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Kosovo and U.S. Policy: Background and Current Issues [Updated July 3, 2007]
"In 1998 and 1999, the United States and its NATO allies attempted to put an end to escalating violence between ethnic Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav/Serb forces in Yugoslavia's Kosovo province in southern Serbia. These efforts culminated in a 78-day NATO bombing campaign (Operation Allied Force) against Serbia from March until June 1999, when then-Yugoslav leader Slobodan Milosevic agreed to withdraw his forces from the province. Since then, Kosovo has been governed by a combination of U.N. and local Kosovar interim governing structures. Under the terms of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1244, the U.N. Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) retained ultimate political authority in the province. A NATO-led peacekeeping force, KFOR, was charged with providing a secure environment. UNSC Resolution 1244 did not settle Kosovo's disputed status, but called for status to be considered at an undetermined time after an autonomous government was in place. Almost all ethnic Albanians want independence for Kosovo; Serbs say Kosovo remains an integral part of Serbia. In mid-2005, the U.N. began a lengthy process to address Kosovo's status. After some delays, U.N. envoy and former Finnish President Martti Ahtisaari released in early 2007 a status proposal calling for Kosovo's independence with extensive minority rights and some limits to its sovereignty. Ahtisaari formally presented his proposal to the U.N. Security Council on March 26 with the explicit recommendation that Kosovo achieve supervised independence."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie; Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-07-03
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Belarus: Background and U.S. Policy Concerns [Updated April 24, 2007]
"In a little over a decade, Belarusian President Aleksandr Lukashenko has snuffed out Belarus's modest progress toward democracy and a free market economy and created an authoritarian, Soviet-style regime. Lukashenko won re-election by an overwhelming margin. Belarus's economy is the most unreformed in Europe, according to an assessment by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). Belarus has close historical and cultural ties to Russia. Efforts to establish a political and economic 'union' between the two countries have had substantial public support in Belarus. Nevertheless, the pace of integration between Belarus and Russia remains slow. […] U.S. officials have criticized Lukashenko as 'Europe's last dictator.' They have also expressed concerns about Belarus's arms sales and other ties to rogue regimes, such Saddam Hussein's Iraq. The United States pursues a policy of 'selective engagement,' which limits ties to the regime, while providing modest support to pro-democracy organizations in Belarus. The United States and the European Union have imposed sanctions on top Belarusian leaders. Congress has responded to the situation in Belarus with legislation. The Belarus Democracy Act, signed by President Bush in October 2004 (P.L. 108-347), authorizes aid for pro-democracy forces in Belarus and […] supports sanctions on Belarus and top leaders of the Lukashenko regime […]. The bill also requires the President to report within 90 days and every year thereafter on the sale by Belarus of weapons or weapons-related assistance to regimes supporting terrorism, and on the personal wealth of Lukashenko and other senior Belarusian leaders."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-04-24
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Kosovo and U.S. Policy: Background and Current Issues [Updated April 26, 2007]
"In 1998 and 1999, the United States and its NATO allies attempted to put an end to escalating violence between ethnic Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav/Serb forces in Yugoslavia's Kosovo province in southern Serbia. These efforts culminated in a 78-day NATO bombing campaign (Operation Allied Force) against Serbia from March until June 1999, when then-Yugoslav leader Slobodan Milosevic agreed to withdraw his forces from the province. Since then, Kosovo has been governed by a combination of U.N. and local Kosovar interim governing structures. Under the terms of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1244, the U.N. Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) retained ultimate political authority in the province. A NATO-led peacekeeping force, KFOR, was charged with providing a secure environment. UNSC Resolution 1244 did not settle Kosovo's disputed status, but called for status to be considered at an undetermined time after an autonomous government was in place. Almost all ethnic Albanians want independence for Kosovo; Serbs say Kosovo remains an integral part of Serbia. In mid-2005, the U.N. launched a comprehensive review of the Kosovo standards, or benchmarks of progress. On this basis, the U.N. Security Council endorsed the start of status negotiations for Kosovo in early 2006 under the lead of former Finnish President Martti Ahtisaari. In November, Ahtisaari postponed the release of a proposal for the settlement of Kosovo's status until after Serbia held key early elections on January 21, 2007."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie; Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-04-26
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Kosovo and U.S. Policy [Updated August 7, 2006]
"Until Kosovo's status is resolved, the U.N. Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), under the terms of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1244, retains ultimate political authority in the province. A NATO-led peacekeeping force, KFOR, is charged with providing a secure environment. UNSC Resolution 1244 called for Kosovo's final status to be considered at an undetermined time after an autonomous government is in place. Almost all ethnic Albanians want independence for Kosovo; Serbs say it should remain within Serbia. In late 2003, the international community agreed to review Kosovo's progress in meeting international 'standards' and consider next steps in determining Kosovo's future status by mid-2005. The sudden outbreak of widespread anti-Serbian riots in March 2004, the worst inter-ethnic violence experienced in Kosovo since 1999, set back progress in many areas and called into question the effectiveness of the existing international approach on Kosovo. In mid-2005, the U.N. launched a comprehensive review of the Kosovo standards. On the basis of the review, the U.N. Security Council endorsed the start of status negotiations for Kosovo. Former Finnish President Martii Ahtisaari is the lead U.N. envoy for the status talks. The talks, delayed briefly after the death of long-time Kosovar leader Ibrahim Rugova, began in February 2006, but very little movement toward a compromise solution has been seen so far."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.; Kim, Julie
2006-08-07
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Belarus: Background and U.S. Policy Concerns [Updated August 10, 2006]
"In the past decade, Belarusian President Aleksandr Lukashenko has snuffed out Belarus's modest progress toward democracy and a free market economy and created an authoritarian, Soviet-style regime. Belarus held presidential elections in March 2006. In a vote condemned by the U.S., EU and OSCE as falling well short of international standards, Lukashenko won re-election by an overwhelming margin. Belarus's economy is the most unreformed in Europe, according to an assessment by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). Of the republics of the former Soviet Union, Belarus has perhaps the closest historical and cultural ties to Russia. Efforts to establish a political and economic 'union' between the two countries have had substantial public support in Belarus. Nevertheless, the pace of integration between Belarus and Russia remains slow, in large part due to Lukashenko's refusal to undertake economic reforms. Current Russian policy toward Belarus appears to be focused less on forcing the pace of integration efforts directed from the top, and more on gaining control of Belarus's economic assets (particularly oil and natural gas pipelines), while limiting the costs of subsidizing the unreformed Belarusian economy. Russia and Belarus have close military ties. Russian and Belarusian air defenses are closely integrated, and Russia has supplied Belarus with its best air defense equipment. A small number of Russian troops remain in Belarus, in part to run a naval radio station and an early warning radar station. Russian strategic bombers are also stationed in Belarus, although reportedly without nuclear weapons."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2006-08-10
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Islamic Terrorism and the Balkans [Updated October 4, 2006]
"In the 1990s, wars and political instability provided an opportunity for Al Qaeda and other terrorist groups to infiltrate the Balkans. Moreover, the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States underscored for the countries of the region the dangers of global terrorism, and resulted in increased U.S. attention and aid to fight the terrorist threat. Many experts currently do not view the Balkans as a key region harboring or funding terrorists. However, experts note that the region may play a secondary role in terrorist plans, as a transit point for terrorists, as well as for recuperation. Moreover, they agree that the region's continuing problems continue to leave it vulnerable to terrorist groups in the future. U.S. officials have cited the threat of terrorism in the Balkans as an important reason for the need for continued U.S. engagement in the region. In addition to the need to take steps to directly combat terrorist infrastructure in the region, U.S. officials say that U.S. efforts to bring stability to the region also help to fight terrorism. They note that political instability, weak political and law enforcement institutions and poverty provide a breeding ground for terrorist groups. U.S. objectives are also outlined in the 9/11 Commission Report and the President's National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, which calls for the United States to work with other countries to deny terrorists sponsorship, support and sanctuary, as well as working to diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2006-10-04
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Future of the Balkans and U.S. Policy Concerns [Updated January 10, 2008]
From the Document: "The current goal of the international community in the Balkans is to stabilize the region in a way that is self-sustaining and does not require direct intervention by NATO-led forces and international civilian officials. Relatedly, the United States has sought to reduce the costs of its commitments to the region, in part due to competing U.S. and international priorities, such as the war on terrorism, and efforts to stabilize Iraq and Afghanistan, which have placed strains on U.S. resources. SFOR [Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina] and KFOR [Kosovo Force] , the NATO-led peacekeeping forces in Bosnia and Kosovo, have been reduced over the past decade. In December 2004, SFOR's mission was concluded, and European Union troops took over peacekeeping duties in Bosnia. No U.S. combat troops remain in Bosnia. About 16,000 troops remain in Kosovo as part of KFOR, including 1,600 U.S. soldiers. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States, the war on terrorism has been the United States' main foreign policy priority, including in the Balkans."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2008-01-10
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Kosovo and U.S. Policy: Background and Current Issues [Updated February, 27 2007]
"In 1998 and 1999, the United States and its NATO allies attempted to put an end to escalating violence between ethnic Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav/Serb forces in Yugoslavia's Kosovo province in southern Serbia. These efforts culminated in a 78-day NATO bombing campaign (Operation Allied Force) against Serbia from March until June 1999, when then-Yugoslav leader Slobodan Milosevic agreed to withdraw his forces from the province. Since then, Kosovo has been governed by a combination of U.N. and local Kosovar governing structures. […] the U.N. Security Council endorsed the start of [U.N.] status negotiations for Kosovo. Former Finnish President Martii Ahtisaari is the lead U.N. envoy for the status talks, which opened in February 2006. By the fall, little movement toward a compromise solution was apparent, and Ahtisaari was prepared to present a status proposal later in the year. In November, however, he postponed the release of his proposal until after Serbia holds key early elections on January 21, 2007. The United States, in concert with other members of the international contact group and the U.N. Security Council, has taken a leading role in international policy on Kosovo. The United States has committed peacekeeping troops to KFOR since 1999 and has upheld an "in together, out together" policy[…]. In Congress, U.S. involvement in the 1999 Kosovo war was controversial; in 1999, Congress neither explicitly approved nor blocked U.S. participation in NATO air strikes against Serbia, and in 2000, several Members unsuccessfully attempted to condition the U.S. military deployment in Kosovo […]."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie; Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-02-27
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Kosovo's Future Status and U.S. Policy [August 8, 2007]
"This report discusses the issue of Kosovo's future status; that is, whether it should become an independent country or continue to be part of Serbia, but with a large degree of autonomy. The future status of Kosovo is the most sensitive and potentially destabilizing political question in the Balkans. The United States and its main European allies favor independence for Kosovo. In July 2007, they abandoned efforts to have the U.N. Security Council adopt a resolution on Kosovo's status, due to Russia's warning that it would veto any resolution that would open the way to Kosovo's independence. In August 2007, the United States, the European Union (EU), and Russia began an effort to broker additional negotiations between the Serbs and Kosovars on the status question. The United States wants to see the talks concluded by December 2007, while Russia wants them to be open-ended. Several pieces of legislation on Kosovo's status have been introduced in the first session of the 110th Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant. For more on the current situation in Kosovo, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31053, 'Kosovo and U.S. Policy', by Steven J. Woehrel and Julie Kim."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-08-08
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Kosovo's Future Status and U.S. Policy [November 7, 2007]
"This report discusses the issue of Kosovo's future status; that is, whether it should become an independent country or continue to be part of Serbia, but with a large degree of autonomy. The future status of Kosovo is the most sensitive and potentially destabilizing political question in the Balkans. The United States and its main European allies favor independence for Kosovo. In July 2007, they abandoned efforts to have the U.N. Security Council adopt a resolution on Kosovo's status, due to Russia's warning that it would veto any resolution that would open the way to Kosovo's independence. In August 2007, the United States, the European Union (EU), and Russia began an effort to broker additional negotiations between the Serbs and Kosovars on the status question. The United States wants to see the talks concluded by December 2007, while Russia wants them to be open-ended. Several pieces of legislation on Kosovo's status have been introduced in the first session of the 110th Congress. This report will be updated as events warrant. For more on the current situation in Kosovo, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31053, 'Kosovo and U.S. Policy', by Steven J. Woehrel and Julie Kim."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-11-07
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Kosovo's Future Status and U.S. Policy [February 19, 2008]
"This report discusses the issue of Kosovo's status; that is, whether it should become an independent country or continue to be part of Serbia, but with a large degree of autonomy. The status of Kosovo is the most sensitive and potentially destabilizing political question in the Balkans. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia. On February 18, the United States recognized Kosovo as an independent state. Britain, France, and most other European Union countries have also recognized Kosovo or have announced plans to do so in the near future. Serbia and Russia have heatedly objected to the recognition of Kosovo's independence. Several pieces of legislation on Kosovo's status were introduced in the first session of the 110th Congress. The second session of the 110th Congress may also consider legislation on Kosovo. For more on the current situation in Kosovo, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31053, 'Kosovo and U.S. Policy', by Julie Kim and Steven Woehrel."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2008-02-19
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Kosovo and U.S. Policy: Background and Current Issues [March 6, 2008]
"Nine years after NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] intervened militarily in the southern Serbian province of Kosovo, Kosovo declared itself an independent and sovereign state on February 17, 2008. The event marked a new stage in, but not the end of, international concern and engagement in the western Balkan region. Serbia strenuously objects to and does not recognize Kosovo's independence. […] The United States, in concert with European members of the international contact group, has long taken a leading role in shaping international policy on Kosovo. The United States has committed peacekeeping troops to KFOR [Kosovo Force] since 1999, and currently maintains around 1,600 troops in Kosovo. During his visit to Europe in mid-2007, President Bush expressed strong U.S. support for Kosovo's ultimate independence, and welcomed Kosovo's independence declaration in February 2008. Following violent demonstrations in Belgrade on February 21, during which the U.S. embassy and other missions were set fire to and one protester was killed, the United States evacuated non-essential U.S. personnel from Serbia. In the 110th Congress, some resolutions have been introduced favoring Kosovo's independence. The second session of the 110th Congress may review the status process early in the year. For additional information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS21721, 'Kosovo's Future Status and U.S. Policy', by Steven Woehrel. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie; Woehrel, Steven J.
2008-03-06
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Kosovo's Future Status and U.S. Policy [July 17, 2006]
"The future status of Kosovo is the most sensitive and potentially destabilizing political question in the Balkans. The Administration views 'getting Kosovo right' as key to integrating the Balkans into Euro-Atlantic institutions. This report discusses the issue of Kosovo's future status; that is, whether it should become an independent country or continue to be part of Serbia, but with a large degree of autonomy. Talks on Kosovo's status began in February 2006 and are expected to be concluded by the end of the year. The second session of the 109th Congress may consider legislation on Kosovo's status. This report will be updated as events warrant. For more on the current situation in Kosovo, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31053, 'Kosovo and U.S. Policy', by Steven J. Woehrel and Julie Kim."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2006-07-17
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Kosovo's Future Status and U.S. Policy [January 9, 2006]
"The future status of Kosovo is perhaps the most sensitive and potentially destabilizing political question in the Balkans. The Administration views 'getting Kosovo right' as key to integrating the Balkans into Euro-Atlantic institutions. This report discusses the issue of Kosovo's future status; that is, whether it should become an independent country, or have some form of autonomy within Serbia. Talks on Kosovo's status could begin in January 2006, and are expected to be concluded by the end of the year. The second session of the 109th Congress may consider legislation on Kosovo's status. This report will be updated as events warrant. For more on the current situation in Kosovo, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31053, 'Kosovo and U.S. Policy', by Steven J. Woehrel and Julie Kim."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2006-01-09
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Bulgaria: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [October 17, 2006]
"This short report provides information on Bulgaria's current political and economic situation, and foreign policy. It also discusses U.S. policy toward Bulgaria. This report will be updated as warranted."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2006-10-17
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Belarus: Background and U.S. Policy Concerns [May 1, 2012]
From the Document: "Belarusian President Aleksandr Lukashenko snuffed out Belarus's modest progress toward democracy and a free market economy and created an authoritarian regime shortly after being elected as president in 1994. His regime is in rhetoric and policies a throwback to the Soviet era. Those advocating a stronger U.S. role in trying to bring democratic change to Belarus say that the country is important to the United States because Belarus is an obstacle to the U.S. goal of making Europe 'whole and free.' Another concern is Belarus's support for pariah regimes, including through arms sales. Relations between Belarus and the EU [European Union] and United States have been particularly poor since Lukashenko's brutal repression of the opposition after fraudulent presidential elections in December 2010. In response, the EU and United States have imposed strengthened sanctions against key Belarusian leaders, businessmen, and firms. Russia has taken advantage of this situation to increase its political and economic influence in Belarus."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2012-05-01
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Kosovo and U.S. Policy: Background and Current Issues [Updated January 26, 2007]
"In 1998 and 1999, the United States and its NATO allies attempted to put an end to escalating violence between ethnic Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav/Serb forces in Yugoslavia's Kosovo province in southern Serbia. These efforts culminated in a 78-day NATO bombing campaign (Operation Allied Force) against Serbia from March until June 1999, when then-Yugoslav leader Slobodan Milosevic agreed to withdraw his forces from the province. Since then, Kosovo has been governed by a combination of U.N. and local Kosovar governing structures. […] the U.N. Security Council endorsed the start of [U.N.] status negotiations for Kosovo. Former Finnish President Martii Ahtisaari is the lead U.N. envoy for the status talks, which opened in February 2006. By the fall, little movement toward a compromise solution was apparent, and Ahtisaari was prepared to present a status proposal later in the year. In November, however, he postponed the release of his proposal until after Serbia holds key early elections on January 21, 2007. The United States, in concert with other members of the international contact group and the U.N. Security Council, has taken a leading role in international policy on Kosovo. The United States has committed peacekeeping troops to KFOR since 1999 and has upheld an "in together, out together" policy[…]. In Congress, U.S. involvement in the 1999 Kosovo war was controversial; in 1999, Congress neither explicitly approved nor blocked U.S. participation in NATO air strikes against Serbia, and in 2000, several Members unsuccessfully attempted to condition the U.S. military deployment in Kosovo […]."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kim, Julie; Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-01-26
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Future of the Balkans and U.S. Policy Concerns [Updated December 21, 2006]
From the Document: "The United States and the international community have achieved substantial successes in the Balkans since the mid-1990s. The wars in the former Yugoslavia have ended, and all of the countries are undertaking political and economic reforms and orienting their foreign policies toward Euro-Atlantic institutions. Administration officials have stated that ensuring the stability of the Balkans is an important part of a U.S. vital interest in securing a Europe whole, free, and at peace."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2006-12-21
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Moldova: Background and U.S. Policy [March 11, 2010]
"Moldova is Europe's poorest country, according to the World Bank. Living standards are low for many Moldovans, particularly in rural areas. Remittances from Moldovans working abroad amounted to 31% of the country's Gross Domestic Product [GDP] in 2008. The global financial crisis has had a negative impact on Moldova. The leu has weakened and remains under pressure. Remittances have dropped, as Moldovan emigrants have lost jobs in other hard-hit countries. Moldova's GDP dropped by 7.3% in 2009, on a year-on-year basis. As a self-declared neutral country, Moldova does not seek NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] membership, but participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PFP) program. Moldova is currently negotiating an Association Agreement with the European Union (EU), which provides for cooperation in a wide variety of spheres and holds out the possibility of an eventual free trade agreement. Moldova hopes to become a candidate for EU membership, although the EU is unlikely to accept Moldova as a candidate in the foreseeable future, due to Moldova's poverty and the EU's own internal challenges. The United States and Moldova have enjoyed good relations since the country's independence in 1991. The United States has supported democracy and free market reform in Moldova. The United States reacted cautiously to the outcome of the April 2009 Moldovan election, saying its view of the vote was 'generally positive,' but noting some problems. After the July 2009 election, a State Department spokesman noted that international observers reached a similar conclusion. The United States has tried to support the country's fragile sovereignty and territorial integrity by advocating the withdrawal of Russian forces from Moldova and the negotiation of a settlement of the Transnistria issue consistent with Moldova's territorial integrity."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2010-03-11
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Moldova: Background and U.S. Policy [June 7, 2011]
"Although a small country, Moldova has been of interest to U.S. policymakers due to its position between NATO and EU member Romania and strategic Ukraine. In addition, some experts have expressed concern about alleged Russian efforts to extend its hegemony over Moldova through various methods, including a troop presence, manipulation of Moldova's relationship with its breakaway Transnistria region, and energy supplies and other trading links. Moldova's political and economic weakness has made it a source of organized criminal activity of concern to U.S. policymakers, including trafficking in persons. […] The United States and Moldova have enjoyed good relations since the country's independence in 1991. In a sign of support for the pro-Western government, Vice President Joseph Biden visited Moldova in March 2011. At a speech in Chisinau, the country's capital, Biden praised Moldova for its commitment to reform and democratic values, including the holding of free and fair elections. He called on Moldova to continue its efforts to create a transparent legal system, to fight corruption, and to end human trafficking. He said that the United States would continue to support a settlement for Transnistria that preserves Moldova's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders. He said U.S. aid will help the Moldovan government create policies to spur economic growth and attract foreign investment, train civil society to become more effective advocates, and help improve Moldova's schools."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2011-06-07
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Moldova: Background and U.S. Policy [July 27, 2005]
"This short report provides information and analysis on Moldova, including its political and economic situation, foreign policy, and on U.S. policy toward Moldova. For more background on Moldova, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report 95-403, 'Moldova: Basic Facts', by Steven Woehrel. This report will be updated as events warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2005-07-27
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Moldova: Background and U.S. Policy [June 5, 2013]
"Although a small country, Moldova has been of interest to U.S. policymakers due to its position between NATO [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] and EU member Romania and strategic Ukraine. In addition, some experts have expressed concern about Russian efforts to extend its hegemony over Moldova through various methods, including a troop presence, manipulation of Moldova's relationship with its breakaway Transnistria region, and energy supplies and other economic links. Moldova's political and economic weakness has made it a source of organized criminal activity of concern to U.S. policymakers, including trafficking in persons. Moldova is governed by the Alliance for European Integration, a center-right coalition of three parties. Prime Minister Vlad Filat has said he is focused on dismantling the country's Communist legacy and building a state ruled by law. However, conflicts with the Communist opposition and tensions within the coalition appear to have slowed reform efforts. Moldova is Europe's poorest country, according to the World Bank. Remittances from Moldovans working abroad amounted to 22% of the country's Gross Domestic Product in 2010. The global financial crisis has had a negative impact on Moldova. Moldova's currency weakened and remittances dropped, as Moldovan emigrants lost jobs in other hard-hit countries. Moldova's GDP [Gross Domestic Product] dropped by 7.3% in 2009, rebounded by 6.9% in 2010 and 6.5% in 2011, only to stall in 2012. As a self-declared neutral country, Moldova does not seek NATO membership, but participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PFP) program. Moldova is currently negotiating an Association Agreement with the European Union (EU), which provides for cooperation in a wide variety of spheres, including a free trade agreement. Moldova hopes to become a candidate for EU membership, although the EU is unlikely to accept Moldova in the foreseeable future, due to Moldova's poverty, the EU's own internal challenges, and possibly also due to concerns that it would set a precedent for the candidacy of other former Soviet states, such as Ukraine."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2013-06-05
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Moldova: Background and U.S. Policy [August 27, 2012]
"The United States and Moldova have enjoyed good relations since the country's independence in 1991. In a sign of support for the pro-Western government, Vice President Joseph Biden visited Moldova in March 2011. At a speech in Chisinau, the country's capital, Biden praised Moldova for its commitment to reform and democratic values, including the holding of free and fair elections. He called on Moldova to continue its efforts to create a transparent legal system, to fight corruption, and to end human trafficking. He said that the United States would continue to support a settlement for Transnistria that preserves Moldova's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders. He said U.S. aid will help the Moldovan government create policies to spur economic growth and attract foreign investment, train civil society to become more effective advocates, and help improve Moldova's schools. Moldova is seeking permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR) from the United States by terminating the application of the Jackson-Vanik amendment to Moldova. House and Senate committees have passed bills that would extend PNTR to Moldova (H.R. 6156 and S. 3406, respectively), but both still await floor consideration."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2012-08-27
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Moldova: Background and U.S. Policy [February 1, 2013]
"Although a small country, Moldova has been of interest to U.S. policymakers due to its position between NATO and EU member Romania and strategic Ukraine. In addition, some experts have expressed concern about Russian efforts to extend its hegemony over Moldova through various methods, including a troop presence, manipulation of Moldova's relationship with its breakaway Transnistria region, and energy supplies and other economic links. Moldova's political and economic weakness has made it a source of organized criminal activity of concern to U.S. policymakers, including trafficking in persons. Moldova is governed by the Alliance for European Integration, a center-right coalition of three parties. Prime Minister Vlad Filat has said he is focused on dismantling the country's Communist legacy and building a state ruled by law. However, conflicts with the Communist opposition and tensions within the coalition appear to have slowed reform efforts. Moldova is Europe's poorest country, according to the World Bank. Remittances from Moldovans working abroad amounted to 22% of the country's Gross Domestic Product in 2010. The global financial crisis has had a negative impact on Moldova. Moldova's currency weakened and remittances dropped, as Moldovan emigrants lost jobs in other hard-hit countries. Moldova's GDP [Gross Domestic Product] dropped by 7.3% in 2009, rebounded by 6.9% in 2010 and 6.5% in 2011, only to stall in 2012. As a self-declared neutral country, Moldova does not seek NATO membership, but participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PFP) program. Moldova is currently negotiating an Association Agreement with the European Union (EU), which provides for cooperation in a wide variety of spheres, including a free trade agreement. Moldova hopes to become a candidate for EU membership, although the EU is unlikely to accept Moldova in the foreseeable future, due to Moldova's poverty, the EU's own internal challenges, and possibly also due to concerns that it would set a precedent for the candidacy of other former Soviet states, such as Ukraine."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2013-02-01
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Moldova: Background and U.S. Policy [December 4, 2007]
"Although a small country, Moldova has been of interest to U.S. policymakers due to its position between NATO and EU member Romania and strategic Ukraine. In addition, some experts have expressed concern about alleged Russian efforts to extend its hegemony over Moldova through various methods, including a troop presence, manipulation of Moldova's relationship with its breakaway Transnistria region, and energy supplies and other trading links. Moldova's political and economic weakness has made it a source of organized criminal activity of concern to U.S. policymakers, including trafficking in persons and weapons. Moldova is a parliamentary democracy that has held largely free and fair elections since achieving independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. In the most recent parliamentary elections on March 6, 2005, the Communist Party of Moldova (CPM) won a majority of 56 seats in the 101-seat parliament. The Democratic Moldova Bloc (DMB), an alliance of small centrist groups, won 34 seats. The nationalist and pro-Romanian Christian Democratic Popular Party won 11 seats. Observers from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) said that the vote was carried out generally in line with international standards, but they criticized the election campaign for biased electronic media coverage, misuse of government resources in favor of the CPM, and harassment of opposition candidates and non-governmental organizations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-12-04
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Moldova: Background and U.S. Policy [April 23, 2014]
"As a self-declared neutral country, Moldova does not seek NATO membership, but participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PFP) program. In June 2014, Moldova expects to sign an Association Agreement with the European Union (EU), which includes a free trade agreement, and closer cooperation in a wide variety of spheres. Moldova hopes to become a candidate for EU membership, although the EU is unlikely to accept Moldova in the foreseeable future, due to Moldova's poverty, the EU's own internal challenges, and possibly also due to concerns that it would set a precedent for the candidacy of other former Soviet states, such as Ukraine. The United States and Moldova have enjoyed good relations since the country's independence in 1991. In a signal of U.S. support, Secretary of State John Kerry visited Moldova on December 4, 2013, to congratulate the country on initialing its Association Agreement with the EU in Moldova. The United States and the EU are working to enhance market opportunities for wine and other Moldovan products in part in order to reduce the impact of current and possible future Russian embargoes. During a visit to Moldova on March 30, Assistant Secretary of State Victoria Nuland confirmed U.S. support for Moldova's path toward European integration and for continued U.S. aid for anti-corruption efforts, strengthening border security (for which Ms. Nuland announced an additional $10 million in U.S. aid), boosting Moldovan exports (including Moldovan wines), energy security, and other areas."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2014-04-23
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Islamic Terrorism and the Balkans [Updated May 24, 2007]
From the Summary: "U.S. officials have cited the threat of terrorism in the Balkans as an important reason for the need for continued U.S. engagement in the region. In addition to the need to take steps to directly combat terrorist infrastructure in the region, U.S. officials say that U.S. efforts to bring stability to the region also help to fight terrorism. They note that political instability, weak political and law enforcement institutions and poverty provide a breeding ground for terrorist groups. U.S. objectives are also outlined in the 9/11 Commission Report and the President's National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, which calls for the United States to work with other countries to deny terrorists sponsorship, support and sanctuary, as well as working to diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-05-24
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Estonia: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [July 11, 2007]
From the Document: "After restoration of its independence in 1991, following decades of Soviet rule, Estonia made rapid strides toward establishing a democratic political system and a dynamic, free market economy. It achieved two key foreign policy goals when it joined NATO and the European Union in 2004. However, relations with Russia remain difficult. Estonia suffered cyberattacks against its Internet infrastructure in April and May 2007 during a controversy about the removal of a Soviet-era statue in Estonia. Estonian leaders believe the cyberattacks may have been instigated by Moscow. Estonia and the United States have excellent relations. Estonia has deployed troops to Iraq and Afghanistan, and plays a significant role in efforts to encourage democracy and a pro-Western orientation among post-Soviet countries. This report will be updated as needed. In the more than 15 years since gaining independence, Estonia's political scene has been characterized by the creation and dissolution of numerous parties and shifting alliances among them. This has often resulted in politics resembling a game of 'musical chairs.' Estonian governments have lasted on average only slightly longer than a year each. Nevertheless, due to a wide-ranging policy consensus, Estonia has followed a remarkably consistent general course-building a democracy, a free-market economy, and integrating into NATO and the European Union (EU). Estonia's current government, formed after March 2007 parliamentary elections, is led by Prime Minister Andrus Ansip of the center-right Reform Party. His coalition partners are the conservative and nationalist Pro Patria-Res Publica Union and the center-left Social Democratic Party."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2007-07-11
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Spain: Current Issues and U.S. Policy [Updated April 4, 2008]
"In the more than three decades since the death of Spanish dictator General Francisco Franco, Spain has become a mature democracy and has experienced rapid economic growth. It has also become an increasingly important player internationally, including in NATO and the European Union. The United States and Spain have generally enjoyed good relations. However, problems have arisen in recent years over such issues as the war in Iraq, promoting democracy in Latin America, and the tactics to be used in fighting the war on terrorism. This report provides information on Spain's current political and economic situation, its struggle against Islamist terrorism, and its relations with the United States. It will be updated as needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Woehrel, Steven J.
2008-04-04
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Enlargement Issues at NATO's Bucharest Summit [Updated April 18, 2008]
This CRS report discusses the issues surrounding potential NATO membership for Albania, Croatia and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM, or the Republic of Macedonia). "This report will review the process by which candidate states are selected, including a sketch of the responsibilities of Congress and allied governments in final approval or disapproval of Albania and Croatia. The report will review general political factors for qualification, as well as external issues such as the views of Russia and regional geopolitical considerations. There will then follow an analysis of current conditions in the two states nominated to join, as well as in Macedonia. In addition, there will be a brief analysis of the debate over the qualifications of Georgia and Ukraine for NATO's Membership Action Plan (MAP), a set of guidelines laid out by the alliance for governments that wish to take the next step of becoming actual candidates." Further, "NATO held a summit in Bucharest on April 2-4, 2008. A principal issue was consideration of the candidacies for membership of Albania, Croatia, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM, or the Republic of Macedonia). These states are small, with correspondingly small militaries, and their inclusion in the alliance cannot be considered strategic in a military sense. However, it is possible that they could play a role in the stabilization of southeastern Europe. […] Energy security for candidate states in a future round of enlargement may also prove to be an important issue." This report also includes an appendix and one figure.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nichol, James P.; Gallis, Paul E.; Woehrel, Steven J. . . .
2008-04-18
