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Turkey-U.S. Defense Cooperation: Prospects and Challenges [April 8, 2011]"Congress and the Obama Administration are seeking to manage longstanding bilateral and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)-based defense cooperation with Turkey at a time when a more independent Turkish foreign policy course and changes in regional security conditions are creating new challenges for both countries. Defense cooperation rooted in shared threat perceptions from the Cold War era and built on close U.S. ties with the Turkish military leadership now must be reconciled with a decline of the military's political influence in Turkish society and some negative turns in Turkish popular sentiment toward the United States over the past decade. At the same time, Turkey's importance as a U.S. ally has arguably increased on issues of global significance in its surrounding region that include Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and the Israeli-Palestinian peace process. In early 2011, Turkey's regional role has arguably become even more prominent--exemplified by its significant involvement politically and militarily on the question of NATO's intervention in Libya. How Congress and the Administration manage defense cooperation with Turkey in this evolving context is likely to have a significant bearing on U.S. national security interests, as well as on both U.S. and Turkish calculations of the mutual benefits and leverage involved in the cooperative relationship. Some officials and analysts believe that, in at least some respects, the United States needs Turkey more than Turkey needs the United States. Others counter that claims of Turkish leverage over the United States are exaggerated."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2011-04-08
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Israel: Possible Military Strike Against Iran's Nuclear Facilities [August 28, 2012]"Several published reports indicate that top Israeli decisionmakers are seriously considering whether to order a military strike on Iran's nuclear facilities, and if so, when. […] For Congress, the potential impact--short- and long-term--of an Israeli decision regarding Iran and its implementation is a critical issue of concern. By all accounts, such an attack could have considerable regional and global security, political, and economic repercussions, not least for the United States, Israel, and their bilateral relationship. […] The current Israeli government, President Barack Obama, and many Members of Congress have similar concerns about Iran's nuclear program. They appear to have a range of views on how best to address those shared concerns. Iran maintains that its nuclear program is solely for peaceful, civilian energy and research purposes, and U.S. intelligence assessments say that Iran has not made a decision to build nuclear weapons. However, Iran continues to enrich uranium in militarily hardened sites and questions remain about its nuclear weapons capabilities and intentions. […] This report has many aspects that are the subject of vigorous debate and remain fully or partially outside public knowledge. […] This is an update of a report dated March 28, 2012. However, the only updated material is the initial section entitled 'Developments from Late March to September 2012.'"Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim; Katzman, Kenneth; Gertler, Jeremiah . . .2012-08-28
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Israel: 2013 Elections Preview [January 8, 2013]"Close U.S.-Israel relations drive congressional interest in upcoming elections for Israel's 120-seat Knesset (parliament), scheduled for January 22, 2013. Israeli leadership decisions may have profound implications for matters of high U.S. priority, including potential threats from Iran and its non-state allies (such as Hezbollah and Hamas), issues of ongoing Israeli-Palestinian dispute, and political change in neighboring Arab states. The composition of a probable new coalition and government led by Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu could significantly influence Israeli decision[-]making, politics, and relations with the outside world, including the United States. In turn, this could affect U.S. popularity, credibility, and--ultimately--national security vis-à-vis the Middle East and more broadly."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2013-01-08
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations [November 7, 2012]"Since Israel's founding in 1948, successive U.S. Presidents and many Members of Congress have demonstrated a commitment to Israel's security and to maintaining close U.S.-Israel defense, diplomatic, and economic cooperation. U.S. and Israeli leaders have pursued common security goals and have developed close relations based on common perceptions of shared democratic values and religious affinities. U.S. policymakers often seek to determine how regional events and U.S. policy choices may affect Israel's security, and Congress provides active oversight of the executive branch's dealings with Israel and the broader Middle East. Some Members of Congress and some analysts criticize what they perceive as insufficiently critical support of Israel. Other than Afghanistan, Israel is the leading recipient of U.S. foreign aid and is a frequent purchaser of major U.S. weapons systems. The United States and Israel maintain close security cooperation - predicated on a U.S. commitment to maintain Israel's 'qualitative military edge' over other countries in its region. […] Israel's perceptions of security around its borders have changed since early 2011 as several surrounding Arab countries - including Egypt and Syria - have experienced political upheaval or transition. Of particular concern to Israel is the durability of its 33-year-old peace treaty with Egypt, where a new Islamist-led government may become more reflective of popular sentiment that includes anti-Israel strains. Israeli leaders continually call for urgent international action against Iran's nuclear program, and have hinted at the possibility of a unilateral military strike against Iran's nuclear facilities."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2012-11-07
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Israel: Possible Military Strike Against Iran's Nuclear Facilities [September 28, 2012]"Several published reports indicate that top Israeli decisionmakers are seriously considering whether to order a military strike on Iran's nuclear facilities, and if so, when. Twice in Israel's history, it has conducted air strikes aimed at halting or delaying what Israeli policymakers believed to be efforts to acquire nuclear weapons by a Middle Eastern state--destroying Iraq's Osirak reactor in 1981 and a facility the Israelis identified as a reactor under construction in Syria in 2007. Today, Israeli officials generally view the prospect of a nuclear-armed Iran as an unacceptable threat to Israeli security--with some describing it as an existential threat. This report analyzes key factors that may influence Israeli political decisions relating to a possible strike on Iranian nuclear facilities. These include, but are not limited to, the views of and relationships among Israeli leaders; the views of the Israeli public; U.S., regional, and international stances and responses as perceived and anticipated by Israel; Israeli estimates of the potential effectiveness and risks of a possible strike; and responses Israeli leaders anticipate from Iran and Iranian-allied actors--including Hezbollah and Hamas--regionally and internationally. For Congress, the potential impact--short- and long-term--of an Israeli decision regarding Iran and its implementation is a critical issue of concern. By all accounts, such an attack could have considerable regional and global security, political, and economic repercussions, not least for the United States, Israel, and their bilateral relationship. It is unclear what the ultimate effect of a strike would be on the likelihood of Iran acquiring nuclear weapons. The current Israeli government, President Barack Obama, and many Members of Congress have similar concerns about Iran's nuclear program. They appear to have a range of views on how best to address those shared concerns. Iran maintains that its nuclear program is solely for peaceful, civilian energy and research purposes, and U.S. intelligence assessments say that Iran has not made a decision to build nuclear weapons. However, Iran continues to enrich uranium in militarily hardened sites and questions remain about its nuclear weapons capabilities and intentions."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim; Katzman, Kenneth; Gertler, Jeremiah . . .2012-09-28
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Palestinian Initiatives for 2011 at the United Nations [October 24, 2011]"Many Members of Congress are actively interested in the question of possible U.N. action on Palestinian statehood. Congress could try to influence U.S. policy and the choices of other actors through the authorization and appropriation of foreign assistance to the Palestinians, the United Nations, and Israel and through oversight of the Obama Administration's diplomatic efforts. Changes to aid levels may depend on congressional views of how maintaining or changing aid levels could affect U.S. leverage and credibility in future regional and global contexts. [...] This report provides information on the U.N. framework and process for options being discussed, including overviews of the following topics: the United Nations and recognition of states, observer status in the United Nations, and the criteria and process for United Nations membership. The report also analyzes the prospects for avoiding further U.N. action by reaching an Israel-PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) agreement to resume negotiations, as well as the possibility of a compromise U.N. resolution that could set forth parameters for future Israeli-Palestinian negotiations but stop short of addressing the question of Palestinian statehood beyond expressing aspirations. It is difficult to predict the potential future implications of U.N. action on Palestinian statehood. Some observers speculate that tightened Israeli security with respect to the West Bank and Gaza and popular unrest or civil disobedience among Palestinians could ensue, depending on various scenarios."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim; Browne, Marjorie Ann2011-10-24
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations [February 29, 2012]"Since Israel's founding in 1948, successive U.S. Presidents and many Members of Congress have demonstrated a commitment to Israel's security and to maintaining close U.S.-Israel defense, diplomatic, and economic cooperation. U.S. and Israeli leaders have pursued common security goals and have developed close relations based on common perceptions of shared democratic values and religious affinities. U.S. policymakers often seek to determine how regional events and U.S. policy choices may affect Israel's security, and Congress provides active oversight of the executive branch's dealings with Israel and the broader Middle East. Some Members of Congress and some analysts criticize what they perceive as insufficiently critical support of Israel. Other than Afghanistan, Israel is the leading recipient of U.S. foreign aid and is a frequent purchaser of major U.S. weapons systems. The United States and Israel maintain close security cooperation-- predicated on a U.S. commitment to maintain Israel's 'qualitative military edge' over other countries in its region. […] Israel's perceptions of security around its borders have changed since early 2011 as several surrounding Arab countries--including Egypt and Syria--have experienced political upheaval or transition. […] Israel perceives threats from Iran and from Iranian-sponsored non-state actors such as the Lebanese Shiite group Hezbollah, as well as Hamas and other Sunni Islamist Palestinian militants in Gaza. […] Recent regional developments and Israeli reactions to them have reinforced the political impasse between Israel and the Palestinians on core issues in their longstanding conflict, calling into question the land-for-peace formula that has guided years of efforts to resolve the Israeli- Palestinian conflict. […] Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a robust diversified market economy and a vibrant parliamentary democracy. Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu and his Likud Party lead a coalition that is unusually stable relative to recent Israeli governments. […] Israel's political and social debates are being shaped in new ways by population increases within ultra-Orthodox and Russian-speaking communities and among Israel's Arab citizens and Jews of non-European descent." This report also includes a map and various tables.Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2012-02-29
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Israel: Possible Military Strike Against Iran's Nuclear Facilities [March 28, 2012]"Several published reports indicate that top Israeli decisionmakers now are seriously considering whether to order a military strike on Iran's nuclear facilities, and if so, when. Twice in Israel's history, it has conducted air strikes aimed at halting or delaying what Israeli policymakers believed to be efforts to acquire nuclear weapons by a Middle Eastern state--destroying Iraq's Osirak reactor in 1981 and a facility the Israelis identified as a reactor under construction in Syria in 2007. Today, Israeli officials generally view the prospect of a nuclear-armed Iran as an unacceptable threat to Israeli security--with some viewing it as an existential threat. This report analyzes key factors that may influence current Israeli political decisions relating to a possible strike on Iranian nuclear facilities. These include, but are not limited to, the views of and relationships among Israeli leaders; the views of the Israeli public; U.S., regional, and international stances and responses as perceived and anticipated by Israel; Israeli estimates of the potential effectiveness and risks of a possible strike; and responses Israeli leaders anticipate from Iran and Iranian-allied actors--including Hezbollah and Hamas--regionally and internationally."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim; Katzman, Kenneth; Gertler, Jeremiah2012-03-28
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Hamas: Background and Issues for Congress [December 2, 2010]"This report and its appendixes provide background information on Hamas, or the Islamic Resistance Movement, and U.S. policy towards it. It also includes information and analysis on (1) the threats Hamas currently poses to U.S. interests, (2) how Hamas compares with other Middle East terrorist groups, (3) Hamas's ideology and policies (both generally and on discrete issues), (4) its leadership and organization, and (5) its sources of assistance. Finally, the report raises and discusses various legislative and oversight options related to foreign aid strategies, financial sanctions, and regional and international political approaches. In evaluating these options, Congress can assess how Hamas has emerged and adapted over time, and also scrutinize the track record of U.S., Israeli, and international policy to counter Hamas. Hamas is a Palestinian Islamist military and sociopolitical movement that grew out of the Muslim Brotherhood. The United States, Israel, the European Union, and Canada consider Hamas a terrorist organization because of (1) its violent resistance to what it deems Israeli occupation of historic Palestine (constituting present-day Israel, West Bank, and Gaza Strip), and (2) its rejection of the off-and-on peace process involving Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) since the early 1990s. Since Hamas's inception in 1987, it has maintained its primary base of political support and its military command in the Gaza Strip--a territory it has controlled since June 2007--while also having a significant presence in the West Bank. The movement's political leadership is currently headquartered in exile in Damascus, Syria. Hamas receives assistance and training from Iran, Syria, and the Lebanese Shiite militant group Hezbollah."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2010-12-02
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Israel and the Palestinians: Prospects for a Two-State Solution [December 10, 2008]"One year after the formal renewal of direct talks at the November 2007 Annapolis Conference, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) have been unable to come to terms on a final-status peace agreement, despite possible signs of progress. Differences between the two sides continue over core issues such as borders, security, settlements, the status of Jerusalem, refugees, and water rights, despite their mutual acceptance of the concept of a negotiated 'two-state solution' that would establish a Palestinian state alongside Israel in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip pursuant to the principle of 'land for peace.' Previously when talks have faltered, the parties eventually returned to the negotiating table. Yet, there are a growing number of key actors and observers expressing doubts that the very concept of a negotiated two-state solution can survive a process in which talks are put on hold and resumed an indefinite number of times without finality. Some observers dismiss these doubts as mere tactics meant to prod either or both parties to action. Prospects for a two-state solution appear more tenuous given uncertainties that a consensus supporting the peace process will hold in the face of upcoming leadership transitions in the United States and Israel and conflicting claims to Palestinian leadership."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2008-12-10
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Libya: Background and U.S. Relations [February 18, 2011]"Major anti-government protests broke out in Libya on February 15 and have since intensified, eliciting violent government responses. The demonstrations are in opposition to the 42-year regime of Libya's leader, Muammar al Qadhafi. As of February 18, some sources have reported that opposition forces have taken over areas of Benghazi, Libya's second-largest city, and its surroundings in Libya's northeastern Mediterranean region of Cyrenaica. […] Current U.S. policy concerns, in addition to those linked with the ongoing unrest, include ensuring Libya's positive contribution to the security and economic prosperity of North Africa and the Sahel, securing commercial opportunities in Libya for U.S. firms, and addressing persistent human rights issues. The Obama Administration is requesting $875,000 in FY2011 foreign assistance funding for Libya programs. This report provides background information on Libya and U.S.-Libyan relations; discusses Libya's political and economic reform efforts; and reviews current issues of potential congressional interest."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceBlanchard, Christopher M.; Zanotti, Jim2011-02-18
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations [July 22, 2014]"The initial section of this report provides ongoing information and analysis on the July 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict. Since Israel's founding in 1948, successive U.S. Presidents and many Members of Congress have demonstrated a commitment to Israel's security and to maintaining close U.S.-Israel defense, diplomatic, and economic cooperation. U.S. and Israeli leaders have developed close relations based on common perceptions of shared democratic values and religious affinities. U.S. policy makers often seek to determine how events and U.S. policy choices in the Middle East may affect Israel's security, and Congress provides active oversight of executive branch dealings with Israel and other actors in the region. Some Members of Congress and some analysts criticize what they perceive as U.S. support for Israel without sufficient scrutiny of its actions or their implications for U.S. interests. Israel is a leading recipient of U.S. foreign aid and is a frequent purchaser of major U.S. weapons systems. The United States and Israel maintain close security cooperation-- predicated on a U.S. commitment and legal requirement to maintain Israel's 'qualitative military edge' over other countries in its region. The two countries signed a free trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. For more information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL33222, 'U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel,' by Jeremy M. Sharp."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2014-07-22
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations [July 31, 2014]"The initial section of this report provides information and analysis on the July 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict. Since Israel's founding in 1948, successive U.S. Presidents and many Members of Congress have demonstrated a commitment to Israel's security and to maintaining close U.S.-Israel defense, diplomatic, and economic cooperation. U.S. and Israeli leaders have developed close relations based on common perceptions of shared democratic values and religious affinities. U.S. policy makers often seek to determine how events and U.S. policy choices in the Middle East may affect Israel's security, and Congress provides active oversight of executive branch dealings with Israel and other actors in the region. Some Members of Congress and some analysts criticize what they perceive as U.S. support for Israel without sufficient scrutiny of its actions or their implications for U.S. interests. Israel is a leading recipient of U.S. foreign aid and is a frequent purchaser of major U.S. weapons systems. The United States and Israel maintain close security cooperation-- predicated on a U.S. commitment and legal requirement to maintain Israel's 'qualitative military edge' over other countries in its region. The two countries signed a free trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. For more information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL33222, 'U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel,' by Jeremy M. Sharp."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2014-07-31
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Palestinian Authority: U.S. Payments to Creditors as Alternative to Direct Budgetary Assistance?"A September 24, 2014, congressional notification (CN) from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) may reflect a new executive branch approach in assisting the Palestinian Authority (PA) to pay off some of the debts it incurs in providing various benefits and services to West Bank and Gaza residents. The CN indicates that USAID plans to obligate a total of $100 million in FY2014 bilateral economic assistance for the Palestinians toward direct U.S. payments to PA creditors, as follows: While not provided directly to the PA, $75 million in requested funds will be used to make payments directly to two Israeli fuel companies to pay a portion of the debt owed by the PA, and to make payments to the Bank of Jordan to reimburse the Bank for payments that the Bank has made on behalf of the PA for debt incurred for fuel purchased for the West Bank and Gaza…. An additional $25 million will be applied to a line of credit at the Bank of Jordan to reimburse the bank for debt payments made by the Bank on behalf of the PA to six non-governmental hospitals in East Jerusalem. [...] While scrutinizing the general desirability and timing of the assistance proposed in the CN and this apparently new approach to addressing PA debts, Congress may also consider what implications this approach might have for existing legal conditions on U.S. aid to the PA. It is unclear whether this approach might apply only to the specific payment that was notified, or might also be adopted for subsequent U.S. aid disbursements to the Palestinians."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2014-10-06
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Israel and Hamas: Another Round of Conflict [July 18, 2014]"Periodic violence between Palestinian militants in the Gaza Strip--including the Islamist group Hamas-- and Israel's military became a larger conflict on July 6-7, 2014, and Israel began a ground operation in Gaza on July 17 with the stated objective of destroying tunnels used by militants to infiltrate Israeli territory. Since the initial escalation, Hamas and other Palestinian militants have reportedly launched more than 1,000 rockets into Israel with longer ranges than in past conflicts, and Israel has conducted more than 1,900 strikes on targets in Gaza. Rockets and/or mortars have also reportedly been fired on Israeli-controlled territory from Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, in some cases provoking Israeli retaliatory fire. Additionally, Israel has reportedly shot down two Hamas drone aircraft and foiled a Hamas sea raid. Though casualty figures cannot be independently verified, apparently more than 220 Palestinians--many or most of them civilians, but also some prominent Hamas operatives--have been killed, more than 1,500 injured, and several thousand displaced. One Israeli civilian has reportedly been killed, with several injuries reported to other civilians and military personnel. Daily life on both sides faces continual disruption. Israel's Iron Dome anti-rocket system has reportedly intercepted approximately 90% of rockets it classifies as threats to sensitive targets (including population centers)." This Congressional Research Service Insight provides descriptions of Qassam rockets and Iron Dome missiles, in addition to a map showing how the range of Hamas' rockets has increased since 2001.Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2014-07-18
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Turkey-U.S. Cooperation Against the 'Islamic State': A Unique Dynamic?"Following the September 20, 2014, release by IS [Islamic State] of 49 hostages associated with the Turkish consulate in Mosul, Iraq, Turkish leaders have indicated willingness to expand the nature of Turkey's participation in the anti-IS coalition beyond the measures it reportedly began taking while the hostages were still in IS hands. These measures include curbing fighters' access to Syria and aiding humanitarian and logistical efforts. Turkey's openness to expanding its role possibly stems at least in part from calculations about what its coalition partners may demand in order to actively include Turkey in shaping developments in an area it views as crucially important. International concerns surrounding the fate of the IS-besieged, Kurdish-populated town of Kobane, Syria (also known as Ayn al Arab), are highlighting broader questions about whether, how, and under what conditions Turkey might become more involved. Turkey's parliament voted on October 2, 2014, to approve potential military operations in Syria and Iraq launched from Turkey by Turkish or foreign forces. On October 12, U.S. National Security Advisor Susan Rice stated that Turkey had agreed to allow the use of its territory by coalition forces to train 'moderate Syrian opposition forces' and to 'engage in activities inside of Iraq and Syria.' In apparent response to media speculation regarding whether such activities might include coalition use of Turkey's Incirlik air base for airstrikes in Syria or Iraq, Turkish officials subsequently stated that the use of Incirlik has not been agreed upon and that negotiations on the matter were ongoing." This report also contains a map of (1) NATO Presence (2) U.S. Military Ports and (3) U.S. Military Presence in Turkey.Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2014-10-21
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Palestinian Authority: U.S. Payments to Creditors as Alternative to Direct Budgetary Assistance? [October 20, 2014]"A September 24, 2014, congressional notification (CN) from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) reflects a new executive branch approach in assisting the Palestinian Authority (PA) to pay off some of the debts it incurs in providing various benefits and services to West Bank and Gaza residents. The CN indicates that USAID plans to obligate a total of $100 million in FY2014 bilateral economic assistance for the Palestinians toward direct U.S. payments to PA creditors, as follows: While not provided directly to the PA, $75 million in requested funds will be used to make payments directly to two Israeli fuel companies to pay a portion of the debt owed by the PA, and to make payments to the Bank of Jordan to reimburse the Bank for payments that the Bank has made on behalf of the PA for debt incurred for fuel purchased for the West Bank and Gaza…. An additional $25 million will be applied to a line of credit at the Bank of Jordan to reimburse the bank for debt payments made by the Bank on behalf of the PA to six non-governmental hospitals in East Jerusalem."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2014-10-20
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Jerusalem: Recent Israeli-Palestinian Tensions and Violence [November 20, 2014]From the Document: "The status of Jerusalem and its holy sites has been a long-standing issue of political and religious contention between Jews and Muslims. Recently, tensions have intensified owing to various factors, including: Efforts by some Israelis, including an anticipated Knesset bill, to emphasize Israel's claim to the Temple Mount (known by Muslims as the Haram al Sharif or Noble Sanctuary) and to gain greater Jewish access to and worship permissions on the Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif ('Mount/Haram'), which have elicited negative reactions from Palestinians and other Arabs. Various indications of direct or tacit Israeli official backing for greater Jewish settlement in East Jerusalem, including via announcements relating to construction of Jewish residential housing that is widely opposed internationally. A spiraling pattern of unrest and violence, including attacks and security responses that have killed or injured Israelis and Palestinians in Jerusalem, the West Bank, and some Arab communities in Israel."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2014-11-20
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations [November 1, 2013]"Since Israel's founding in 1948, successive U.S. Presidents and many Members of Congress have demonstrated a commitment to Israel's security and to maintaining close U.S.-Israel defense, diplomatic, and economic cooperation. U.S. and Israeli leaders have developed close relations based on common perceptions of shared democratic values and religious affinities. U.S. policymakers often seek to determine how regional events and U.S. policy choices may affect Israel's security, and Congress provides active oversight of executive branch dealings with Israel and the broader Middle East. Some Members of Congress and some analysts criticize what they perceive as U.S. support for Israel without sufficient scrutiny of its actions. Israel is a leading recipient of U.S. foreign aid and is a frequent purchaser of major U.S. weapons systems. The United States and Israel maintain close security cooperation--predicated on a U.S. commitment to maintain Israel's 'qualitative military edge' over other countries in its region. The two countries signed a free trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. […] Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a robust diversified economy and a vibrant democracy. Recent discoveries and exploitation of offshore natural gas raise the prospect of a more energy-independent future, while economic debates focus largely on cost-ofliving and income and labor distribution issues. Israel's demographic profile has evolved in a way that appears to be affecting its political orientation. Along with secular and nationalist Jews from various ethnic backgrounds, Jewish ultra-Orthodox, Russian-speaking, and Arab citizens significantly influence societal debates. The government formed by Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu in March 2013 features a set of coalition partners that is different from the previous government, largely due to electoral gains on socioeconomic issues by new national leaders such as Yair Lapid and Naftali Bennett."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2013-11-01
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations [February 28, 2014]"Since Israel's founding in 1948, successive U.S. Presidents and many Members of Congress have demonstrated a commitment to Israel's security and to maintaining close U.S.-Israel defense, diplomatic, and economic cooperation. U.S. and Israeli leaders have developed close relations based on common perceptions of shared democratic values and religious affinities. U.S. policy makers often seek to determine how events and U.S. policy choices in the Middle East may affect Israel's security, and Congress provides active oversight of executive branch dealings with Israel and other actors in the region. Some Members of Congress and some analysts criticize what they perceive as U.S. support for Israel without sufficient scrutiny of its actions or their implications for U.S. interests. Israel is a leading recipient of U.S. foreign aid and is a frequent purchaser of major U.S. weapons systems. The United States and Israel maintain close security cooperation-- predicated on a U.S. commitment and legal requirement to maintain Israel's 'qualitative military edge' over other countries in its region. The two countries signed a free trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. For more information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL33222, 'U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel', by Jeremy M. Sharp."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2014-02-28
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Turkey After June 2015 Elections: Erdogan and the AKP Fall Short [June 16, 2015]"Although Turkey's Islamist-rooted Justice and Development Party (AKP) won the most seats in parliamentary elections held on June 7, 2015, it lost the governing majority it had enjoyed since 2002--probably ending President Recep Tayyip Erdogan's ( ai r-doe-wan ) hopes for constitutional change to increase his formal powers. Many domestic and international observers have heralded the election results as a long overdue check on what they characterize as Erdogan's authoritarian and possibly Islamist ambitions.[...] The AKP fell short of a parliamentary majority, let alone the supermajority that would have enabled it to hold a popular referendum on a 'presidential system' configured to increase the overall power of the office and its current occupant (Erdogan). Some of the seats the AKP had counted on went to the Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP)--a party rooted in the Kurdish nationalist movement--when the HDP crossed Turkey's 10% minimum electoral threshold in the elections. HDP leader Selahattin Demirtas's ( day-meer-tosh ) strategy involved reaching out beyond the HDP's Kurdish base to liberal and secular Turks and other voters wary or weary of Erdogan. Many conservative and religious Kurds who are largely concentrated in southeastern Turkey and had supported the AKP in previous elections apparently turned to the HDP . Some observers also assert that the AKP lost support because voters were increasingly experiencing the effects of Turkey's recently slowed economy and weakened currency."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2015-06-16
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations In Brief [October 23, 2015]From the 'section 'Overview of U.S-Israel Relations': "For decades, strong bilateral relations have fueled and reinforced significant U.S.-Israel cooperation in many areas, including regional security. Nonetheless, at various points throughout the relationship, aligning U.S. and Israeli policies has presented challenges on some important issues. Notable differences regarding Iran and the Palestinians have arisen or intensified since 2009 during the tenures of President Obama and Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu. Israeli leaders have expressed some concerns about U.S. regional commitments and their potential implications for Israel, while U.S. officials have periodically shown unease regarding the compatibility of Israeli statements and actions with overall U.S. regional and international interests. However, both governments say that overall bilateral cooperation has continued and even increased by many measures in a number of fields such as defense, trade, and energy. Israeli leaders and significant segments of Israeli civil society regularly emphasize their shared values and ongoing commitments to political, economic, and cultural connections with the United States and the broader Western world. However, the future trajectory of Israel's ties with the United States and other international actors may be influenced by a number of factors including geopolitical realities, generational change, and demographic trends."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2015-10-23
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Kurds and Possible Iraqi Kurdish Independence [July 15, 2014]From the Document: "Approximately 30 million ethnic Kurds inhabit a largely mountainous region at the intersection of Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran. In recent years, Kurdish populations have increasingly influenced regional developments, particularly given ongoing conflict and change in Iraq and Syria and long-standing efforts by Turkey's Kurds to obtain greater political rights. These developments are of interest to Congress and the Obama Administration, in light of recent indications that the autonomous Kurdish region in northern Iraq may seek outright independence."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim; Katzman, Kenneth2014-07-15
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations In Brief [December 30, 2015]From the 'section 'Overview of U.S-Israel Relations': "For decades, strong bilateral relations have fueled and reinforced significant U.S.-Israel cooperation in many areas, including regional security. Nonetheless, at various points throughout the relationship, aligning U.S. and Israeli policies has presented challenges on some important issues. Notable differences regarding Iran and the Palestinians have arisen or intensified since 2009 during the tenures of President Obama and Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu. Israeli leaders have expressed some concerns about U.S. regional commitments and their potential implications for Israel, while U.S. officials have periodically shown unease regarding the compatibility of Israeli statements and actions with overall U.S. regional and international interests. However, both governments say that overall bilateral cooperation has continued and even increased by many measures in a number of fields such as defense, trade, and energy. Israeli leaders and significant segments of Israeli civil society regularly emphasize their shared values and ongoing commitments to political, economic, and cultural connections with the United States and the broader Western world. However, the future trajectory of Israel's ties with the United States and other international actors may be influenced by a number of factors including geopolitical realities, generational change, and demographic trends."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2015-12-30
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Turkey: Failed Coup and Implications for U.S. Policy [July 19, 2016]"On July 15-16, 2016, elements within the Turkish military tried, but failed, to seize political power from President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and Prime Minister Binali Yildirim. The perpetrators detained the military's top commanders, and declared (via Turkey's government broadcaster) that they had taken power, but failed in their efforts to seize Erdogan or other key leaders. Government officials used various traditional and social media platforms and alerts from mosque loudspeakers to rally Turkey's citizens in opposition to the plot. Resistance by security forces loyal to the government and civilians in key areas of Istanbul and Ankara succeeded in foiling the coup, though at least 104 rebels and 161 others were killed, and Turkey's parliament building in Ankara sustained damage from rebel airstrikes. The leaders of Turkey's opposition parties and key military commanders helped counter the coup attempt by publicly denouncing it. […] The failed coup and Turkey's trajectory in its aftermath could significantly impact U.S.-Turkey relations given Turkey's regional importance and membership in NATO. Secretary Kerry has dismissed allegations from some in Turkey about possible U.S. links to the coup attempt. Such allegations may partly stem from popular sensitivities about historical U.S. closeness to Turkey's military and recent U.S.-Turkey differences on domestic and foreign policy issues. U.S. officials had also faced questions earlier in 2016 about alleged U.S. involvement in plots against Erdogan."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2016-07-19
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief [September 16, 2016]"For decades, strong bilateral relations have fueled and reinforced significant U.S.-Israel cooperation in many areas, including regional security. Nonetheless, at various points throughout the relationship, aligning U.S. and Israeli policies has presented challenges on some important issues. Notable differences regarding regional issues--notably Iran and the Palestinians--have arisen or intensified since 2009, during the tenures of President Obama and Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu. Israeli leaders have expressed some concerns about the U.S. posture in the region and the potential implications for Israel, while U.S. officials have periodically shown unease regarding the compatibility of some Israeli statements and actions with overall U.S. regional and international interests. However, both governments say that bilateral cooperation has continued and even increased by many measures in a number of fields such as defense, trade, and energy. Israeli leaders and significant segments of Israeli civil society regularly emphasize their shared values and ongoing commitments to political, economic, and cultural connections with the United States and the broader Western world. However, the future trajectory of Israel's ties with the United States and other international actors may be influenced by a number of factors including geopolitics, generational change, and demographic trends. [...] Despite a lack of formal normalization, in recent years Israel has made common cause to some extent with various Arab states. Mutual concerns regarding Iran and its regional actions have presented opportunities for Israel to work discreetly with some Arab states in attempts to counter Iranian influence. Additionally, Israeli and Arab leaders have expressed similar concerns about the nature and effectiveness of U.S. engagement in the region on behalf of traditional U.S. partners."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2016-09-16
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations [October 28, 2016]"Since Israel's founding in 1948, successive U.S. Presidents and many Members of Congress have demonstrated a commitment to Israel's security and to close U.S.-Israel cooperation. Perceptions of shared democratic values and religious affinities have contributed to strong bilateral ties. The question of Israel's security regularly influences U.S. policy considerations regarding the Middle East, and Congress provides active oversight of executive branch dealings with Israel and other actors in the region. Israel is a leading recipient of U.S. foreign aid and a frequent purchaser of major U.S. weapons systems. [...] The two countries signed a free trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. Israel has many regional security concerns and aligning U.S. and Israeli policies to address these concerns has presented persistent challenges. In a dangerous and uncertain regional environment, Israel regularly seeks assurance that the United States will bolster its regional security standing and self-defense capabilities. [...] Israel has a robust economy and a vibrant democracy, though how to incorporate Arab citizens into the state and society remains challenging. Since late 2015, Israeli-Palestinian violence centered in Jerusalem and the West Bank has stoked domestic and international debate about Israel's dedication to the rule of law on matters involving Palestinians, and about the openness of Israel's political sphere and civil society to varying viewpoints. Continuing development of offshore natural gas finds raises the prospect of a more energy-independent future, while economic debates focus largely on cost-of-living and inequality issues. Various leaders vie for public support by interweaving ideology with ethnic, religious, demographic, socioeconomic, and national security considerations."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2016-10-28
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations [June 12, 2013]"U.S.-Israel defense, diplomatic, and economic cooperation has been close for decades. U.S. policymakers often consider Israel's security as they make policy choices in the region. Israel has relied on U.S. support for its defense posture, despite reported private and sometimes public disagreements between U.S. and Israeli officials on how to respond to and prioritize various security challenges. Congress provides active oversight of the executive branch's dealings with Israel. Some Members of Congress oppose what they perceive as U.S. support of Israel without sufficient scrutiny of Israel's actions. Other Members of Congress have criticized actions by the Obama Administration and previous U.S. Administrations for being insufficiently supportive of Israel, and occasionally have authorized and appropriated funding for programs benefitting Israel at a level exceeding that requested by the executive branch. U.S. approaches to a number of challenges in the Middle East have implications for Israel. For several years now, Israeli leaders have described Iran and its reported pursuit of a nuclear weapons capability as an imminent threat to Israeli security. Israeli officials have claimed that their window of opportunity to act on their own to delay, halt, or reverse Iranian progress toward a nuclear weapons capability is closing. Consequently, they have sought increasingly punitive international measures against Iran's nuclear program. Within this context, Israeli leaders have publicly hinted that absent a clear resolution of Iran's nuclear activity to their satisfaction, they may order the Israeli military to strike Iranian nuclear facilities. Many Israeli officials also are concerned with the rise of Islamist political movements and threats posed by violent jihadist terrorist groups emanating from ongoing regional political turmoil. Israel has few means of influencing political outcomes in Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, or Jordan, but developments in those states may significantly affect Israeli security. Syria's civil war is posing increasing risk to Israel, leading to limited Israeli military action and raising the possibility of more overt conflict involving the Asad regime and/or Hezbollah--which is directly intervening in support of the regime. Instability in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula has already been used by militant groups--probably including Al Qaeda-style Palestinian cells--for attacks on Israeli targets. At the same time, many large and small Israeli population centers remain threatened by rocket fire from Hamas and other terrorist groups in Gaza."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2013-06-12
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U.S. Security Assistance to the Palestinian Authority [January 8, 2010]"Since shortly after the establishment of limited Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip in the mid-1990s, the United States has periodically provided assistance to the Palestinian Authority (PA) for civil security and counterterrorism purposes. Following the death of Yasser Arafat in late 2004 and the election of Mahmoud Abbas as his successor as PA president in early 2005, then-U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice created the office of U.S. Security Coordinator (USSC) for Israel and the Palestinian Authority to help reform, train, and equip PA security forces which had been personally beholden to Arafat and his political allies. The USSC has been charged with helping professionalize and consolidate PA forces and with coordinating their activity with Israeli officials pursuant to both sides' obligations under the 2003 'Performance-Based Roadmap to a Permanent Two-State Solution to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict' (or 'Roadmap'--see 'Roadmap Obligations' text box below). These obligations are predicated on the understanding that security is a core issue upon which Israeli-Palestinian peace depends. Previous Israeli-Palestinian efforts at security cooperation collapsed during the second Palestinian 'intifada' (also known as the Al Aqsa 'intifada', or 'uprising') that took place earlier this decade."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2010-01-08
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Israel After the 2015 Elections: What Does Netanyahu's Victory Mean for U.S. Policy? [March 24, 2015]"The Israeli Knesset elections held on March 17, 2015, were a subject of significant interest for the United States. The leading candidates openly differed on how to manage disagreements with the United States and the international community on various matters, though how that might have translated into substantively different policy stances is unclear. The timing and manner of official Israeli statements and actions influence regional and international attitudes and developments, and may shape how the Obama Administration and Congress work together and with Israel on these issues. Since the beginning of March 2015, Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu has [1] spoken assertively at a joint meeting of Congress in opposition to the presumed parameters of a possible diplomatic agreement on Iran's nuclear program; [2] appeared to renounce his previously expressed willingness to accept the creation of a Palestinian state, before claiming shortly after the election that he still supports a 'two-state solution' in principle but not under current realities; [3] declared that foreign sources were funding and advising Israeli left-leaning and Arab groups in an effort to unseat him, amid evidence of substantial private American support for both Netanyahu's right-of-center Likud party and its main rival--the left-of-center Zionist Union."Library of Congress. Congressional Research ServiceZanotti, Jim2015-03-24