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• Cuba: Issues for the 112th Congress [August 22, 2011]

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  "Cuba remains a one-party communist state with a poor record on human rights. The country's political succession in 2006 from the long-ruling Fidel Castro to his brother Raúl was characterized by a remarkable degree of stability. The government of Raúl Castro has implemented limited economic policy changes, including an expansion of self-employment begun in October 2010. A party congress held in April 2011 laid out numerous economic goals that could increase the private sector. Few observers expect the government to ease its tight control over the political system, although it has reduced the number of political prisoners over the past several years, including the release of over 125 since 2010 after talks with the Catholic Church. […] Several initiatives would ease sanctions: H.R. 255 and H.R. 1887 (overall sanctions); H.R. 833 and H.R. 1888 (agricultural exports); and H.R. 380 and H.R. 1886 (travel). Two initiatives, S. 603 and H.R. 1166, would modify a trademark sanction, while several bills already noted would eliminate that sanction (H.R. 255, H.R. 1887, and H.R. 1888). Three bills would take different approaches toward Cuba's offshore oil development: H.R. 372, S. 405, and H.R. 2047. Two initiatives would discontinue Radio and TV Martí broadcasts to Cuba: S. 476 and H.R. 1317. One resolution would call for the return of U.S. fugitives in Cuba. For additional information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31139, 'Cuba: U.S. Restrictions on Travel and Remittances' and CRS Report R41522, 'Cuba's Offshore Oil Development: Background and U.S. Policy Considerations.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.

  2011-08-22
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Background and Current Developments [December 7, 2011]

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  "A ban on all nuclear tests is the oldest item on the nuclear arms control agenda. Three treaties that entered into force between 1963 and 1990 limit but do not ban such tests. In 1996, the U.N. General Assembly adopted the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), which would ban all nuclear explosions. In 1997, President Clinton sent the CTBT to the Senate, which rejected it in October 1999. In a speech in Prague in April 2009, President Obama said, 'My administration will immediately and aggressively pursue U.S. ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.' However, the Administration focused its efforts in 2010 on securing Senate advice and consent to ratification of the New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START). The Administration has indicated it wants to begin a CTBT 'education' campaign with a goal of securing Senate advice and consent to ratification, but there have been no hearings on the treaty in the 111th or 112th Congresses. As of December 2011, 182 states had signed the CTBT and 156, including Russia, had ratified it. However, entry into force requires ratification by 44 states specified in the treaty, of which 41 had signed the treaty and 36 had ratified. Seven conferences have been held to facilitate entry into force, most recently on September 23, 2011. […] This report will be updated occasionally. This version reflects Indonesia's ratification of the treaty on December 6, 2011, and makes other updates throughout. CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL34394, 'Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Issues and Arguments', by Jonathan Medalia, presents CTBT pros and cons in detail. CRS Report R40612, 'Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Updated 'Safeguards' and Net Assessments', by Jonathan Medalia, discusses safeguards-- unilateral steps to maintain U.S. nuclear security consistent with nuclear testing treaties--and their relationship to the CTBT. CRS Report R41908, 'Energy and Water Development: FY2012 Appropriations', coordinated by Carl E. Behrens, provides details on stockpile stewardship."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Medalia, Jonathan E.

  2011-12-07
• Cyprus: Reunification Proving Elusive [August 23, 2011]

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  "Attempts to resolve the Cyprus problem and reunify the island have undergone various levels of negotiation for over 45 years. Throughout 2011, Cyprus President Demetris Christofias and Turkish Cypriot leader Dervis Eroglu have continued the negotiation process but have thus far failed to reach a mutually agreed settlement. Although both sides have intimated that some convergence of views has been achieved in the areas of governance, economy, and EU issues, Christofias and Eroglu have not found common ground on the difficult issues of property rights, security, settlers, and citizenship, areas where both sides have long-held and very different positions and where neither side seems willing or able to make necessary concessions. […] These comments led Cypriot President Christofias to state that there could be no prospect for peace if this was also the position of the Turkish Cypriots. Finally, the Government of Cyprus announced that it would soon begin drilling for natural gas off the southern coast of Cyprus, prompting both Ankara and the Turkish Cypriots to protest that such a move would jeopardize the settlement negotiations. The United States Congress continues to maintain its interest in a resolution of the Cyprus issue. Language expressing continued support for the negotiation process has been included in the House FY2012 Foreign Assistance Authorization bill. This report provides a brief overview of the early history of the negotiations, a more detailed review of the negotiations since 2008, and a description of some of the issues involved in the talks."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Morelli, Vincent L.

  2011-08-23
• Egypt in Transition [August 23, 2011]

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  "On February 11, 2011, President Hosni Mubarak resigned from the presidency after 29 years in power. For 18 days, a popular peaceful uprising spread across Egypt and ultimately forced Mubarak to cede power to the military. How Egypt transitions to a more democratic system in the months ahead will have major implications for U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East and for other countries in the region ruled by monarchs and dictators. This report provides a brief overview of the transition underway and information on U.S. foreign aid to Egypt. U.S. policy toward Egypt has long been framed as an investment in regional stability, built primarily on long-running military cooperation and sustaining the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. Successive U.S. Administrations have viewed Egypt's government as a moderating influence in the Middle East. U.S. policy makers are now grappling with complex questions about the future of U.S.-Egypt relations, and these debates are likely to influence consideration of appropriations and authorization legislation in the 112th Congress. The United States has provided Egypt with an annual average of $2 billion in economic and military foreign assistance since 1979. For FY2012, the Obama Administration has requested $1.551 billion in total aid to Egypt. On July 27, 2011, the House Appropriations Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs marked up its FY2012 State-Foreign Operations appropriation, proposing that Egypt receive the full FY2012 request ($1.551 billion), including $1.3 billion in military aid, and that military aid should also be used for 'border security programs and activities in the Sinai, with the expectation that the Egyptian military will continue to adhere to and implement its international obligations, particularly the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell

  2011-08-23
• Dispute Settlement Under the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement: An Overivew [August 12, 2011]

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  "The U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (PTPA) follows current U.S. free trade agreement (FTA) practice in containing two types of formal dispute settlement: (1) State-State, applicable to disputes between PTPA Parties, and (2) investor-State, applicable to claims by an investor of one State Party against other State Party for breach of a PTPA investment obligation. A Party in a State-State dispute found to have violated a PTPA obligation is generally expected to remove the complained-of measure; remedies for non-compliance include compensation and the suspension of PTPA concessions or obligations (e.g., imposition of a tariff surcharge on the defending Party's products), with the defending Party having the option of paying a fine to the prevailing Party or, in some cases, into a fund that may be used to assist the defending Party in complying in the case. […] The fact-finding review could possibly lead to a State-State dispute proceeding if the United States considers that Peru has acted inconsistently with the agreement and efforts to settle the dispute through consultations are unsuccessful. To establish a PTPA violation, the United States must demonstrate that Peru has failed to adopt or maintain a law, regulation, or practice in a manner that affects trade or investment between the Parties. In addition, one case has been brought under the PTPA investor-State dispute settlement mechanism. In April 2011, a U.S. firm filed an arbitral claim alleging that Peru had violated its PTPA investment obligations in its treatment of a metallurgical smeltering and refining operation run by the claimant's affiliate in Peru."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Grimmett, Jeanne J.

  2011-08-12
• Cooperative R&D: Federal Efforts to Promote Industrial Competitiveness [December 7, 2011]

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  "In response to the foreign challenge in the global marketplace, the United States Congress has explored ways to stimulate technological advancement in the private sector. The government has supported various efforts to promote cooperative research and development activities among industry, universities, and the federal R&D [research and development] establishment designed to increase the competitiveness of American industry and to encourage the generation of new products, processes, and services. Collaborative ventures are intended to accommodate the strengths and responsibilities of all sectors involved in innovation and technology development. Academia, industry, and government often have complementary functions. Joint projects allow for the sharing of costs, risks, facilities, and expertise. […] Federal efforts to encourage cooperative activities include the National Cooperative Research Act; the National Cooperative Production Act; tax changes permitting credits for industry payments to universities for R&D and deductions for contributions of equipment used in academic research; and amendments to the patent laws vesting title to inventions made under federal funding in universities. Technology transfer from the government to the private sector is facilitated by several laws. In addition, there are various ongoing cooperative programs supported by multiple federal departments and agencies. Given the increased popularity of cooperative programs, questions might be raised as to whether they are meeting expectations. Among the issues before Congress are whether joint ventures contribute to industrial competitiveness and what role, if any, the government has in facilitating such arrangements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Schacht, Wendy H.

  2011-12-07
• Small-scale Terrorist Attacks Using Chemical and Biological Agents: An Assessment Framework and Preliminary Comparisons [May 20, 2004]

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  "This report, which will be updated as necessary, presents a means of assessing the relative threat from terrorist-use of individual chemical, biological, and toxin agents. It focuses on small-scale, targeted chemical and biological attacks, rather than mass-casualty attacks. The framework considers the elements of access, public health impact, medical treatment, prophylaxis, and dissemination. Other factors that may affect potential use by terrorists include the range of lethality, covert employment of an agent, and the availability of dual-use technologies. The results of this framework may be useful in addressing the threat these agents pose, for example by indicating priorities for countermeasure funding. Other uses include weighing the potential effectiveness of policy options, assessing threat reduction approaches to specific agents, and serving as a resource for developing other specialized frameworks."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Shea, Dana A.; Gottron, Frank

  2004-05-20
• Navy LPD-17 Amphibious Ship Procurement: Background, Issues, and Options for Congress [November 29, 2011]

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  "The Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests funding for the procurement of an 11th San Antonio (LPD-17) class amphibious ship. The Navy intends this ship to be the final ship in the class. The ship has received $184.0 million in prior-year advance procurement (AP) funding, and the Navy's proposed FY2012 budget requests the remaining $1,847.4 million needed to complete the ship's estimated procurement cost of $2,031.4 million. The Navy plans to begin procuring a new class of amphibious ship called the LSD(X) in FY2017. Some observers have suggested using the LPD-17 design as the basis for the LSD(X). Navy officials do not stress this option and instead appear more interested in developing an all-new design for the LSD(X). If a decision were made to use the LPD-17 design as the basis for the LSD(X), then procuring a 12th LPD-17 in FY2014 or FY2015 would help keep the LPD-17 production line open until the procurement of the first LSD(X) in FY2017, which in turn might help reduce LSD(X) production costs. Issues for Congress include whether to approve, reject, or modify the Navy's proposed funding request for the 11th LPD-17, whether to encourage or direct the Navy to use the LPD-17 design as the basis for the design of the LSD(X), and--particularly if the LPD-17 design is used as the basis for the LSD(X)--whether to fund the procurement of a 12th LPD-17 in FY2014 or FY2015."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  O'Rourke, Ronald

  2011-11-29
• Conventional Prompt Global Strike and Long-Range Ballistic Missiles: Background and Issues [December 8, 2011]

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  "Prompt global strike (PGS) would allow the United States to strike targets anywhere on Earth with conventional weapons in as little as an hour. This capability may bolster U.S. efforts to deter and defeat adversaries by allowing the United States to attack high-value targets or 'fleeting targets' at the start of or during a conflict. Congress has generally supported the PGS mission, but it has restricted funding and suggested some changes in funding for specific programs. Many analysts believe that the United States should use long-range ballistic missiles armed with conventional warheads for the PGS mission. These weapons would not substitute for nuclear weapons in the U.S. war plan but would, instead, provide a 'niche' capability, with a small number of weapons directed against select, critical targets, which might expand the range of U.S. conventional options. Some analysts, however, have raised concerns about the possibility that U.S. adversaries might misinterpret the launch of a missile with conventional warheads and conclude that the missiles carry nuclear weapons. […] These include not only ballistic missiles and boost-glide systems, but also bombers, cruise missiles, and possibly scramjets or other advanced technologies. Finally, Congress is likely to question how the New START [Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty] Treaty, signed by the United States and Russia in April 2010, would affect U.S. plans for the CPGS [conventional prompt global strike] mission. Warheads deployed on boost-glide systems would not be affected by the treaty because these are new types of strategic offensive arms. But those deployed in existing types of reentry vehicles on existing types of ballistic missiles, like the Navy's CTM [Conventional Trident modification] program, would count against the treaty limits. This report will be updated as needed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Woolf, Amy F.

  2011-12-08
• Army Corps of Engineers Water Resource Projects: Authorization and Appropriations [December 5, 2011]

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  "The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers undertakes activities to maintain navigable channels, reduce flood and storm damage, and restore aquatic ecosystems. Congress directs the Corps through authorizations, appropriations, and oversight of its studies, construction projects, and other activities. Historically, the agency's authorizations and appropriations have been largely project[-]based, with the projects being in specific locations. There is some uncertainty about legislation related to the Corps during the 112th Congress, in light of the House Republican Conference standing order in its conference rule and the Senate Republican Conference resolution supporting a moratorium on Member earmark requests. This report summarizes congressional authorization and appropriations processes for the Corps and explains the standard Corps project development process. It also discusses agency activities under general authorities. […] Congress generally authorizes Corps activities and provides policy direction in Water Resources Development Acts (WRDAs). Beginning in 1986, a biennial WRDA consideration was loosely followed; enactment has been less regular. The most recent WRDA was enacted in 2007 (P.L. 110-114). Pressure to authorize new projects, increase authorized funding levels, and modify existing projects promotes fairly regular WRDA consideration. WRDAs historically have been omnibus bills including many provisions for site[-]specific activities. Authorizations of many Corps activities were included under the House Republican Conference 2010 moratorium on Members requesting earmarks. Congress also authorizes some studies through resolutions passed by an authorizing committee. […] Congress has granted the Corps some general authorities to undertake some studies, small projects, technical assistance, and emergency actions such as flood-fighting and repair of damaged levees. Additionally, the Corps conducts emergency response actions directed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Carter, Nicole T.; Stern, Charles V.

  2011-12-05
• Clean Air Act Issues in the 108th Congress [Updated January 9, 2004]

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  From the Summary: "The conference report on the energy bill (H.R. 6), which came to the House and Senate floor for action the week of November 17, contains several Clean Air Act provisions. The most prominent of these concerns the gasoline additives MTBE [Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether] and ethanol, which are used to meet Clean Air Act requirements that reformulated gasoline (RFG) sold in the nation's worst ozone non-attainment areas contain at least 2% oxygen, to improve combustion. MTBE has been implicated in numerous incidents of ground water contamination. H.R. 6 would ban the use of MTBE as a fuel additive nationwide, except in states that specifically authorize its use, after December 31, 2014, unless the President determines not to ban it [...] H.R. 6 would also extend Clean Air Act deadlines for areas that have not attained ozone air quality standards, if upwind areas contribute to their nonattainment. Besides the provisions in the energy bill, the most prominent air quality issue in recent months has been what to do about emissions from coal-fired electric power plants. [...] The Administration and several members of Congress have also proposed legislation on the subject- a group of bills referred to as 'multi-pollutant' legislation. [...] Controversy has arisen over EPA's [Environmental Protection Agency's] proposed and promulgated changes to the Clean Air Act's New Source Review (NSR) requirements. NSR imposes emission controls on modifications of power plants and other major facilities. Since December 31, 2002, EPA has promulgated several changes to streamline (and, many argue, weaken) the NSR requirements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.

  2004-01-09
• Federal Communications Commission: Current Structure and Its Role in the Changing Telecommunications Landscape [December 6, 2011]

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  "The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent federal agency with its five members appointed by the President, subject to confirmation by the Senate. It was established by the Communications Act of 1934 (1934 Act) and is charged with regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. The mission of the FCC is to ensure that the American people have available--at reasonable cost and without discrimination--rapid, efficient, nation- and world-wide communication services, whether by radio, television, wire, satellite, or cable. […] Most of the FCC's budget is derived from regulatory fees collected by the agency rather than through a direct appropriation. The fees, often referred to as 'Section (9) fees,' are collected from license holders and certain other entities (e.g., cable television systems) and deposited into an FCC account. The law gives the FCC authority to review the regulatory fees and to adjust the fees to reflect changes in its appropriation from year to year. It may also add, delete, or reclassify services under certain circumstances. The FY2012 budget is included in H.R. 2434, the Financial Services and General Government Appropriations Act of 2012. The House Appropriations Committee reported the bill on July 7, 2011. For FY2012, the House Appropriations Committee approved $319,004,000 for agency salaries and expenses with no direct appropriation (all funding will be obtained through the collection of regulatory fees). This level is $16,790,000 less than FY2011 and $39,797,000 less than the request. Additional details of the budget can be found in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R41340, 'Financial Services and General Government (FSGG): FY2011 Appropriations.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Figliola, Patricia Moloney

  2011-12-06
• Safe Drinking Water Act: State Revolving Fund Program [Updated May 10, 2004]

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  "In the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments of 1996 (P.L. 104-182), Congress authorized a drinking water state revolving loan fund (DWSRF) program to help public water systems finance infrastructure projects needed to comply with federal drinking water regulations and to protect public health. Under this program, states receive capitalization grants to make loans for drinking water projects and to support certain other SDWA activities. The DWSRF program was authorized at $1 billion annually through FY2003. Since the program was first funded in FY1997, Congress has provided $6.94 billion, including $844.9 million for FY2004. Through June 2003, the DWSRF program had provided $6.37 billion in assistance and supported 5,333 projects. For FY2005, the Administration has requested $850 million for this program. The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) 2001 survey of capital improvement needs for public water systems indicated that communities need to invest $150.9 billion on drinking water infrastructure improvements over the next 20 years. Interest in addressing infrastructure funding needs and related issues continues in the 108th Congress. Key issues include the gap between estimated needs and funding, SDWA compliance and cost issues, particularly for small systems, and the availability of funds for security improvements. Bills have been introduced to increase DWSRF funding levels and to provide grants to small systems. This report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Tiemann, Mary

  2004-05-10
• MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, June 11, 2021

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  The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Series is prepared by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). [It] is the agency's primary vehicle for scientific publication of timely, reliable, authoritative, accurate, objective, and useful public health information and recommendations. This issue of MMWR contains the following: "Progress Toward Rubella Elimination -- World Health Organization European Region, 2005-2019"; "Impact of the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] Pandemic on Administration of Selected Routine Childhood and Adolescent Vaccinations -- 10 U.S. Jurisdictions, March-September 2020"; "Genomic Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2] Variants Circulating in the United States, December 2020-May 2021"; "Hospitalization of Adolescents Aged 12-17 Years with Laboratory-Confirmed COVID-19 -- COVID-NET [Coronavirus Disease 2019-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network], 14 States, March 1, 2020-April 24, 2021"; "Decreases in COVID-19 Cases, Emergency Department Visits, Hospital Admissions, and Deaths Among Older Adults Following the Introduction of COVID-19 Vaccine -- United States, September 6, 2020-May 1, 2021"; and "'QuickStats': Percentage of Children Aged 2-17 Years Who Wear Glasses or Contact Lenses, by Sex and Age Group -- National Health Interview Survey, United States, 2019."

  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.)

  2021-06-11
• Losing Ground: U.S. Competitiveness in Critical Technologies, Hearing Before the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House of Representatives, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress, Second Session, January 29, 2020

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  This is the January 29, 2020 hearing on "Losing Ground: U.S. Competitiveness in Critical Technologies," held before the U.S. House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology. From the opening statement of Eddie Bernice Johnson: "United States leadership in science and technology has long given U.S. companies a competitive advantage, which in turn has led to job creation and increased standards of living for all Americans. It has also bolstered our national defense. However, as recent reports have underscored, the United States has already begun to face the consequences of our inability to make strategic and sustained long-term investments in our science and technology enterprise." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Diane Souvaine, Eric Schmidt, and Chaouki Abdallah.

  United States. Government Publishing Office

  2021
• Terrorism and Transnational Crime: Foreign Policy Issues for Congress [October 19, 2012]

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  From the Summary: "This report provides an overview of transnational security issues related to patterns of interaction among international terrorist and crime groups. In addition, the report discusses the U.S. government's perception of and response to the threat. It concludes with an analysis of foreign policy options. In recent years, the U.S. government has asserted that terrorism, insurgency, and crime interact in varied and significant ways, to the detriment of U.S. national security interests. Although unclassified anecdotal evidence largely serves as the basis for the current understanding of criminal-terrorist connections, observers often focus on several common patterns. [...] To combat these apparent criminal-terrorist connections, Congress has maintained a role in formulating U.S. policy responses. Moreover, recent Administrations have issued several strategic documents to guide U.S. national security, counterterrorism, anti-crime, and intelligence activities. […] While the U.S. government has maintained substantial long-standing efforts to combat terrorism and transnational crime separately, Congress has been challenged to evaluate whether the existing array of authorities, programs, and resources sufficiently respond to the combined crime-terrorism threat. Common foreign policy options have centered on diplomacy, foreign assistance, financial actions, intelligence, military action, and investigations. At issue for Congress is how to conceptualize this complex crime-terrorism phenomenon and oversee the implementation of cross-cutting activities that span geographic regions, functional disciplines, and a multitude of policy tools that are largely dependent on effective interagency coordination and international cooperation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rollins, John; Wyler, Liana Sun

  2012-10-19
• VA Housing: Guaranteed Loans, Direct Loans, and Specially Adapted Housing Grants [September 14, 2012]

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  From the Introduction: "The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) administers several programs that assist individual veterans in purchasing and/or rehabilitating homes. The specific ways in which the VA assists veterans include (1) guaranteeing home mortgages from private lenders (through the Loan Guaranty Program, a form of insurance) to help veterans obtain financing for home purchases, improvements, or refinancing; (2) providing direct loans for home purchases to Native American veterans and to purchasers of homes that are in the VA inventory due to default and foreclosure; and (3) extending grants and loans to veterans with service-connected disabilities so that they can adapt housing to fit their needs through the Specially Adapted Housing Program. This report discusses some of the legislative history behind each of these housing programs, and provides details about how the programs currently operate. There is a separate section on funding for VA loan programs, and the final section of the report discusses VA efforts to assist borrowers who face default and foreclosure. While the VA also provides housing assistance for homeless veterans, this report does not address these programs. For more information about homeless veterans and programs that assist them, see CRS Report RL34024, 'Veterans and Homelessness,' by Libby Perl."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Libby

  2012-09-14
• More Hires, Fewer Hacks: Developing the U.S. Cybersecurity Workforce, Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Research and Technology of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House of Representatives, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress, Second Session, February 11, 2020

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  This is the February 11, 2020 hearing on "More Hires, Fewer Hacks: Developing the U.S. Cybersecurity Workforce," held before the U.S. House Subcommittee on Research and Technology of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology. From the opening statement of Haley Stevens: "Almost every day, we hear news about security breaches, poor system design, and vulnerabilities disrupting businesses and individuals' lives. Part of the reason cybersecurity issues are so prevalent is that the demand for skilled cybersecurity professionals far exceeds the supply of those individuals. According to CyberSeek, a tool funded by the National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education (NICE), as of last month there are over a half a million job openings related to cybersecurity in the United States. That's job openings. That means nearly one in three cybersecurity jobs go unfilled." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Rodney Petersen, Ambareen Siraj, Joseph Sawasky, and Sonya Miller.

  United States. Government Publishing Office

  2021
• Statutes of Limitation in Federal Criminal Cases: An Overview [October 1, 2012]

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  From the Introduction: "The Constitution's speedy trial clause protects the criminally accused against unreasonable delays between his indictment and trial. Before indictment, the statutes of limitation, and in extreme circumstances, the due process clauses protect the accused from unreasonable delays. The anti-terrorism measures of the USA PATRIOT Act made substantial alterations in the statutes of limitation that govern a number of federal crimes. This is an overview of federal law relating to the statutes of limitation in criminal cases, including those changes produced by the act. The phrase 'statute of limitations' refers to the time period within which formal criminal charges must be brought after a crime has been committed. 'The purpose of a statute of limitations is to limit exposure to criminal prosecution to a certain fixed period of time following the occurrence of those acts the legislature has decided to punish by criminal sanctions. Such a limitation is designed to protect individuals from having to defend themselves against charges when the basic facts may have become obscured by the passage of time and to minimize the danger of official punishment because of acts in the far-distant past. Such a time limit may also have the salutary effect of encouraging law enforcement officials promptly to investigate suspected criminal activity.' Therefore, in most instances, prosecutions are barred if the defendant points out that there was no indictment or other formal charge within the time period dictated by the statute of limitations. Statutes of limitation are creatures of statute. The common law recognized no period of limitation. An indictment could be brought at any time. Limitations are recognized today only to the extent that a statute or due process dictates their recognition. Congress and most state legislatures have enacted statutes of limitation, but declare that prosecution for some crimes may be brought at any time."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Doyle, Charles

  2012-10-01
• Veterans' Medical Care: FY2006 Appropriations [January 17, 2006]

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  From the Summary: "The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provides benefits to veterans who meet certain eligibility rules. Benefits to veterans range from disability compensation and pensions to hospital and medical care. VA provides these benefits to veterans through three major operating units: the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), the Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA) and the National Cemetery Administration (NCA). VHA is primarily a direct service provider of primary care, specialized care, and related medical and social support services to veterans through an integrated health care system. […] On November 30, 2005, the Military Construction, Military Quality of Life and Veterans Affairs Appropriations Act, 2006 (P.L.109-114) was signed into law. This act provided $22.5 billion for medical services, of which $1.2 billion was designated as an emergency appropriation. P.L. 109-114 also appropriated $2.9 billion for medical administration, $3.3 billion for medical facilities, and $412 million for medical and prosthetic research. On December 30, 2005, the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2006 (P.L.109-148, H.Rept. 109-359) was signed into law, providing an additional $225 million for VHA for FY2006 and excluding VA programs from a 1% across-the-board rescission for all non-emergency discretionary programs. The total amount of funds appropriated for VHA for FY2006 is $29.3 billion. The total amount of funds available for VHA is $31.5 billion, including $2.2 billion in collections. In its FY2006 budget submission to Congress, the Administration proposed several legislative and regulatory changes to increase certain copayments and other cost-sharing charges for certain veterans. P.L.109-114 did not include any of the Administration's cost-sharing proposals for VHA. This report will be not be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Panangala, Sidath Viranga

  2006-01-17
• United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: Issues in the U.S. Ratification Debate [September 20, 2012]

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  From the Introduction: "The Senate may consider providing its advice and consent to U.S. ratification of the United Nations (U.N.) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD, or the Convention) during the second session of the 112th Congress. CRPD is the only multilateral treaty that specifically aims to protect the rights of those who are disabled. To date, 153 countries, including the United States, have signed the Convention, and it has been ratified or acceded to by 119 countries. President Barack Obama signed CRPD on behalf of the United States on July 30, 2009. He transmitted it to the Senate for advice and consent to ratification in May 2012, where it was received and referred to the Committee on Foreign Relations (SFRC). The committee reported the Convention favorably to the full Senate on July 31, 2012 […]. Generally, issues related to disability rights have received bipartisan agreement in Congress, and there has been support for CRPD among some Senators from both parties. Many policymakers--including those in the Obama Administration--agree that existing U.S. laws are generally in line with CRPD's provisions, and that no U.S. laws or policies would change as a result of U.S. ratification of the Convention. At the same time, other policymakers contend that ratification of CRPD would adversely affect U.S. sovereignty and interests. If the full Senate were to consider providing its advice and consent to CRPD ratification, a number of issues may be discussed. For example, some policymakers have expressed concern regarding the Convention's possible impact on existing U.S. laws and policies, particularly the role and authority of CRPD's monitoring body, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  DeBergh, James V.; Blanchfield, Luisa; Brougher, Cynthia M.

  2012-09-20
• Electoral College: How It Works in Contemporary Presidential Elections [October 22, 2012]

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  From the Introduction: "The President and Vice President of the United States are chosen indirectly by a group of persons elected by American voters. These officials are known as electors, and the institution is referred to collectively as the electoral college. The electoral college, and the system that has grown up around it, are criticized by some as an undemocratic anachronism, and praised by others as a pillar of political stability and the federal system. Absent a constitutional amendment, or the success of non-governmental 'reform' initiatives, however, this system will continue to govern U.S. presidential elections for the foreseeable future. While the electoral college has delivered 'the people's choice' in 47 of 51 elections since ratification of the 12th Amendment, it can and has delivered Presidents who received fewer popular votes than their major opponents. Moreover, in the highly charged political atmosphere of contemporary presidential elections, a tie vote in the college, the failure of any candidate to receive a majority of electoral votes, or an extremely close election--in either popular or electoral votes--could lead to an acrimonious and protracted political struggle, or even a constitutional crisis. Historically, since ratification of the 12th Amendment, the elections of 1824, 1876, and 1888 revealed the weaknesses of the system, and in the case of 1824 and 1876, arguably brought the nation to the brink of civil violence. More recently, the controversial presidential election of 2000, in which George W. Bush narrowly won the electoral vote and the presidency with fewer popular votes than his major opponent, Al Gore, Jr., continues to influence the tone and content of American political discourse more than a decade later. The potential for a similar or even more bitterly contested struggle in a future election argues for a reasonable level of familiarity with the various components and functions of this complex institution, which this report seeks to provide."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Neale, Thomas H.

  2012-10-22
• Normal-Trade-Relations (Most-Favored-Nation) Policy of the United States [Updated December 15, 2005]

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  From the Summary: "In international trade, the term most-favored-nation (MFN) treatment has a meaning at variance with what it appears to mean: the expression means equal--rather than exclusively favorable--treatment and is often used interchangeably with 'nondiscriminatory.' To make this distinction clearer and avoid a possibly misleading interpretation of the most-favored-nation term, legislation was enacted in 1998 to replace it in U.S. law with the term 'normal trade relations,' or NTR. In this report, both terms are used interchangeably with 'nondiscriminatory.' The United States accords general MFN treatment as a matter of international obligation as well statutory policy to all trading partners; however, MFN tariff treatment of several countries has been suspended under specific legislation. Virtually all such suspensions, initially applied to 21 countries or political entities, took place under the mandate of the Trade Agreements Extension Act of 1951, and two more under country-specific legislation. MFN tariff treatment of countries suspended under the 1951 law can be restored and maintained in effect for one-year periods by using the procedure provided under Title IV of the Trade Act of 1974 for such restoration to 'nonmarket economy' (NME) countries. Under this procedure, an NME country needs to conclude with the United States a trade agreement containing a reciprocal MFN clause, and be in compliance with the criteria of the Jackson-Vanik (J-V) freedom-of-emigration provision of that act. The two countries whose MFN status was suspended by country-specific legislation could -- and did -- have it restored by Presidential action under conditions specified in the suspending law."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Pregelj, Vladimir N.

  2005-12-15
• Fannie Mae's and Freddie Mac's Financial Problems [July 23, 2012]

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  From the Summary: "The continuing conservatorship of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac at a time of uncertainty in the housing, mortgage, and financial markets has raised doubts about the future of these enterprises, which are chartered by Congress as government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) and whose debts are widely believed to be implicitly guaranteed by the federal government. In 2008, the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA) replaced the Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight (OFHEO) as the GSEs' safety and soundness regulator and took them into conservatorship. OFHEO had repeatedly assured investors that Fannie and Freddie had adequate capital, but as highly leveraged financial intermediaries, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac had limited capital to cushion themselves against losses. […] Once Treasury's support for Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac ends, sometime after 2012, the GSEs will be challenged to pay the 10% annual cash dividend contained in their contracts. The enterprises could instead pay a 12% annual senior preferred stock dividend indefinitely. In August 2011, Standard & Poor's downgraded the debt of the federal government, Fannie Mae, and Freddie Mac. To date, there is no evidence that this has increased mortgage interest rates, but the impact may take longer to occur or to be detected. Legislation introduced in the 112th Congress, the future of the GSEs, and ways to reduce the cost to the federal government are analyzed in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R41822, 'Proposals to Reform Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in the 112th Congress', by N. Eric Weiss."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Weiss, N. Eric

  2012-07-23
• Puerto Rico's Political Status and the 2012 Plebiscite: Background and Key Questions [October 2, 2012]

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  From the Summary: "For the first time since 1998, voters in Puerto Rico are preparing to reconsider the island's relationship with the federal government. Voters will be asked to answer two questions: (1) whether they wish to maintain the status quo or pursue a new relationship and (2) regardless of the choice in the first question, whether they prefer statehood, independence, or to be a 'sovereign free associated state.' Although the November 2012 status vote, termed a 'plebiscite,' is nonbinding, Congress will likely be asked to consider the result and may choose to engage in oversight or legislation on the issue. Regardless of the outcome, the plebiscite is likely to be followed closely in Puerto Rico and Washington. Whether initiated by the Puerto Rican people or Congress, any change in the island's political status would require congressional action. Beyond the plebiscite, Congress has broad jurisdiction over territories and routinely monitors status developments. Some Members of Congress--especially those with large Puerto Rican constituencies or personal connections to Puerto Rico--also closely follow the issue. 'Political status'--a term of art referring to the relationship between the federal government and a territorial government--is perhaps the defining issue in Puerto Rican politics and the island's interactions with the mainland. This report will be updated periodically as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Garrett, R. Sam, 1977-

  2012-10-02
• America COMPETES Acts: FY2008-FY2013 Funding Tables [October 16, 2012]

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  From the Summary: "Major provisions of the America COMPETES [Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education, and Science] Reauthorization Act of 2010 are set to expire in 2013. As such, the 113th Congress will have the opportunity to reconsider this act and its policy contributions. Those contributions include, among other things, funding authorizations for certain federal physical sciences and engineering research programs, as well as selected STEM (i.e., science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education programs. To aid Congress in its deliberations over future funding for these policies, this report tracks historical federal funding associated with the America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-358) and its predecessor, the America COMPETES Act (P.L. 110-69). This report includes two tables summarizing authorizations and funding status for selected provisions of these acts over the course of their respective authorization periods. This report will be updated to reflect FY2013 congressional funding decisions when those decisions are final."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Gonzalez, Heather B.

  2012-10-16
• Ocean Climate Action: Solutions to the Climate Crisis H.R. 8632, H.R. 3548, H.R. 3919, H.R. 4093, H.R. 5390, H.R. 5589, H.R. 7387, H.R. 8253, and H.R. 8627, Legislative Hearing Before the Committee on Natural Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Sixteenth Congress, Second Session, November 17, 2020

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  This is the November 17, 2020 hearing on "Ocean Climate Action: Solutions to the Climate Crisis H.R. 8632, H.R. 3548, H.R. 3919, H.R. 4093, H.R. 5390, H.R. 5589, H.R. 7387, H.R. 8253, and H.R. 8627," held before the U.S. House Committee on Natural Resources. From the opening statement of Raul M. Grijalva: "Thank you to all the Members of Congress and witnesses for joining us today, as we have a conversation about my bill, the Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act. At over 300 pages long, the bill includes a number of provisions, many of which are bipartisan, to address the very serious problem of climate change. As the incoming Biden administration is going through its transition process, we must lay the groundwork to address climate change with the speed that this crisis demands. Turning to the legislation, the idea here is simple: A healthy ocean can help us fight the climate crisis. Our ocean has absorbed over one-third of our carbon emissions and 90 percent of the excess heat we have generated." Statements, letters, and materials submitted for the record include those of the following: Ray Hilborn, Kelly Kryc, Kelsey Leonard, and Jane Lubchenco.

  United States. Government Publishing Office

  2021
• Promising Practices from Law Enforcement's COVID-19 Response: Protecting the Public

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  From the Webpage: "To better understand how the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic has affected the criminal justice system in terms of the challenges it created and how agencies adapted to those challenges, the Priority Criminal Justice Needs Initiative conducted a series of panel workshops with representatives of different sectors within the system. One of the key goals of the discussions was to identify which adaptations presented promising practices that agencies should consider continuing beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. Two panel workshops were held with law enforcement representatives, one of which focused on agency management and the other of which focused on services and operations. Participants represented jurisdictions that are geographically dispersed and that included both large urban areas and smaller suburban or rural areas. There were representatives of police departments and sheriffs' offices and of crime laboratories and universities. A separate community workshop provided input on the broader effects of changes made by law enforcement agencies and the justice system more broadly."

  RAND Corporation

  Jackson, Brian A., 1972-; Vermeer, Michael J.D.; Woods, Dulani . . .

  2021
• Promising Practices from the Court System's COVID-19 Response: Ensuring Access to Justice While Protecting Public Health

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  From the Webpage: "To better understand how the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic has affected the criminal justice system in terms of the challenges it created and how agencies adapted to those challenges, the Priority Criminal Justice Needs Initiative conducted a series of panel workshops with representatives of different sectors within the system. One of the key goals of the discussions was to identify which adaptations presented promising practices that agencies should consider continuing beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. One such panel workshop brought together judges, court administrators, prosecutors, defense counsel, and academics to discuss how the pandemic has affected the court system. Participants represented jurisdictions that are geographically dispersed and included representatives from individual courts, statewide court systems, and cross-cutting organizations with national-level perspective. In addition, a separate community workshop provided input on the broader effects of changes made by court systems and the justice system more generally."

  RAND Corporation

  Jackson, Brian A., 1972-; Vermeer, Michael J.D.; Woods, Dulani . . .

  2021
• Promising Practices from Victim Services Providers' COVID-19 Response Protecting Victims and Those Who Serve Them

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  From the Webpage: "To better understand how the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic has affected the criminal justice system in terms of the challenges it created and how agencies adapted to those challenges, the Priority Criminal Justice Needs Initiative conducted a series of panel workshops with representatives of different sectors within the system. One of the key goals of the discussions was to identify which adaptations presented promising practices that agencies should consider continuing beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. One such panel workshop brought together both justice agency-based and community-based VSPs [victim services providers] and other experts to discuss how the pandemic has affected VSPs and their respective responses. In addition, a separate community workshop provided input on the broader effects of changes made by VSPs and the justice system more generally."

  RAND Corporation

  Jackson, Brian A., 1972-; Vermeer, Michael J.D.; Woods, Dulani . . .

  2021