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Russia: Background and U.S. Policy [August 21, 2017]
Over the last five years, Congress and the executive branch have closely monitored and responded to new developments in Russian policy. These developments include the following: [1] increasingly authoritarian governance since Vladimir Putin's return to the presidential post in 2012; [2] Russia's 2014 annexation of Ukraine's Crimea region and support of separatists in eastern Ukraine; [3] violations of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty; [3] Moscow's intervention in Syria in support of Bashar al Asad's government; [increased military activity in Europe; and cyber-related influence operations that, according to the U.S. intelligence community, have targeted the 2016 U.S. presidential election and countries in Europe.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2017-08-21
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [September 5, 2018]
"Georgia is one of the United States' closest non-NATO partners among the post-Soviet states. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid in Europe and Eurasia. Many observers consider Georgia to be one of the most democratic states in the post Soviet region, even as the country faces ongoing governance challenges. The center-left Georgian Dream party has more than a three-fourths super majority in parliament, allowing it to rule with only limited checks and balances. Although Georgia faces high rates of poverty and underemployment, its economy in 2017 appeared to enter a period of stronger growth than the previous four years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2018-09-05
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Armenia's Velvet Revolution [January 16, 2019]
"In December 2018, snap parliamentary elections strengthened the legitimacy of Armenia's new prime minister, Nikol Pashinyan, who came to power in May 2018 in what supporters called a 'velvet revolution.' The elections unseated a semi-autocratic ruling party that had governed Armenia for almost 20 years but now failed to enter parliament. Armenia, a small, landlocked country in the South Caucasus (population 3 million), is dependent on Russia for security, trade, and investment, but it also seeks closer relations with the United States and Europe. Whether Armenia's change of government will lead to further integration with the West is unclear. For now, Armenia's government says it intends to retain its security alliance and economic partnership with Russia while pursuing Western-leaning democracy and governance reforms."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-01-16
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Russia, the Skripal Poisoning, and U.S. Sanctions [Updated August 14, 2019]
From the Document: "On August 6, 2018, Secretary of State Michael Pompeo determined that in March 2018 the government of Russia used a chemical weapon in the United Kingdom in contravention of international law. This finding triggered requirements under the Chemical and Biological Weapons Control and Warfare Elimination Act of 1991 (CBW Act; title III, P.L. 102-182; 22 U.S.C. 5601 et seq.). The CBW Act requires the President to impose economic and diplomatic measures that first cut off foreign aid, arms sales, and export licenses for controlled goods, services, and technology, and ratchet up in intensity if certain conditions are not met within 90 days. As of August 2019, the United States has imposed two rounds of sanctions on Russia as required by the CBW Act."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Welt, Cory
2019-08-14
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Recent Developments in the Russia-Ukraine Conflict [February 13, 2020]
From the Document: "On January 31, 2020, U.S. Secretary of State Michael Pompeo met with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky in Kyiv. The meeting occurred during the Senate's presidential impeachment trial and almost two months after the relaunch of international talks on resolving the conflict in eastern Ukraine. Pompeo expressed the United States' commitment to Ukraine's sovereignty and territorial integrity and stated that the United States would continue to provide security assistance to Ukraine. Pompeo also acknowledged Zelensky's efforts to invigorate a relatively dormant conflict-resolution process and reduce tensions around Russia-controlled areas of eastern Ukraine. It remains to be seen whether confidence-building efforts can lay the groundwork for discussions on thornier issues, including withdrawal of Russian forces and the legal status of Russia-controlled areas. New flare-ups of conflict also may overtake such efforts. The United States supports Ukraine's efforts to pursue a diplomatic solution to the conflict. From 2017 to 2019, U.S. policy was directed mainly through the office of the Special Representative for Ukraine Negotiations. Ambassador Kurt Volker resigned from this position in September 2019 prior to the impeachment inquiry in the House of Representatives; the position remains unfilled."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2020-02-13
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated October 17, 2019]
From the Document: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the states that gained their independence after the USSR collapsed in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid to Europe and Eurasia. Many observers consider Georgia to be one of the most democratic states in the post-Soviet region, even as the country faces ongoing governance challenges. The center-left Georgian Dream-Democratic Georgia party (GD) holds a dominant political position, with about 70% of seats in parliament. Although Georgia faces high rates of poverty and underemployment, its economy has performed better since 2017 than it did in the previous four years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-10-17
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia [Updated January 17, 2020]
From the Document: "Sanctions are a central element of U.S. policy to counter and deter malign Russian behavior. The United States has imposed sanctions on Russia mainly in response to Russia's 2014 invasion of Ukraine, to reverse and deter further Russian aggression in Ukraine, and to deter Russian aggression against other countries. The United States also has imposed sanctions on Russia in response to (and to deter) election interference and other malicious cyber-enabled activities, human rights abuses, the use of a chemical weapon, weapons proliferation, illicit trade with North Korea, and support to Syria and Venezuela. Most Members of Congress support a robust use of sanctions amid concerns about Russia's international behavior and geostrategic intentions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Archick, Kristin; Nelson, Rebecca M. . . .
2020-01-17
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated April 14, 2021]
From the Summary: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the post-Soviet states that gained their independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid in Europe and Eurasia. Many observers consider Georgia to have a 'hybrid' political system, containing both democratic and nondemocratic elements. The center-left Georgian Dream-Democratic Georgia (GD) party has governed Georgia since 2012. Controversy over the October 2020 parliamentary elections, an opposition boycott of parliament, and the February 2021 arrest of opposition leader Nika Melia have led to heightened political tensions. European Union (EU) efforts to mediate Georgia's political crisis have been unsuccessful. Although Georgia faces high rates of poverty and underemployment, its economy entered a period of relatively strong growth in 2017. In 2020, due to the impact of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, Georgia's gross domestic product declined by an estimated 6%."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2021-04-14
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia: An Overview [Updated August 29, 2019]
From the Document: "The United States imposes sanctions on Russian persons (individuals, entities, and vessels) in response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine, election interference, other malicious cyber-enabled activities, human rights abuses, use of a chemical weapon, weapons proliferation, illicit trade with North Korea, and support to Syria and Venezuela. Sanctions against Russian persons may include blocking of assets subject to U.S. jurisdiction; limits on access to the U.S. financial system, including limiting or prohibiting transactions involving U.S. individuals and businesses; and denial of entry into the United States. The United States also tightly controls exports to Russia's energy and defense sectors."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Welt, Cory
2019-08-29
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Russia: Foreign Policy and U.S. Relations [Updated April 15, 2021]
From the Introduction: "This report focuses on Russian foreign policy, key issue areas, and related U.S. policy. The report first addresses foreign policymaking institutions and processes within Russia. It next examines Russia's relations with key countries and regions. It follows with sections on Russia's use of force and military power; influence and cyber operations; and foreign economic policies. The report then analyzes U.S.-Russia relations, including U.S. policy during the current and prior Administrations and recent congressional actions. The report is compartmentalized, so that readers primarily interested in a particular issue may find the relevant information in a subsection of the report. Russia's domestic politics, human rights situation, and economy are not within the scope of this report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bowen, Andrew S.; Welt, Cory
2021-04-15
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia [November 28, 2018]
"Sanctions are considered by many to be a central element of U.S. policy to counter Russian malign behavior, including Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2014, election interference and cyberattacks, human rights abuses, illicit trade with North Korea, support to the government of Syria, and use of a chemical weapon. The United States also employs sanctions in an effort to deter further objectionable activities by Russia (e.g., expanding the war in Ukraine or launching new attacks in neighboring countries). Most Members of Congress support a robust use of sanctions amid concerns about Russia's international behavior and geostrategic intentions. Most Russia-related sanctions implemented by the United States have been levied in response to Russia's 2014 invasion of Ukraine. These sanctions are based on national emergency authorities granted the office of the President in the National Emergencies Act (NEA; P.L. 94-412; 50 U.S.C. 1621) and International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA; P.L. 95-223; 50 U.S.C. 1701) and were exercised by President Barack Obama in 2014 in a series of executive orders (EOs 13660, 13661, 13662, and 13685). The Obama and Trump Administrations have used these EOs to impose sanctions on approximately 650 Russian individuals and entities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Archick, Kristin; Nelson, Rebecca M. . . .
2018-11-28
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Ukraine: Background and U.S. Policy [November 01, 2017]
"The United States has long supported Ukraine's pro-Western orientation and reform efforts. It supports the restoration of Ukraine's territorial integrity, including with respect to Crimea, as well as implementation of the Minsk agreements that would establish a cease-fire and conflict settlement in eastern Ukraine. In 2014, the United States, in coordination with the European Union and others, imposed sanctions on Russia for its actions in Ukraine. The United States is a leading contributor of foreign assistance to Ukraine, including over $300 million a year since FY2015 in nonmilitary, nonhumanitarian assistance. The United States also provides substantial military assistance to Ukraine, including via a newly established Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative that provides 'appropriate security assistance and intelligence support' to help Ukraine defend against aggression and support its sovereignty and territorial integrity. [...] The U.S. Congress has actively participated in efforts to address the Ukraine conflict since its onset. Many Members have condemned Russia's annexation of Crimea and support for separatists in eastern Ukraine and pushed to impose and retain sanctions against Russia for its actions. Congress has also supported substantial economic and security assistance for Ukraine. Key legislation includes the Support for the Sovereignty, Integrity, Democracy, and Economic Stability of Ukraine Act of 2014 (P.L. 113-95), the Ukraine Freedom Support Act (P.L. 113-272), and the Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017 (P.L. 115-44, Title II)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2017-11-01
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia: An Overview [July 26, 2018]
"The United States imposes sanctions on Russian persons (individuals and entities) for aggression against Ukraine, election interference, malicious cyber activity, human rights violations, weapons proliferation, and other activities. U.S. sanctions regimes against Russia have increased in complexity and scope with enactment of the Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017 (CRIEEA; P.L. 115-44, Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, Title II; 22 U.S.C. 9501 et seq.). Sanctions against Russian persons can include blocking U.S.-based assets; prohibiting U.S. persons from engaging in transactions related to those assets; prohibiting certain, and in some cases all, U.S. transactions; and denying entry into the United States. The United States also tightly controls exports to Russia's energy and defense sectors and restricts exports where the end-use might have military application. Each rationale for imposing sanctions and the sanctions tools used, however, have their own nuances."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Welt, Cory
2018-07-26
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia [January 11, 2019]
"The executive branch also has used a variety of EOs [executive order]and legislation to impose sanctions on Russian individuals and entities in response to a number of other concerns. Legislation that established specifically Russia-related sanctions includes the following: [1] The Sergei Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountability Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-208, Title IV; 22 U.S.C. 5811 note); [2] Support for the Sovereignty, Integrity, Democracy, and Economic Stability of Ukraine Act of 2014, as amended (SSIDES; P.L. 113-95; 22 U.S.C. 8901 et seq.); [3] Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014, as amended (UFSA; P.L. 113-272; 22 U.S.C. 8921 et seq.); [4] Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017, as amended (CRIEEA; P.L. 115-44, Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act [CAATSA], Title II; 22 U.S.C. 9501 et seq.)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Archick, Kristin; Nelson, Rebecca M. . . .
2019-01-11
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Belarus: An Overview [Updated May 5, 2021]
From the Document: "In 2020, protests against allegedly widespread electoral fraud and a brutal crackdown on protestors led to the rise of a mass opposition movement in Belarus, on a scale unseen since the country became independent in 1991 (Belarus previously was part of the Soviet Union). The protests emerged in the wake of Belarus's August 2020 presidential election, during which opposition candidate Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya mounted an unexpectedly strong campaign against Aleksandr Lukashenko, who has ruled Belarus for more than 26 years. Human rights activists and monitors report that during the crackdown more than 33,000 Belarusians have been temporarily detained or imprisoned and that currently 360, including more than 45 women, are political prisoners. At least 10 demonstrators and others have been killed or died in custody or under suspicious circumstances. The United States, the European Union (EU), the U.N. Human Rights Council, and others have called for an end to the crackdown and for the government to conduct a dialogue with the opposition and to hold free and fair presidential elections."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2021-05-05
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TurkStream: Russia's Southern Pipeline to Europe [Updated May 6, 2021]
From the Document: "Russia's leading state-owned energy company, Gazprom, has long sought to protect its share of Europe's natural gas market. Along with the controversial and still unfinished Nord Stream 2 project (see CRS [Congressional Research Service] In Focus IF11138, 'Russia's Nord Stream 2 Pipeline: Continued Uncertainty'), Gazprom's TurkStream project may strengthen Russia's foothold in European energy markets, especially in southeastern Europe. It also could cement Turkey's longtime status as a lead recipient of Russian gas, even as Russia's overall share of Turkish gas imports has recently decreased. Opponents of the TurkStream project, including some Members of Congress, have expressed concern that the project could erode Ukraine's transit role for natural gas. Many analysts maintain that Moscow could use its energy exports as leverage in countries that are dependent upon Russian natural gas. The United States, in turn, supports projects to diversify natural gas supplies to Europe and undercut Russia's market dominance."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah; Ratner, Michael; Welt, Cory . . .
2021-05-06
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Nord Stream 2: A Geopolitical Lightning Rod [August 7, 2018]
"U.S. policymakers have supported European Union (EU) efforts to reduce reliance on Russian natural gas, especially after Moscow temporarily halted exports via Ukraine in 2009 and 2006. Although European governments have generally supported the goal of diversification, they have been challenged to reduce Europe's dependence on Russian natural gas, which accounted for 37% of European imports in 2017, up 5% from the previous year. Analysts cite various impediments to reducing European reliance on Russian gas, including divergent perceptions within Europe on the reliability of Russian supplies. Many have criticized Germany, Russia's largest natural gas customer, for seeking to expand the Nord Stream pipeline system. Others suggest an expansion of Nord Stream would not necessarily lead to a rise in Russian gas imports by Europe, if Gazprom uses the new capacity to substitute for gas transit through Ukraine."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belkin, Paul; Ratner, Michael; Welt, Cory
2018-08-07
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Trump-Putin Summit [July 20, 2018]
"On July 16, 2018, U.S. President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin held a summit in Helsinki, Finland. This was the first U.S.-Russia summit since 2010, when President Barack Obama met with Putin's predecessor Dmitry Medvedev in Prague to sign the New START strategic arms reduction treaty. The Presidents characterized the July 2018 summit as a first step to improving relations. President Trump stated his view that the United States and Russia need 'to find ways to cooperate in pursuit of shared interests' and resolve global challenges. President Putin said his goal is to restore an acceptable level of trust and past levels of cooperation on issues of mutual interest. Media reports have focused on President Trump's remarks about whether or not he believes the U.S. intelligence community's conclusion that Russia interfered in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. However, the summit discussions apparently ranged widely and touched on many issues central to U.S.-Russia relations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2018-07-20
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Russia, the Skripal Poisoning, and U.S. Sanctions [December 4, 2018]
"On August 6, 2018, Secretary of State Michael Pompeo determined that in March 2018 the government of Russia had used a chemical weapon in the United Kingdom in contravention of international law. When such a determination is made, U.S. law requires the President to impose economic and diplomatic measures that initially cut off foreign aid, arms sales, and export licenses for controlled goods, services, and technology, and ratchet up in intensity if certain conditions are not met within 90 days."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Welt, Cory
2018-12-04
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Nord Stream 2: A Fait Accompli? [March 18, 2019]
From the Document: "The Trump Administration and many Members of Congress have criticized Nord Stream 2, a Russian-owned natural gas pipeline project that would allow Germany to increase the amount of natural gas it imports directly from Russia via the Baltic Sea (see Figure 1). Although the pipeline is currently under construction, new European Union (EU) regulations agreed to in February 2019 require German and EU regulators to make a final ruling later this year on the project's compliance with EU law. Nevertheless, many observers believe the pipeline's construction will proceed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belkin, Paul; Ratner, Michael; Welt, Cory . . .
2019-03-18
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated April 1, 2019]
From the Document: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the states that gained their independence after the USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] collapsed in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid to Europe and Eurasia."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-04-01
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Ukraine Elects a New President [April 24, 2019]
From the Document: "On April 21, 2019, Ukraine held the second round of its first presidential election since 2014, the year Russia occupied Ukraine's Crimea region and fostered a separatist conflict in eastern Ukraine. Popular actor-comedian and political novice Volodymyr Zelensky won an overwhelming victory. He defeated incumbent President Petro Poroshenko 73% to 24%. Observers considered the election to be largely free and fair."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-04-24
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Moldova's Political Crisis Abates [June 20, 2019]
From the Document: "On June 14, 2019, a political crisis in Moldova ended when leaders of the formerly ruling Democratic Party of Moldova (PDM) agreed to dissolve the outgoing government in favor of a new coalition. The coalition includes a reform-oriented, Western-leaning alliance, ACUM (or 'Now'), and the socially conservative, Russian-leaning Party of Socialists, which placed first in Moldova's February 2019 elections. Moldova is one of three post-Soviet states that, together with Ukraine and Georgia, have sought greater integration with the West while coping with separatist territories occupied by Russian forces. Many Members of Congress have long supported Moldova's democratic trajectory and territorial integrity and have called on Russia to respect Moldova's sovereignty and withdraw its military forces."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-06-20
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Ukraine: Background, Conflict with Russia, and U.S. Policy [Updated April 29, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report provides an overview of Ukraine's domestic politics and reform challenges; Ukraine's conflict with Russia and the conflict settlement process; the Ukrainian economy; and Ukraine's relations with the United States, the European Union (EU), and NATO."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2020-04-29
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated October 23, 2020]
From the Summary: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the states that gained their independence after the USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] collapsed in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid to Europe and Eurasia. Many observers consider Georgia to be one of the most democratic states in the post-Soviet region, even as the country faces ongoing governance challenges. The center-left Georgian Dream-Democratic Georgia party (GD) holds a dominant political position, with about 61% of seats in parliament."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2020-10-23
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Russia's 2018 Presidential Election [March 13, 2018]
"Russia's next presidential election is scheduled for March 18, 2018, the fourth anniversary of Russia's illegal annexation of Ukraine's Crimea region. Russian President Vladimir Putin, who has served as president or prime minister of Russia for over 18 years, is widely expected to secure reelection easily against seven other candidates, especially given the government's tight control over the country's political process. With presidential terms in Russia lasting six years, victory could keep Putin in office until at least 2024."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2018-03-13
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Civic Upheaval in Armenia [May 9, 2018]
"On April 23, 2018, Serzh Sargsyan, Armenia's president from 2008 to early April 2018, unexpectedly resigned from his new post as prime minister amid growing protests. The next week, the ruling center-right Republican Party of Armenia (RPA) rejected protest leader Pashinian's candidacy as prime minister. This led to a mass general strike, after which the RPA agreed to support Pashinian. In a second parliamentary vote on May 8, the RPA agreed to have several of its deputies support Pashinian's candidacy. It stressed, however, that the RPA would remain in the majority and that Pashinian would lead a minority government. Pashinian is a leader of the liberal Yelk (Way Out) Alliance, which won less than 8% of the vote in the April 2017 election but 21% of the vote in municipal elections in Armenia's capital city, Yerevan, the next month. His candidacy as prime minister was supported by the second-largest parliamentary faction, the Tsarukyan Alliance, a coalition led by wealthy businessman and former RPA backer Gagik Tsarukyan. Pashinian also was supported by the nationalist Armenian Revolutionary Federation, formerly the RPA's junior partner in a ruling coalition"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2018-05-09
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Moldova: A Pivotal Election? [November 4, 2016]
"The first round of Moldova's presidential election on October 30, 2016, occurred at a challenging time for this small state located between Romania and Ukraine. The Russian-leaning Socialist Party leader Igor Dodon won 48% of the vote against his leading competitor, former Minister of Education (and former World Bank economist) Maia Sandu, who received 39%. The election goes to a second round on November 13. This is the first time since 1996 that Moldova's president is being elected by a popular vote. Although the new president will have limited powers in the country's largely parliamentary system, he or she could have an opportunity to steer the domestic and foreign policy developments of long-troubled Moldova in a new direction, thanks to the democratic legitimacy and symbolic power of the newly elected office. […] Congress has been supportive of Moldova's Western trajectory. U.S. foreign assistance to Moldova has exceeded $1.4 billion since 1992. In 2014, Congress welcomed the establishment of a U.S.-Moldovan Strategic Dialogue, encouraged increased assistance, and called for greater security and intelligence cooperation. […] Given Moldova's crisis of governance and the rise of a pro-Russian presidential candidate, some may wonder about the future of Moldova's pro-Western agenda. Recent developments suggest that Moldova's engagement with the West is still fragile. After the second round of Moldova's presidential election, shoring up the country's determination and ability to stay the course may require some new thinking."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2016-11-04
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Overview of U.S. Sanctions Regimes on Russia [July 11, 2017]
"On December 29, 2016, President Barack Obama imposed sanctions on Russia for malicious cyber activity. These were the latest in a series of U.S. sanctions regimes that have been imposed on Russia over the last several years in response to activities that are state-sponsored or allegedly conducted by government officials. In addition, a number of Russian individuals and entities are subject to sanctions for terrorism, transnational crime, and weapons proliferation. The United States' use of economic sanctions in furtherance of national security or foreign policy is implemented, primarily, by the Departments of State (visas, arms embargos, arms sales, foreign aid, and in limited circumstances, prohibiting the use of U.S. passports to travel), Commerce (commercial exports), Defense (arms sales), Justice (investigation and prosecution), and the Treasury (blocking assets, prohibiting transactions, licensing export transactions, financial services, and in limited circumstances, restricting transactions related to travel). Interagency consulting occurs in implementing and administering any economic sanctions regime."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Rennack, Dianne E.
2017-07-11
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Russia's Parliamentary Elections [September 15, 2016]
"On September 18, 2016, Russians will go to the polls to elect the State Duma, the lower house of parliament. Russia's last parliamentary elections in December 2011 triggered a wave of protests against electoral fraud and heralded the rise of a revitalized opposition against the government of President Vladimir Putin. Five years later, expectations of democratic change have subsided. The ruling United Russia (UR) party is poised to win an even larger majority than before, with most other seats going to loyal opposition parties. Parties genuinely in opposition to the government are expected to win only a handful of seats. [...] Russia's parliamentary elections are not likely to lead to a new round of democratic revival. Russia's ongoing economic difficulties have begun to lead to small-scale protests across the country. For now, however, these protests do not show signs of catalyzing any new kind of political movement. Meanwhile, within the Russian government, the trend is less one of accommodating a broader array of political elites (as the UR primaries would suggest) than tightening President Putin's direct control over a hierarchy of loyal followers. Changes to the system may be occurring, but mostly from within."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2016-09-15
