issue that arises is the appropriate duration of any period for which continuing resolutions will be used. Continuing resolutions may have a relatively short duration in the expectation that action on the regular appropriations acts will be concluded within several days or weeks. Alternatively, continuing resolutions may have a longer duration to postpone final action on appropriations decisions until after elections or into the beginning of the next congressional session. Finally, a continuing resolution may provide funding for the remainder of the fiscal year. This report provides information on congressional practices with respect to the duration of continuing resolutions, including the use of full-year measures, and focuses particularly on the period covering FY1998-FY2010."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Tollestrup, Jessica

2011-03-22
Chemical Facility Security: Issues and Options for the 112th Congress [March 8, 2011]

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"The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has statutory authority to regulate chemical facilities for security purposes. The 112th Congress extended this authority through March 18, 2011. [...] The DHS is in the process of implementing the authorized regulations, called chemical facility anti-terrorism standards (CFATS). The DHS finalized CFATS regulations in 2007. No chemical facilities have completed the CFATS process, which starts with information submission by chemical facilities and finishes with inspection and approval of facility security measures by DHS. Several [...] Key policy issues debated in previous Congresses contributed to the reauthorization debate. These issues included the adequacy of DHS resources and effort; the appropriateness and scope of federal preemption of state chemical facility security activities; the availability of information for public comment, potential litigation, and congressional oversight; the universe of facilities that should be considered as chemical facilities; and the role of inherently safer technologies in achieving security goals. The 112th Congress might take various approaches to this issue. Congress might allow the statutory authority to expire but continue providing appropriations to administer the regulations. Congress might permanently or temporarily extend the expiring statutory authority in order to observe the impact of the current regulations and, if necessary, address any perceived weaknesses at a later date. Congress might codify the existing regulation in statute and reduce the discretion available to the Secretary of Homeland Security to change the current regulatory framework. Alternatively, Congress might substantively change the current regulation's implementation, scope, or impact by amending the existing statute or creating a new one. Finally, Congress might choose to terminate the program by allowing its authority to lapse and removing funding for the program. This last approach would leave chemical facility security regulation to the discretion of state and local governments."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Shea, Dana A.

2011-03-08
State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs: FY2011 Budget and Appropriations [March 23, 2011]

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"This report focuses only on the $56.82 billion requested for programs and activities funded through the State-Foreign Operations appropriations bill, which excludes some portions of the International Affairs request and includes funding for certain commissions requested as part of other budget functions. The Administration requested significant increases for Global Health and Child Survival, Development Assistance, technical assistance and debt restructuring through the Treasury Department, Foreign Military Financing, and various multilateral environmental accounts. Programs for which the Administration recommended significantly reduced funding, compared with enacted FY2010 levels, are contributions to international organizations, commissions and foundations, and peacekeeping operations. In the absence of a FY2011 budget resolution, both the House and Senate worked on FY2011 funding legislation using committee-approved discretionary budget allocations. The State-Foreign Operations Subcommittee was allocated $53.9 billion in the House and $54.0 billion in the Senate. The House State-Foreign Operations Appropriations Subcommittee approved a draft FY2011 bill on June 30, which totaled $52.81 billion. On the Senate side, the full Appropriations Committee marked up and approved its FY2011 State-Foreign Operations bill, S. 3676, on July 27, totaling $54.22 billion. This report analyzes the FY2011 request, recent-year funding trends, and congressional action related to FY2011 State-Foreign Operations legislation. The report will be updated to reflect changes in legislative status."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Epstein, Susan B.; Lawson, Marian Leonardo; Resler, Tamara J.

2011-03-23
U.S. Tsunami Programs: A Brief Overview [March 18 2011]

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"A 9.0 magnitude earthquake struck off Japan's northeast coast near Honshu in the afternoon on Friday, March 11, 2011 (12:46 a.m. eastern time in the United States). The earthquake triggered a tsunami that has caused widespread devastation to parts of the coastal regions in Japan closest to the earthquake. The tsunami traveled across the Pacific Ocean, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) tsunami warning centers in Hawaii and Alaska issued tsunami warnings for coastal areas of Hawaii, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, American Samoa, Alaska, and California. Although the tsunami caused widespread damage along the northeast coast of Japan, tsunami warnings issued from the tsunami warning centers gave the above U.S. Pacific territories, Hawaii, and the U.S. West Coast adequate warning to prepare for incoming waves. NOAA's National Weather Service (NWS) manages the two tsunami warning centers that monitor, detect, and issue warnings for tsunamis generated in the Pacific Ocean. [...] Funding for the NOAA tsunami program supports three main categories of activities: (1) warning, such as the activities of the tsunami warning centers and DART [Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis] network; (2) mitigation, such as the activities of NTHMP [National Tsunami Hazards Mitigation Program]; and (3) research, including activities conducted by the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory and the National Buoy Data Center. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) noted that total funding for all these activities ranged from $5 million to $10 million annually between FY1997 and FY2004, but increased after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami from approximately $27 million in FY2005 to $42 million in FY2009. Funding in FY2010 was $41 million. Currently, 7 of the 39 DART buoys are not operational. Of the 7 buoys that are not working, 5 are deployed in the Pacific Ocean. If more DART buoys fail, and regional forecasting capabilities are impaired, then the NOAA Administrator must notify Congress within 30 days. According to NOAA, the current continuing resolution (P.L. 112-4) does not allow the NWS to allocate FY2011 funding to purchase ship time required to repair the 7 DART buoys that are not working."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin)

2011-03-18
China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy Issues [March 3, 2011]

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"Congress has long been concerned about whether U.S. policy advances the national interest in reducing the role of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and missiles that could deliver them. Recipients of China's technology reportedly include Pakistan and countries said by the State Department to have supported terrorism, such as Iran. This CRS Report, updated as warranted, discusses the security problem of China's role in weapons proliferation and issues related to the U.S. policy response since the mid- 1990s. China has taken some steps to mollify U.S. and other foreign concerns about its role in weapons proliferation. Nonetheless, supplies from China have aggravated trends that result in ambiguous technical aid, more indigenous capabilities, longer-range missiles, and secondary (retransferred) proliferation. According to unclassified intelligence reports submitted as required to Congress, China has been a 'key supplier' of technology, particularly PRC entities providing nuclear and missile-related technology to Pakistan and missile-related technology to Iran."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kan, Shirley

2011-03-03
Middle East and North Africa Unrest: Implications for Oil and Natural Gas Markets [March 10, 2011]

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"Political unrest in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) has contributed to higher oil prices and added instability to energy markets. Supply disruptions and fears about the possible spread of unrest to major exporters have pushed prices higher. Even if the crisis abates, some risk premium may persist to the degree that market participants fear such an event could occur again. Higher oil prices can negatively impact the economies of oil importing countries. The cost of oil is the primary determinant of gasoline prices and prices of other petroleum products; increased costs can be a burden on households and many businesses. Rising import costs for oil, natural gas and petroleum-based products can be a drag on economic growth by negatively affecting the trade balance. This may slow the current economic recovery, though it is not expected to derail it. Many energy policy options to address vulnerability to disruptions and higher prices, such as what is taking place in MENA, are long-term in nature. It takes a long time for the energy sector to make material shifts, be they through renewables, efficiency, or increased domestic oil and gas production. Short-term energy policy options (as opposed to the broader national security and diplomatic issues) are limited. Oil exporters with spare production capacity, particularly Saudi Arabia, may make short-term decisions to try to moderate prices by adjusting production levels, but their ability and willingness to do so are often based on internal decisions. For more information on the political unrest in MENA, see the CRS Issue in Focus page on the Middle East and its associated reports."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Nerurkar, Neelesh; Ratner, Michael

2011-03-10
International Violence Against Women: U.S. Response and Policy Issues [April 14, 2011]

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"In the past three decades, the U.S. government and international community have increasingly recognized violence against women (hereinafter VAW) as a human rights problem with far reaching consequences. Prior to the 1970s, many in the international community viewed VAW as a private matter to be dealt with among individuals and not a public matter that merited a national or international response. In the late 1970s and 1980s, however, the international community began to focus on VAW as a global health problem and violation of human rights. This shift was driven, in part, by an increasingly effective and well-organized grassroots movement of local, national, and international women's non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that brought international attention to the plight of VAW victims and created a more public forum for discussion of the issue. [...] This report identifies types of VAW and the direct and indirect consequences of these acts of violence. It provides examples of completed and ongoing U.S. government programs that--in whole or in part--work to reduce or eliminate international violence against women. It does not assess the scope of individual programs or a program's success in achieving its goal. The report also outlines possible policy considerations for the 112th Congress, including the scope and effectiveness of current U.S. programs, further integrating VAW prevention and treatment into U.S. foreign assistance programs, coordinating among U.S. executive branch agencies and departments, and U.S. funding of international anti-VAW programs."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Margesson, Rhoda; Salaam-Blyther, Tiaji; Blanchfield, Luisa

2011-04-14
Intelligence Issues for Congress [April 13, 2011]

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"To address the challenges facing the U.S. intelligence community in the 21st century, congressional and executive branch initiatives have sought to improve coordination among the different agencies and to encourage better analysis. In December 2004, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. 108-458) was signed, providing for a Director of National Intelligence (DNI) with substantial authorities to manage the national intelligence effort. The legislation also established a separate Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Making cooperation effective presents substantial leadership and managerial challenges. The needs of intelligence 'consumers'--ranging from the White House to Cabinet agencies to military commanders--must all be met, using the same systems and personnel. Intelligence collection systems are expensive and some critics suggest there have been elements of waste and unneeded duplication of effort while some intelligence 'targets' have been neglected. The DNI has substantial statutory authorities to address these issues, but the organizational relationships remain complex, especially for intelligence agencies that are part of the Defense Department. Members of Congress will be seeking to observe the extent to which effective coordination is accomplished. [...] H.R. 1473, the Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act of 2011, includes provisions that require the Director of National Intelligence to submit current and futureyear budget request data to the two intelligence committees and to the defense subcommittees of the two appropriations committees. [...] Although FY [fiscal year] 2011 is more than half over, the two congressional intelligence committees are still considering FY2011 intelligence authorization legislation. The House reported H.R. 754 on March 10, but the bill has not yet been posted. The Senate intelligence committee reported its version, S. 719, on April 4, but a provision providing for disciplinary action, including the surrender of pension benefits, of former intelligence officials who disclose classified information without proper authorization."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Best, Richard A.

2011-04-13
Depreciating Dollar: Economic Effects and Policy Response [April 15, 2011]

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"A trend depreciation of the dollar since 2002 raises concern among some in Congress and the public that the dollar's decline is a symptom of broader economic problems, such as a weak economic recovery, rising public debt, and a diminished standing in the global economy. However, a falling currency is not always a problem, but possibly an element of economic adjustments that are, on balance, beneficial to the economy. A depreciating currency could affect several aspects of U.S. economic performance. Possible effects include increased net exports, decreased international purchasing power, rising commodity prices, and upward pressure on interest rates; if the trend is sustained, reduction of external debt, possible undermining of the dollar's reserve currency status, and an elevated risk of a dollar crisis. The exchange rate is not a variable that is easily addressed by changes in legislative policy. Nevertheless, although usually not the primary target, the dollar's international value can be affected by decisions made on policy issues facing the 112th Congress, including decisions related to generating jobs, raising the debt limit, reducing the budget deficit, and stabilizing the growth of the federal government's long-term debt. Also monetary policy actions by the Federal Reserve, over which Congress has oversight responsibilities, can affect the dollar. [...] To give Congress the economic context in which to view the dollar's recent and prospective movement, this report analyzes the evolution of the exchange rate since its peak in 2002. It examines several factors that are likely to influence the dollar's medium-term path, what effects a depreciating dollar could have on the economy, and how alternative policy measures that could be taken by the Federal Reserve, the Treasury, and the 112th Congress might influence the dollar's path."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Elwell, Craig Kent, 1947-

2011-04-15
Nepal: Political Developments and Bilateral Relations with the United States [April 7, 2011]

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"Nepal has undergone a radical political transformation since 2006, when a 10-year armed struggle by Maoist insurgents, which claimed at least 13,000 lives, officially came to an end. The country's king stepped down in 2006, and two years later Nepal declared itself a republic, electing a Constituent Assembly in 2008 to write a new constitution, which is currently being drafted. Though the process of democratization has had setbacks and been marked by violence at times, Nepal has conducted reasonably peaceful elections, brought former insurgents into the political system, and in a broad sense, taken several large steps towards entrenching a functioning democracy. This still-unfolding democratization process makes Nepal of interest to Congress and to U.S. foreign policymakers. A Congressional Nepal caucus has been newly formed, which should help further strengthen relations between the two countries, which have traditionally been friendly. U.S. policy objectives toward Nepal include supporting democratic institutions and economic liberalization, promoting peace and stability in South Asia, supporting Nepalese territorial integrity, and alleviating poverty and promoting development. [...] Two key challenges presently face Nepal. The first is to complete the peace process, which would require a resolution of the difficult issue of how to integrate former Maoist fighters into the army, or into society. The second key challenge is completing the drafting of a constitution. This raises the question of establishing a new federal structure that would address grievances of groups that feel they have been underrepresented in the key institutions of the state, particularly in the Terai region bordering India."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Vaughn, Bruce, 1963-

2011-04-07
FY2010 Supplemental for Wars, Disaster Assistance, Haiti Relief, and Other Programs [August 6, 2010]

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"The administration requested $64.3 billion in FY2010 supplemental appropriations: 1) $5.1 billion to replenish the U.S. Disaster Relief Fund by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2) $33 billion for the Department of Defense (DOD) primarily for deploying 30,000 additional troops to Afghanistan; $4.5 billion in war-related foreign aid; and $2.8 billion for Haiti earthquake-related relief and reconstruction aid. […] On July 29, 2010, the President signed the final version of H.R. 4899, P.L. 111-212, which was passed by the House on July 27 and by the Senate on May 27, 2010. The enacted version of the bill includes $59.2 billion in spending for war costs, U.S. disaster assistance, Haiti relief and reconstruction, and new benefits for Vietnam veterans."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Lindsay, Bruce R.; Else, Daniel H.; Belasco, Amy

2010-08-06
Agricultural Biotechnology: Background and Recent Issues [September 2, 2010]

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"U.S. soybean, cotton, and corn farmers have rapidly adopted genetically engineered (GE) varieties of these crops since their commercialization in the mid-1990s. Over the last decade, GE varieties in the United States have increased from 3.6 million acres to 143 million acres. Worldwide, 25 countries planted GE crops on approximately 309 million acres in 2008. GE varieties now dominate soybean, cotton, and corn production in the United States, and they continue to expand rapidly in other countries. As adoption has spread, policy debates have continued over the costs and benefits of GE products. Ongoing concerns include the impacts of GE crops on the environment and food safety, and whether GE foods should be specially labeled. Underlying these issues is the question of whether U.S. regulation and oversight of biotechnology--with responsibilities spread primarily among the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)--are adequate, particularly as newer applications, for example, biopharmaceuticals (drugs manufactured with the use of GE crops or animals) or stacked GE traits in single organisms, emerge that did not exist when the current regulatory regime was established."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Cowan, Tadlock

2010-09-02
Biotechnology in Animal Agriculture: Status and Current Issues [September 10, 2010]

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"Animal agriculture is being transformed by rapid advances in biotechnology--a term that encompasses a variety of technologies, including genetic engineering (GE), genetic modification, transgenics, recombinant DNA techniques, and cloning, among others. Producers are interested in the application of biotechnology to improve productivity, consistency, and quality; to introduce new food, fiber, and medical products; and to protect the environment. Potential human health applications of transgenic animals include producing biopharmaceuticals and generating organs, tissues, and cells for xenotransplantation. Criticisms of such applications involve issues ranging from food safety and social resistance to potential negative impacts on animal welfare and on ecosystems. Questions also have arisen about the adequacy of the current regulatory structure to assess and manage any risks created by these technologies. On January 15, 2009, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released final guidance on how it is to regulate GE animals and products. FDA is to do so under its existing statutory authority and regulations. Generally, GE-derived foods, for example, are to be regulated like non- GE foods; if their composition does not differ from their conventional counterparts, they will not have to be labeled. Nonetheless, developers of GE animals and of GE-derived products must gain FDA pre-market approval."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Cowan, Tadlock

2010-09-10
Asian Soybean Rust: Background and Issues [January 12, 2005]

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"On November 9, 2004, Asian soybean rust (ASR) was discovered in the United States in an experimental field in Louisiana. In the following three weeks, it was discovered in eight additional southern states -- Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Missouri, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Because ASR's arrival in the United States came late in the crop year, it is not thought to have had any measurable effect on 2004 soybean production. Furthermore, its detection has provided an early warning and has given the U.S. soybean sector time to prepare strategies to guard against possible ASR damage to the 2005 soybean crop. ASR is a harmful fungal disease that affects the growth of several commercial plants, most notably soybeans. The rust spores, once windborne, can spread rapidly and have been known to infect an entire region the same year the disease is first detected. ASR has reduced soybean yields by 10% to 80% in infected areas. The disease's rapid transmission rate coupled with an abundance of host species suggests that eradication would be unlikely once the fungus is established in the United States. As a result, the most effective treatment is thought to be the development and use of resistant plant varieties. However, no commercial U.S. soybean cultivar is resistant to or tolerant of ASR. In the short term, the only effective responses are costly fungicides and the use of early-maturing soybean cultivars."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Schnepf, Randall Dean, 1954-

2005-01-12
Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods [January 18, 2001]

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From the Document: "Congressional interest in the labeling of genetically modified foods (GM foods) has been rising. Congress took no action on the two bills introduced into the 106th Congress to mandate labeling of all genetically modified crops (GM crops) and foods, but will likely debate other proposals in the 107th Congress. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued its current GMfood labeling policy in May 1992. At that time, the agency determined that it would regulate GM foods no differently than foods created by conventional means because FDA considered them substantially equivalent to traditional foods and decided that no special label would be needed. In the intervening period, extensive public debate surrounding the genetic modification of foods has led some consumers to call for labeling of such products. On January 18, 2001, FDA published a draft guidance for industry on voluntary efforts to label GM foods. A label would permit consumers to choose to avoid purchasing or consuming them. At the same time, the agency proposed a rule that would make mandatory the current voluntary consultation process whereby the industry would have to formally notify the agency 120 days before releasing a food product onto the market and would have to supply certain safety test data to FDA. The federal government's role in regulating these foods is explained in CRS Report RL30198, Food Biotechnology in the United States: Science, Regulation, and Issues. Many oppose labeling because to make such labels 'truthful and not misleading' all commodities would need to be segregated and tested, and the label would not have room to impart information that could not be distributed in other ways. This report focuses specifically on views surrounding the labeling of GM foods. It will be updated periodically as new legislative proposals are introduced."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Vogt, Donna U.

2001-01-18
Insourcing Functions Performed by Federal Contractors: An Overview of the Legal Issues [May 5, 2011]

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"Recent Congresses and the Obama Administration have taken numerous actions to promote 'insourcing,' or the use of government personnel to perform functions that contractors previously performed on behalf of federal agencies. Among other things, the 109th through the 111th Congresses enacted several statutes requiring the development of policies and guidelines to ensure that agencies 'consider' using government employees to perform functions previously performed by contractors, as well as any new functions. These statutes also require that 'special consideration' be given to using government personnel to perform certain functions, including those functions (1) performed by government employees in the recent past, (2) closely associated with the performance of inherently governmental functions, (3) performed pursuant to a contract awarded on a non-competitive basis, or (4) performed poorly by a contractor because of excessive costs or inferior quality. The Obama Administration has similarly promoted insourcing. Among other things, on July 29, 2009, the Office of Management and Budget directed federal agencies to conduct a pilot human capital analysis of one program where the agency has concerns about its reliance on contractors, as a prelude to potentially insourcing functions performed by contractors. [...] The 112th Congress is considering legislation that could constrain insourcing initiatives by requiring agencies to conduct a public-private competition and determine that provision of goods or services by federal employees provides 'best value' prior to insourcing (H.R. 1474, S. 785)."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Maskell, Jack; Manuel, Kate

2011-05-05
United Nations System Efforts to Address Violence Against Women [April 21, 2011]

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"The United Nations (U.N.) system supports a number of programs that address international violence against women (VAW). These activities, which are implemented by 36 U.N. entities, range from large-scale interagency initiatives to smaller grants and programs that are implemented by a range of partners, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs), national governments, and individual U.N. agencies. U.N. member states, including the United States, address VAW by ratifying multilateral treaties, adopting resolutions and decisions, and supporting U.N. mechanisms and bodies that focus on the issue. [...] Were the 112th Congress to decide to use U.N. mechanisms to combat VAW, a number of programs and options might be considered. Congress has appropriated funds to the U.N. Trust Fund in Support of Actions to Eliminate Violence Against Women, for example, as well as to U.N. agencies, funds, and programs that address types or circumstances of violence against women and girls. These include the U.N. Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women), World Health Organization (WHO), U.N. Development Program (UNDP), U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), and U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The Senate has also provided its advice and consent to U.S. ratification of treaties that address international violence against women and girls--including the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. [...] This report provides an overview of recent U.N. efforts to address VAW and highlights key U.N. interagency efforts. It also discusses selected U.N. funds, programs, and agencies that address international violence against women."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Blanchfield, Luisa

2011-04-21
Ukraine: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [April 26, 2011]

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"On February 7, 2010, Viktor Yanukovych defeated Prime Minister Yuliya Tymoshenko to win Ukraine's presidency. International monitors praised the conduct of the election, although Tymoshenko charged that the election had been fraudulent. Yanukovych was able to quickly to form a new parliamentary majority in the current parliament by inducing dozens of supporters of the previous government to change sides. The global economic crisis hit Ukraine hard. Ukraine's real Gross Domestic Product fell by an estimated 15% in 2009. The economy began to recover in 2010, due in part to a surge in demand for Ukrainian steel exports. However, living standards for many Ukrainians remain low, leading to a rapid drop in Yanukovych's popularity when compared to the period soon after his inauguration. [...] The Obama Administration has worked to 'reset' relations with Russia, but has warned that it will not accept any country's assertion of a sphere of influence, a reminder of U.S. support for Ukraine's sovereignty. The Administration has not publicly expressed concern about what some observers view as the increasing pro-Russian tilt of Ukraine's foreign policy under Yanukovych. The Administration has focused on practical issues, such as helping Ukraine rid itself of its supplies of highly enriched uranium, and diversifying Ukraine's sources of energy, including advice on unconventional natural gas development. Administration officials have expressed concerns about regression in Ukraine's democratic development since Yanukovych took power, including in such areas as media freedoms, election laws and the conduct of elections, and perceived selective prosecution of the government's political opponents."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Woehrel, Steven J.

2011-04-26
U.S. Global Food Security Funding, FY2010-FY2012 [April 28, 2011]

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"The United States currently addresses issues related to global hunger and food security through two primary types of approaches: (1) agricultural development and (2) emergency and humanitarian food aid and assistance. Agricultural development activities, such as the Administration's Feed the Future initiative and some emergency food assistance programs, are administered primarily by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) using existing authorities provided in the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended. Funding is provided through the annual Department of State and Foreign Operations appropriation bill. In addition, funding for some multilateral efforts, such as the World Bank Global Agriculture and Food Security Program (GAFSP) Trust Fund, is provided through annual appropriations to the Treasury Department. U.S. international food aid programs are administered by USAID and USDA's [United States Department of Agriculture] Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS), as authorized by the 2008 farm bill (P.L. 110-246), and are funded through annual Agriculture appropriation bills. [...] The Administration's FY2012 request includes $1.56 billion for the FtF [Feed the Future] initiative, about $250 million, or 19%, more than the amount allocated in FY2010. This includes $1.1 billion in bilateral agricultural development assistance, $150 million for nutrition-related activities, and a U.S. contribution of $308 million to the World Bank GAFSP. Separately, for FY2012, the Administration is also requesting $1.690 billion for Food for Peace Title II emergency and nonemergency food aid, $200.5 million for the McGovern-Dole Food for Education Program, and $300 million of International Disaster Assistance for emergency food security-related activities."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Hanrahan, Charles; Ho, Melissa

2011-04-28
Votes on Measures to Adjust the Statutory Debt Limit, 1978 to Present [May 10, 2011]

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"Almost all borrowing by the federal government is conducted by the Treasury Department, within the restrictions established by a single, statutory limit (ceiling) on the total amount of debt that may be outstanding at any time. By law, the Treasury cannot exceed federal debt limits, so the Treasury periodically has had to ask Congress to enact new debt limits so it can fulfill its financial commitments. Since 1978, the statutory federal debt limit has been changed 51 times by Congress through the enactment of legislation adjusting the federal debt limit, either as stand-alone legislation or as part of legislation dealing with other matters. This report provides roll call vote data identified by the Congressional Research Service for measures to adjust the statutory debt limit."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Murray, Justin

2011-05-10
Gun Control Legislation [April 18, 2011]

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"Congress has debated the efficacy and constitutionality of federal regulation of firearms and ammunition, with strong advocates arguing for and against greater gun control. The tragic shootings in Tucson, AZ, on January 8, 2011, in which six people were killed and 13 wounded, including Representative Gabrielle Giffords, could prompt the 112th Congress to examine issues related to the shooter's mental illness and drug use (see S. 436) and his use of large capacity ammunition feeding devices (LCAFDs) (see H.R. 308 and S. 32), as well as a proposal to ban firearms within the proximity of certain high-level federal officials (see H.R. 367 and H.R. 496). Other emerging issues include the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives's (ATF) proposal to require multiple rifle sales reports from Southwest border state gun dealers and its conduct of Operation Fast and Furious. To set these and other emerging issues in context, this report provides basic firearms-related statistics, an overview of federal firearms law, and a summary of legislative action in the 111th Congress. The report concludes with salient issues that have generated significant congressional interest, including the 1994-2004 LCAFD ban."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Krouse, William J.

2011-04-18
Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations [April 21, 2011]

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"This report provides an overview of Jordanian politics and current issues in U.S.-Jordanian relations. It provides a brief discussion of Jordan's government and economy and of its cooperation in promoting Arab-Israeli peace and other U.S. policy objectives in the Middle East. Several issues in U.S.-Jordanian relations are likely to figure in decisions by Congress and the Administration on future aid to and cooperation with Jordan. These include the stability of the Jordanian regime, the role of Jordan in the Arab-Israeli peace process, the possibility of U.S.- Jordanian nuclear energy cooperation, and U.S.-Jordanian military and intelligence cooperation. Although the United States and Jordan have never been linked by a formal treaty, they have cooperated on a number of regional and international issues over the years. The country's small size and lack of major economic resources have made it dependent on aid from Western and friendly Arab sources. U.S. support, in particular, has helped Jordan address serious vulnerabilities, both internal and external. Jordan's geographic position, wedged between Israel, Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, has made it vulnerable to the strategic designs of its more powerful neighbors, but has also given Jordan an important role as a buffer between these potential adversaries. In 1990, Jordan's unwillingness to join the allied coalition against Iraq disrupted its relations with the United States and the Persian Gulf states; however, relations improved throughout the 1990s as Jordan played an increasing role in the Arab-Israeli peace process and distanced itself from Saddam Hussein's Iraq."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

2011-04-21
Somalia: Current Conditions and Prospects for a Lasting Peace [April 20, 2011]

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"In October 2002, the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) launched a peace process designed to end factional fighting in Somalia, led by the government of Kenya. In September 2003, the parties agreed on a Transitional National Charter (TNC). In August 2004, a 275-member Transitional Parliament was inaugurated in Kenya. In October 2004, parliament elected Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed as the new president of Somalia. In June 2006, the forces of the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) took control of the capital, Mogadishu. During the six-month rule by the ICU, Mogadishu became relatively peaceful, but efforts to bring peace did not lead to a major breakthrough. On December 28, 2006, Ethiopian troops captured Mogadishu with little resistance from the ICU. The Ethiopian intervention led to more chaos and instability in Somalia. In January 2007, the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) came to the capital, Mogadishu, from Baidoa after the ouster of the ICU. Humanitarian, political, and security conditions continue to deteriorate across south-central Somalia. In the past two years, more than 22,000 civilians have been killed, an estimated 1.1 million people displaced, and 476,000 Somalis have fled to neighboring countries. In 2008, fighting between insurgent groups and Ethiopian-TFG forces intensified, and by late 2008, the TFG had lost control of most of south-central Somalia to insurgent groups. In January 2009, Ethiopian forces completed their withdrawal from Somalia. In late December 2008, President Yusuf resigned from office and left for Yemen."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Dagne, Theodore S.

2011-04-20
Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response: The SAFER Grant Program [April 20, 2011]

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"In response to concerns over the adequacy of firefighter staffing, the Staffing for Adequate Fire and Emergency Response Act--popularly called the 'SAFER Act'--was enacted by the 108th Congress as Section 1057 of the FY2004 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 108-136). The SAFER Act authorizes grants to career, volunteer, and combination local fire departments for the purpose of increasing the number of firefighters to help communities meet industry-minimum standards and attain 24-hour staffing to provide adequate protection from fire and fire-related hazards. Also authorized are grants to volunteer fire departments for activities related to the recruitment and retention of volunteers. The SAFER grant program is authorized through FY2010. With the economic turndown adversely affecting budgets of local governments, concerns have arisen that modifications to the SAFER statute may be necessary to enable fire departments to more effectively participate in the program. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5) included a provision (section 603) that waived the matching requirements for SAFER grants awarded in FY2009 and FY2010. The FY2009 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-32) included a provision authorizing the Secretary of Homeland Security to waive further limitations and restrictions in the SAFER statute for FY2009 and FY2010."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Kruger, Lennard G.

2011-04-20

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