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Russia's 2018 Presidential Election [March 13, 2018]
"Russia's next presidential election is scheduled for March 18, 2018, the fourth anniversary of Russia's illegal annexation of Ukraine's Crimea region. Russian President Vladimir Putin, who has served as president or prime minister of Russia for over 18 years, is widely expected to secure reelection easily against seven other candidates, especially given the government's tight control over the country's political process. With presidential terms in Russia lasting six years, victory could keep Putin in office until at least 2024."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2018-03-13
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Moldova: An Overview [Updated April 18, 2019]
From the Document: "Moldova is one of three post-Soviet states, together with Ukraine and Georgia, that have sought greater integration with the West while coping with separatist territories occupied by Russian forces. Moldova is located near the Black Sea between Ukraine and Romania."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-04-18
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Turkstream: Another Russian Gas Pipeline to Europe [April 11, 2019]
From the Document: "Russia's state-owned natural gas company Gazprom has long sought to protect its share of Europe's natural gas market. Along with the controversial Nord Stream 2 project (see CRS [Congressional Research Service] In Focus IF11138, 'Nord Stream 2: A Fait Accompli?'), Gazprom's TurkStream project could strengthen Russia's foothold in the European energy market, especially southern Europe. It also could cement Turkey's status as a lead recipient of Russian gas, at a time of relatively strong Turkish-Russian relations. Opponents of the TurkStream project, including the Trump Administration and some Members of Congress, have expressed concern that the project could also help erode Ukraine's transit role for natural gas. In 2018, Gazprom supplied more than 40% of the EU's natural gas imports and about 50% of Turkey's. Many analysts maintain that Moscow could use its energy exports as leverage in countries that are dependent upon Russian natural gas. The United States, in turn, has long supported projects to diversify natural gas supplies to Europe and undercut Russia's market dominance."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Garding, Sarah E.; Ratner, Michael; Taylor, Beryl E. . . .
2019-04-11
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Russia, the Skripal Poisoning, and U.S. Sanctions [December 4, 2018]
"On August 6, 2018, Secretary of State Michael Pompeo determined that in March 2018 the government of Russia had used a chemical weapon in the United Kingdom in contravention of international law. When such a determination is made, U.S. law requires the President to impose economic and diplomatic measures that initially cut off foreign aid, arms sales, and export licenses for controlled goods, services, and technology, and ratchet up in intensity if certain conditions are not met within 90 days."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Welt, Cory
2018-12-04
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Ukraine Elects a New President [April 24, 2019]
From the Document: "On April 21, 2019, Ukraine held the second round of its first presidential election since 2014, the year Russia occupied Ukraine's Crimea region and fostered a separatist conflict in eastern Ukraine. Popular actor-comedian and political novice Volodymyr Zelensky won an overwhelming victory. He defeated incumbent President Petro Poroshenko 73% to 24%. Observers considered the election to be largely free and fair."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-04-24
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Nord Stream 2: A Fait Accompli? [March 18, 2019]
From the Document: "The Trump Administration and many Members of Congress have criticized Nord Stream 2, a Russian-owned natural gas pipeline project that would allow Germany to increase the amount of natural gas it imports directly from Russia via the Baltic Sea (see Figure 1). Although the pipeline is currently under construction, new European Union (EU) regulations agreed to in February 2019 require German and EU regulators to make a final ruling later this year on the project's compliance with EU law. Nevertheless, many observers believe the pipeline's construction will proceed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belkin, Paul; Ratner, Michael; Welt, Cory . . .
2019-03-18
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated April 1, 2019]
From the Document: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the states that gained their independence after the USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics] collapsed in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid to Europe and Eurasia."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-04-01
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [Updated October 17, 2019]
From the Document: "Georgia is one of the United States' closest partners among the states that gained their independence after the USSR collapsed in 1991. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid to Europe and Eurasia. Many observers consider Georgia to be one of the most democratic states in the post-Soviet region, even as the country faces ongoing governance challenges. The center-left Georgian Dream-Democratic Georgia party (GD) holds a dominant political position, with about 70% of seats in parliament. Although Georgia faces high rates of poverty and underemployment, its economy has performed better since 2017 than it did in the previous four years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-10-17
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia: An Overview [Updated August 29, 2019]
From the Document: "The United States imposes sanctions on Russian persons (individuals, entities, and vessels) in response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine, election interference, other malicious cyber-enabled activities, human rights abuses, use of a chemical weapon, weapons proliferation, illicit trade with North Korea, and support to Syria and Venezuela. Sanctions against Russian persons may include blocking of assets subject to U.S. jurisdiction; limits on access to the U.S. financial system, including limiting or prohibiting transactions involving U.S. individuals and businesses; and denial of entry into the United States. The United States also tightly controls exports to Russia's energy and defense sectors."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Welt, Cory
2019-08-29
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Moldova's Political Crisis Abates [June 20, 2019]
From the Document: "On June 14, 2019, a political crisis in Moldova ended when leaders of the formerly ruling Democratic Party of Moldova (PDM) agreed to dissolve the outgoing government in favor of a new coalition. The coalition includes a reform-oriented, Western-leaning alliance, ACUM (or 'Now'), and the socially conservative, Russian-leaning Party of Socialists, which placed first in Moldova's February 2019 elections. Moldova is one of three post-Soviet states that, together with Ukraine and Georgia, have sought greater integration with the West while coping with separatist territories occupied by Russian forces. Many Members of Congress have long supported Moldova's democratic trajectory and territorial integrity and have called on Russia to respect Moldova's sovereignty and withdraw its military forces."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-06-20
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Trump-Putin Summit [July 20, 2018]
"On July 16, 2018, U.S. President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin held a summit in Helsinki, Finland. This was the first U.S.-Russia summit since 2010, when President Barack Obama met with Putin's predecessor Dmitry Medvedev in Prague to sign the New START strategic arms reduction treaty. The Presidents characterized the July 2018 summit as a first step to improving relations. President Trump stated his view that the United States and Russia need 'to find ways to cooperate in pursuit of shared interests' and resolve global challenges. President Putin said his goal is to restore an acceptable level of trust and past levels of cooperation on issues of mutual interest. Media reports have focused on President Trump's remarks about whether or not he believes the U.S. intelligence community's conclusion that Russia interfered in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. However, the summit discussions apparently ranged widely and touched on many issues central to U.S.-Russia relations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2018-07-20
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia [November 28, 2018]
"Sanctions are considered by many to be a central element of U.S. policy to counter Russian malign behavior, including Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2014, election interference and cyberattacks, human rights abuses, illicit trade with North Korea, support to the government of Syria, and use of a chemical weapon. The United States also employs sanctions in an effort to deter further objectionable activities by Russia (e.g., expanding the war in Ukraine or launching new attacks in neighboring countries). Most Members of Congress support a robust use of sanctions amid concerns about Russia's international behavior and geostrategic intentions. Most Russia-related sanctions implemented by the United States have been levied in response to Russia's 2014 invasion of Ukraine. These sanctions are based on national emergency authorities granted the office of the President in the National Emergencies Act (NEA; P.L. 94-412; 50 U.S.C. 1621) and International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA; P.L. 95-223; 50 U.S.C. 1701) and were exercised by President Barack Obama in 2014 in a series of executive orders (EOs 13660, 13661, 13662, and 13685). The Obama and Trump Administrations have used these EOs to impose sanctions on approximately 650 Russian individuals and entities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Archick, Kristin; Nelson, Rebecca M. . . .
2018-11-28
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Georgia: Background and U.S. Policy [September 5, 2018]
"Georgia is one of the United States' closest non-NATO partners among the post-Soviet states. With a history of strong economic aid and security cooperation, the United States has deepened its strategic partnership with Georgia since Russia's 2008 invasion of Georgia and 2014 invasion of Ukraine. U.S. policy expressly supports Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders, and Georgia is a leading recipient of U.S. aid in Europe and Eurasia. Many observers consider Georgia to be one of the most democratic states in the post Soviet region, even as the country faces ongoing governance challenges. The center-left Georgian Dream party has more than a three-fourths super majority in parliament, allowing it to rule with only limited checks and balances. Although Georgia faces high rates of poverty and underemployment, its economy in 2017 appeared to enter a period of stronger growth than the previous four years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2018-09-05
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia [January 11, 2019]
"The executive branch also has used a variety of EOs [executive order]and legislation to impose sanctions on Russian individuals and entities in response to a number of other concerns. Legislation that established specifically Russia-related sanctions includes the following: [1] The Sergei Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountability Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-208, Title IV; 22 U.S.C. 5811 note); [2] Support for the Sovereignty, Integrity, Democracy, and Economic Stability of Ukraine Act of 2014, as amended (SSIDES; P.L. 113-95; 22 U.S.C. 8901 et seq.); [3] Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014, as amended (UFSA; P.L. 113-272; 22 U.S.C. 8921 et seq.); [4] Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017, as amended (CRIEEA; P.L. 115-44, Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act [CAATSA], Title II; 22 U.S.C. 9501 et seq.)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Archick, Kristin; Nelson, Rebecca M. . . .
2019-01-11
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Nord Stream 2: A Geopolitical Lightning Rod [August 7, 2018]
"U.S. policymakers have supported European Union (EU) efforts to reduce reliance on Russian natural gas, especially after Moscow temporarily halted exports via Ukraine in 2009 and 2006. Although European governments have generally supported the goal of diversification, they have been challenged to reduce Europe's dependence on Russian natural gas, which accounted for 37% of European imports in 2017, up 5% from the previous year. Analysts cite various impediments to reducing European reliance on Russian gas, including divergent perceptions within Europe on the reliability of Russian supplies. Many have criticized Germany, Russia's largest natural gas customer, for seeking to expand the Nord Stream pipeline system. Others suggest an expansion of Nord Stream would not necessarily lead to a rise in Russian gas imports by Europe, if Gazprom uses the new capacity to substitute for gas transit through Ukraine."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belkin, Paul; Ratner, Michael; Welt, Cory
2018-08-07
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U.S. Sanctions on Russia: An Overview [July 26, 2018]
"The United States imposes sanctions on Russian persons (individuals and entities) for aggression against Ukraine, election interference, malicious cyber activity, human rights violations, weapons proliferation, and other activities. U.S. sanctions regimes against Russia have increased in complexity and scope with enactment of the Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017 (CRIEEA; P.L. 115-44, Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, Title II; 22 U.S.C. 9501 et seq.). Sanctions against Russian persons can include blocking U.S.-based assets; prohibiting U.S. persons from engaging in transactions related to those assets; prohibiting certain, and in some cases all, U.S. transactions; and denying entry into the United States. The United States also tightly controls exports to Russia's energy and defense sectors and restricts exports where the end-use might have military application. Each rationale for imposing sanctions and the sanctions tools used, however, have their own nuances."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Welt, Cory
2018-07-26
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Moldova: An Overview [July 25, 2018]
"Moldova is one of three post-Soviet states, together with Ukraine and Georgia, seeking greater integration with the West as it copes with separatist territories occupied by Russian forces. A small, landlocked state, Moldova is located near the Black Sea between Ukraine and Romania."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2018-07-25
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Russia's Parliamentary Elections [September 15, 2016]
"On September 18, 2016, Russians will go to the polls to elect the State Duma, the lower house of parliament. Russia's last parliamentary elections in December 2011 triggered a wave of protests against electoral fraud and heralded the rise of a revitalized opposition against the government of President Vladimir Putin. Five years later, expectations of democratic change have subsided. The ruling United Russia (UR) party is poised to win an even larger majority than before, with most other seats going to loyal opposition parties. Parties genuinely in opposition to the government are expected to win only a handful of seats. [...] Russia's parliamentary elections are not likely to lead to a new round of democratic revival. Russia's ongoing economic difficulties have begun to lead to small-scale protests across the country. For now, however, these protests do not show signs of catalyzing any new kind of political movement. Meanwhile, within the Russian government, the trend is less one of accommodating a broader array of political elites (as the UR primaries would suggest) than tightening President Putin's direct control over a hierarchy of loyal followers. Changes to the system may be occurring, but mostly from within."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2016-09-15
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Elections Strengthen Georgia's Ruling Party [October 18, 2016]
"On October 8, 2016, the country of Georgia held parliamentary elections, which domestic and international observers assessed as democratic, despite isolated violations and violent incidents. The elections tested the resilience of Georgia's ruling party, the center-left Georgian Dream-Democratic Georgia (GDDG), founded by oligarch Bidzina Ivanishvili in 2012 to unseat the United National Movement (UNM), formerly led by Mikheil Saakashvili. GDDG won a clear victory in the first round and is on track to form a new government. [...] GDDG's victory reflects broad but measured support for the ruling party. [...] The election reflects the reduced influence of the formerly dominant UNM. The party's decline is attributed in part to the imprisonment or indictment of several senior UNM officials (including Saakashvili) on charges party supporters consider to be political, as well as to harassment of party activists and defections by UNM parliamentarians. [...] Certain domestic trends could complicate Georgia's westward path. Georgians who do not support EU membership are clear about their pro-Russian orientation. [...] One challenge for the Georgian government is how to increase the economic attraction of Western integration. [...] The sense that Georgia's elections were largely democratic and confirmed the country's Western course may reinforce U.S. support for Georgia. One possible area for increased cooperation is trade. [...] However, the preliminary election results are a reminder that democratization in Georgia is a work in progress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2016-10-18
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Russia: Background and U.S. Interests [March 1, 2017]
"Over the last five years, Congress has monitored and, together with the executive branch, taken steps to respond to significant concerns about Russian domestic and foreign policy developments. These developments include a trend toward increasingly authoritarian governance since Vladimir Putin's return to the presidential post in 2012; Russia's 2014 annexation of Ukraine's Crimea region and sponsorship and support of separatists in eastern Ukraine; violations of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty; Moscow's ongoing intervention in Syria in support of Bashar al Asad's government; increased military activity oriented toward Europe; and, according to the U.S. intelligence community, cyber-related influence operations that have extended to the 2016 U.S. presidential election. U.S. responses to these developments have included the imposition of sanctions related to human rights violations, Russia's actions in Ukraine, and malicious cyber activity. The United States has also led NATO in developing a new military posture in Eastern Europe designed to reassure allies and deter further aggression. The Barack Obama Administration, together with Congress, condemned Russia's military support to Asad's government, especially its air strikes on Aleppo. […] In addition, Congress has begun to investigate Russian interference in U.S. elections. In January 2017, the House and Senate Select Committees on Intelligence announced inquiries into Russian cyber activities and 'active measures' surrounding the U.S. election and more broadly. The Senate Armed Services, Foreign Relations, and Judiciary Committees launched or announced related investigations. […] […] This report provides background information on Russian politics, economics, and military issues. It also discusses a number of key issues for Congress concerning Russia's foreign relations and the U.S.-Russian relationship."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2017-03-01
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Moldova: A Pivotal Election? [November 4, 2016]
"The first round of Moldova's presidential election on October 30, 2016, occurred at a challenging time for this small state located between Romania and Ukraine. The Russian-leaning Socialist Party leader Igor Dodon won 48% of the vote against his leading competitor, former Minister of Education (and former World Bank economist) Maia Sandu, who received 39%. The election goes to a second round on November 13. This is the first time since 1996 that Moldova's president is being elected by a popular vote. Although the new president will have limited powers in the country's largely parliamentary system, he or she could have an opportunity to steer the domestic and foreign policy developments of long-troubled Moldova in a new direction, thanks to the democratic legitimacy and symbolic power of the newly elected office. […] Congress has been supportive of Moldova's Western trajectory. U.S. foreign assistance to Moldova has exceeded $1.4 billion since 1992. In 2014, Congress welcomed the establishment of a U.S.-Moldovan Strategic Dialogue, encouraged increased assistance, and called for greater security and intelligence cooperation. […] Given Moldova's crisis of governance and the rise of a pro-Russian presidential candidate, some may wonder about the future of Moldova's pro-Western agenda. Recent developments suggest that Moldova's engagement with the West is still fragile. After the second round of Moldova's presidential election, shoring up the country's determination and ability to stay the course may require some new thinking."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2016-11-04
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Overview of U.S. Sanctions Regimes on Russia [January 11, 2017]
"On December 29, 2016, President Barack Obama imposed sanctions on Russia for malicious cyber activity. These are the latest in a series of U.S. sanctions regimes that have been imposed on Russia over the last several years in response to activities that are state-sponsored or allegedly conducted by government officials. In addition, a number of Russian individuals and entities are subject to sanctions for terrorism, transnational crime, and weapons proliferation. The United States' use of economic sanctions in furtherance of national security or foreign policy is implemented, primarily, by the Departments of State (visas, arms embargos, arms sales, foreign aid, and in limited circumstances, prohibiting the use of U.S. passports to travel), Commerce (commercial exports), Defense (arms sales), Justice (investigation and prosecution), and the Treasury (blocking assets, prohibiting transactions, licensing export transactions, financial services, and in limited circumstances, restricting transactions related to travel). Interagency consulting occurs in implementing and administering any economic sanctions regime. In the 115th Congress, Members are drafting legislation to require sanctions on Russia for its cyber intrusions and other aggressive activities (pending in the Senate), and election interference (pending in the House)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Rennack, Dianne E.
2017-01-11
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Russia and the U.S. Presidential Election [January 17, 2017]
"On January 6, 2016, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) released a declassified report on Russian activities and intentions related to the 2016 U.S. presidential election. The report states that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the National Security Agency (NSA) have 'high confidence' that Russian President Vladimir Putin 'ordered an influence campaign in 2016 aimed at the US presidential election' in order to 'undermine public faith in the US democratic process, denigrate [Hillary] Clinton, and harm her electability and potential presidency.' The report also contends the Russian government 'aspired to help President-elect Trump's election chances when possible by discrediting Secretary Clinton and publicly contrasting her unfavorably to him.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Theohary, Catherine A.
2017-01-17
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Ukraine: Background and U.S. Policy [November 01, 2017]
"The United States has long supported Ukraine's pro-Western orientation and reform efforts. It supports the restoration of Ukraine's territorial integrity, including with respect to Crimea, as well as implementation of the Minsk agreements that would establish a cease-fire and conflict settlement in eastern Ukraine. In 2014, the United States, in coordination with the European Union and others, imposed sanctions on Russia for its actions in Ukraine. The United States is a leading contributor of foreign assistance to Ukraine, including over $300 million a year since FY2015 in nonmilitary, nonhumanitarian assistance. The United States also provides substantial military assistance to Ukraine, including via a newly established Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative that provides 'appropriate security assistance and intelligence support' to help Ukraine defend against aggression and support its sovereignty and territorial integrity. [...] The U.S. Congress has actively participated in efforts to address the Ukraine conflict since its onset. Many Members have condemned Russia's annexation of Crimea and support for separatists in eastern Ukraine and pushed to impose and retain sanctions against Russia for its actions. Congress has also supported substantial economic and security assistance for Ukraine. Key legislation includes the Support for the Sovereignty, Integrity, Democracy, and Economic Stability of Ukraine Act of 2014 (P.L. 113-95), the Ukraine Freedom Support Act (P.L. 113-272), and the Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017 (P.L. 115-44, Title II)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2017-11-01
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Overview of U.S. Sanctions Regimes on Russia [July 11, 2017]
"On December 29, 2016, President Barack Obama imposed sanctions on Russia for malicious cyber activity. These were the latest in a series of U.S. sanctions regimes that have been imposed on Russia over the last several years in response to activities that are state-sponsored or allegedly conducted by government officials. In addition, a number of Russian individuals and entities are subject to sanctions for terrorism, transnational crime, and weapons proliferation. The United States' use of economic sanctions in furtherance of national security or foreign policy is implemented, primarily, by the Departments of State (visas, arms embargos, arms sales, foreign aid, and in limited circumstances, prohibiting the use of U.S. passports to travel), Commerce (commercial exports), Defense (arms sales), Justice (investigation and prosecution), and the Treasury (blocking assets, prohibiting transactions, licensing export transactions, financial services, and in limited circumstances, restricting transactions related to travel). Interagency consulting occurs in implementing and administering any economic sanctions regime."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory; Rennack, Dianne E.
2017-07-11
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Russia: Background and U.S. Policy [August 21, 2017]
Over the last five years, Congress and the executive branch have closely monitored and responded to new developments in Russian policy. These developments include the following: [1] increasingly authoritarian governance since Vladimir Putin's return to the presidential post in 2012; [2] Russia's 2014 annexation of Ukraine's Crimea region and support of separatists in eastern Ukraine; [3] violations of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty; [3] Moscow's intervention in Syria in support of Bashar al Asad's government; [increased military activity in Europe; and cyber-related influence operations that, according to the U.S. intelligence community, have targeted the 2016 U.S. presidential election and countries in Europe.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2017-08-21
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Moldova: An Overview [Updated July 11, 2019]
From the Document: "On June 14, 2019, a political crisis in Moldova ended when the formerly ruling Democratic Party of Moldova (PDM) agreed to dissolve the outgoing government in favor of a new, democratically elected coalition. The coalition consists of a reform-oriented, Western-leaning alliance, ACUM (or 'Now') and the socially conservative, Russian-leaning Party of Socialists, which placed first in Moldova's February 2019 elections. The coalition came together to unseat the PDM; given the parties' differing policy orientations, it is uncertain how long it will last. Moldova is one of three post-Soviet states, together with Ukraine and Georgia, that have sought greater integration with the West while coping with separatist territories occupied by Russian forces. Many Members of Congress have long supported Moldova's democratic trajectory and territorial integrity and have called on Russia to respect Moldova's sovereignty and to withdraw its military forces."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2019-07-11
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Recent Developments in U.S.-Russian Nonproliferation Cooperation [October 13, 2016]
"On October 3, 2016, Russian President Vladimir Putin issued a decree suspending participation in a bilateral U.S.- Russia weapons plutonium disposal agreement (the 2000 Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement, or PMDA). The next day, Russia suspended participation in a 2013 cooperative agreement on nuclear- and energy-related research and terminated a third from 2010 on exploring options for converting research reactors from weapons-usable fuel. These agreements are part of a suite of nonproliferation and nuclear security agreements the two countries concluded starting in the 1990s to prevent diversion of weapons-usable nuclear materials. Russia's recent steps contribute to a continuing decline in U.S.-Russian nonproliferation cooperation that accelerated in 2014 after Russia's invasion of Ukraine. At the same time, Russia has not suspended its participation in the New START arms control agreement that reduces nuclear warheads. [...] The Russian suspensions come at a time of increased tension in U.S.-Russia relations due to the collapse of a recent ceasefire agreement in Syria the two countries had brokered. The same day Russia suspended the PMDA, the State Department announced the United States was suspending its 'participation in bilateral channels with Russia' to sustain the Cessation of Hostilities in Syria, citing Russia's failure 'to live up to its own commitments.' In a statement on the PMDA suspension, the Russian Foreign Minister said Moscow's decision was 'a signal to Washington that it cannot use the language of force, sanctions and ultimatums with Russia while continuing to selectively cooperate with our country only when it benefits the U.S.'"
Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham; Welt, Cory
2016-10-13
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Russia, the Skripal Poisoning, and U.S. Sanctions [Updated August 14, 2019]
From the Document: "On August 6, 2018, Secretary of State Michael Pompeo determined that in March 2018 the government of Russia used a chemical weapon in the United Kingdom in contravention of international law. This finding triggered requirements under the Chemical and Biological Weapons Control and Warfare Elimination Act of 1991 (CBW Act; title III, P.L. 102-182; 22 U.S.C. 5601 et seq.). The CBW Act requires the President to impose economic and diplomatic measures that first cut off foreign aid, arms sales, and export licenses for controlled goods, services, and technology, and ratchet up in intensity if certain conditions are not met within 90 days. As of August 2019, the United States has imposed two rounds of sanctions on Russia as required by the CBW Act."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rennack, Dianne E.; Welt, Cory
2019-08-14
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Moldova: An Overview [Updated March 9, 2020]
From the Document: "Moldova is one of three post-Soviet states--together with Ukraine and Georgia--that has sought greater integration with the West while dealing with separatist territories occupied by Russian forces. Many Members of Congress have long supported Moldova's democratic trajectory and territorial integrity and have called on Russia to respect Moldova's sovereignty and withdraw its military forces."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Welt, Cory
2020-03-09
