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• ATPA Renewal: Background and Issues [March 9, 2011]

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  "The Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) extends duty-free treatment to certain U.S. imports that meet domestic content and other requirements from designated countries in the Andean region. The purpose of ATPA is to promote economic growth in the Andean region and to encourage a shift away from dependence on illegal drugs by supporting legitimate economic activities. [...] The trade effects of ATPA on the U.S. economy have been minimal because the amount of U.S. trade with the Andean region is low. The value of duty-free U.S. imports under ATPA accounts for about 0.8% of total U.S. imports, or 0.1% of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP). Approximately 90% of U.S. imports from ATPA countries enter duty-free under various trade preference programs or through normal trade relations. Duty-free imports under ATPA account for 49.9% of total U.S. imports from ATPA countries. Leading U.S. ATPA imports in 2010 were crude petroleum oil, cut flowers, petroleum-oil products (other than crude), refined copper, tshirts and similar apparel, and fish and caviar products. The 112th Congress may reevaluate the extension of ATPA trade preferences for Ecuador and Colombia. Policymakers may also consider broader reform of U.S. trade preference programs, including the Generalized System of Preferences. Some Members of Congress maintain that if ATPA trade preferences are not extended, the United States and the Andean countries risk losing some of the economic progress that has been achieved over the 18-year life of the program. Supporters of ATPA argue that the program should continue to reinforce the U.S. commitment to the 'alternative development' counternarcotics strategy. Critics of ATPA argue that unilateral trade programs are ineffective; that the ATPA has forced U.S. producers to compete with lowercost Andean imports; and that, in cases such as Bolivia and Ecuador, trade preferences should not be extended to countries that do not support U.S. foreign and trade policies.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2011-03-09
• Mexican Economy after the Global Financial Crisis [September 16, 2010]

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  "The state of Mexico's economy is important for U.S. policymakers for many reasons, most significantly because a prosperous and democratic neighboring country is in the best interest of the United States. The two countries have strong economic, political, and social ties, which have direct policy implications related to bilateral trade, economic competitiveness, migration, and border security. In May 2010, President Barack Obama hosted Mexican President Felipe Calderón at a meeting in the White House in which the two leaders discussed key issues affecting the two countries. They agreed to continue and reinforce cooperation on creating jobs, promoting economic recovery and expansion, and encouraging inclusive prosperity across all levels of society in both countries. The 111th Congress is likely to maintain an active interest in Mexico on issues related to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and other trade issues, economic conditions in Mexico, migration, border security issues, and counter-narcotics."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2010-09-16
• Mexican Economy After the Global Financial Crisis [September 9, 2010]

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  "The state of Mexico's economy is important for U.S. policymakers for many reasons, most significantly because a prosperous and democratic neighboring country is in the best interest of the United States. The two countries have strong economic, political, and social ties, which have direct policy implications related to bilateral trade, economic competitiveness, migration, and border security. In May 2010, President Barack Obama hosted Mexican President Felipe Calderón at a meeting in the White House in which the two leaders discussed key issues affecting the two countries. They agreed to continue and reinforce cooperation on creating jobs, promoting economic recovery and expansion, and encouraging inclusive prosperity across all levels of society in both countries. The 111th Congress is likely to maintain an active interest in Mexico on issues related to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and other trade issues, economic conditions in Mexico, migration, border security issues, and counter-narcotics. The global financial crisis that began in 2008 and the U.S. economic downturn had strong adverse effects on the Mexican economy, largely due to its economic ties and dependence on the U.S. market. Mexico's gross domestic product (GDP) contracted by 6.6% in 2009, the sharpest decline of any Latin American economy. Mexico's reliance on the United States as an export market and the relative importance of exports to its overall economic performance make it highly susceptible to fluctuations in the U.S. economy. Most other Latin American countries are not as dependent on the United States as an export market. Economic reforms over the past 20 years and the government's responses to the effects of the global financial crisis have helped Mexico weather the economic downturn and improve conditions in 2010. However, sustained economic recovery will likely depend on the U.S. economic recovery and the ability to sustain this growth."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2010-09-09
• NAFTA and the Mexican Economy

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  "The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), in effect since January 1994, plays a very strong role in the bilateral economic relationship between Mexico and the United States. The two countries are also closely tied in areas not directly related to trade and investment such as security, environmental, migration, and health issues. The effects of NAFTA on Mexico and the Mexican economic situation have impacts on U.S. economic and political interests. A number of policymakers have raised the issue of revisiting NAFTA and renegotiating parts of the agreement. Some important factors in evaluating NAFTA include the effects of the agreement on Mexico and how these relate to U.S.-Mexico economic relations. In the 111th Congress, major issues of concern are related to U.S.-Mexico trade issues, economic conditions in Mexico, the effect of NAFTA on the United States and Mexico, and Mexican migrant workers in the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2010-06-03
• Panama-U.S. Relations [Updated March 26, 2001]

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  "The December 20, 1989, U.S. military intervention in Panama, known as Operation Just Cause, heralded a new period in U.S.-Panamanian relations. In the aftermath of the intervention, U.S. policymakers immediately faced a new range of challenges including assistance for economic recovery, support for the development of a civilian police force, cooperation with the new government on counter-narcotics measures, and support for fragile democratic institutions. Panama has made abundant progress in all these areas, although the country still faces challenges. U.S. policymakers maintain an active concern about these issues because of continued U.S. interests in Panama, particularly the Panama Canal, which continues to be important to the United States for its commercial value. The Panamanian President's popularity fell significantly during the first year of her administration but improved in the latter part of 2000. A December 2000 public opinion poll showed an overall approval rating of 62%. However, many analysts believe that it will be difficult for President Moscoso to sustain her popularity because of sluggish economic growth and the administration's recent increases in electricity and telecommunications rates. The rate increases, which occurred in January 2001, resulted in violent street protests in the capital and led to many arrests. The political difficulties the president is facing may make it unlikely for her to gain legislative approval of proposed tax and social security reform measures she is proposing in March 2001. These measures are part of an agreement with the IMF that had been earlier scheduled for 2000. Without these reforms, the government will have difficulty meeting its fiscal and debt reduction targets or its public investment goals."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2001-03-26
• Boosting U.S. Exports: Selected Issues for Congress [July 21, 2011]

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  "For many years, the U.S. government has played an active role in promoting U.S. commercial exports of goods and services by administering various forms of export assistance through federal government agencies. Congress has had a long-standing interest in the effectiveness and efficiency of federal export promotion activities and may exercise export promotion authority in a number of ways, including through oversight, authorization, and funding roles. […] Thus, it is argued that efforts to ensure foreign compliance with existing trade agreements and the negotiation of new FTAs [Free Trade Agreements] should be part of a strategy to boost U.S. exports. Others argue that more can be done to address U.S. barriers to exports, such as U.S. export controls on dual-use products, which some contend may be too restrictive and may put U.S. exporters at a disadvantage vis-à-vis foreign competitors. Finally, many argue that greater efforts should be made to induce countries with high savings and relatively low consumption and that are heavily dependent on exporting for their economic growth to implement policies that would make private consumption the engine of future economic growth, which would enhance their demand for U.S. goods and services. The NEI [National Export Initiative] also has drawn greater attention to whether the trade policy structure and organization of the federal government is suited to boosting U.S. exports and supporting U.S. jobs effectively and efficiently."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles; Morrison, Wayne M.; Fergusson, Ian F. . . .

  2011-07-21
• U.S. Government Agencies Involved in Export Promotion: Overview and Issues for Congress [May 1, 2012]

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  "This report provides an overview of the federal agencies that participate in U.S. export promotion efforts and the issues that they raise for Congress. It proceeds first by discussing the coordination, budgets, and functions of federal government agencies involved in promoting exports. Second, the report provides an overview of the missions and activities of key federal government agencies that support exports. The third section of the report discusses agency-related issues for Congress. The report concludes with a summary of legislation introduced in the 112th Congress related to export promotion. While this report focuses on the role of the federal government in promoting exports, it is important to acknowledge that state and local governments, as well as businesses, have an important role in promoting exports."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Hanrahan, Charles; Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2012-05-01
• Andean-U.S. Free-Trade Agreement Negotiations [Updated September 30, 2005]

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  "In November 2003, the Administration notified Congress that it intended to begin negotiations on a free-trade agreement (FTA) with Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia. The notification said that an FTA would reduce and eliminate foreign barriers to trade and investment and would support democracy and fight drug activity in the Andean region. The Andean governments wanted to ensure access to the U.S. market, especially since their current trade preferences will terminate at the end of 2006. In the United States, the business community strongly supports the trade agreement, labor opposes it, and agriculture is split. The first round of negotiations was held with Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador (with Bolivia participating as an observer) in Cartagena, Colombia, in May 2004. Twelve rounds have been held thus far. The latest round was held in Cartagena, Colombia on September 19-23, 2005. Reports suggest that progress was made and that negotiators expect to conclude the agreement by the end of 2005. The next round, scheduled in mid-October in Washington, D.C., is expected to be the final round of negotiations and the final agreement is expected to be concluded in November. The Cartagena talks drew an estimated 7,000 protestors while Ecuador and Peru also faced strong protests. Of note, after the negotiations Ecuador announced that its entry into the agreement would be delayed. In the last few months, Ecuador and Bolivia have had sudden changes in their presidencies."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2005-09-30
• ATPA Renewal: Background and Issues [April 14, 2011]

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  "The Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) extends duty-free treatment to certain U.S. imports that meet domestic content and other requirements from designated countries in the Andean region. The purpose of ATPA is to promote economic growth in the Andean region and to encourage a shift away from dependence on illegal drugs by supporting legitimate economic activities. ATPA […] was enacted on December 4, 1991. It was renewed and modified under the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act […] on August 6, 2002, extending trade preferences until December 31, 2006. Since that time, Congress has provided several short-term extensions of ATPA. The most recent extension took place late in December 2010 when the 111th Congress enacted legislation for a six-week extension of ATPA for Colombia and Ecuador until February 12, 2011. […] The 112th Congress has not renewed ATPA. […] The trade effects of ATPA on the U.S. economy have been minimal because the amount of U.S. trade with the Andean region is low. The value of duty-free U.S. imports under ATPA accounts for about 0.8% of total U.S. imports, or 0.1% of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP). Approximately 90% of U.S. imports from ATPA countries enter duty-free under various trade preference programs or through normal trade relations. Duty-free imports under ATPA account for 49.9% of total U.S. imports from ATPA countries. […] The 112th Congress may reevaluate the extension of ATPA trade preferences for one or more of the beneficiary countries. Policymakers may also consider broader reform of U.S. trade preference programs, including the Generalized System of Preferences."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2011-04-14
• U.S. Government Agencies Involved in Export Promotion: Overview and Issues for Congress [January 31, 2013]

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  "In times of economic crisis, including the global financial crisis of 2008-2009 and ensuing economic downturn, Congress often has debated on how best to promote U.S. commercial exports as a policy tool for economic growth and job creation. Congressional interest in U.S. export promotion policy has risen with President Obama's announcement of a National Export Initiative (NEI) in his 2010 State of the Union Address. The NEI is a strategy for doubling U.S. exports by 2014 in order to help generate 2 million new jobs in the United States through increased coordination and funding of federal export promotion activities; greater financing for U.S. exporters; increased government advocacy on behalf of U.S. exporters; and negotiation of new trade agreements and stronger enforcement of existing U.S. trade agreements. With the increased focus on export promotion efforts, some Members of Congress have placed greater priority on understanding the functions, coordination, and budgets of federal government agencies involved in export promotion. Such an understanding may support increased congressional oversight of U.S. export promotion policy and related legislative activity. It also may assist Members of Congress in supporting the efforts of their constituents to learn about federal export promotion services and to become involved in exporting. The 113th Congress could conduct oversight and legislate on a range of export promotion issues. This report provides an overview of the federal agencies that participate in U.S. export promotion efforts and the issues that they raise for Congress. While this report focuses on the role of the federal government in promoting exports, it is important to acknowledge that state and local governments, as well as businesses, also have an important role in promoting exports."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias; Hanrahan, Charles; Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2013-01-31
• U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement [December 20, 2011]

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  "On October 3, 2011, President Barack Obama submitted draft legislation (H.R. 3078/S. 1641) to both houses of Congress to implement the U.S.-Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement. On October 12, 2011, the House passed H.R. 3078 (262-167) and sent it to the Senate. The Senate passed the implementing legislation (66-33) on the same day. The agreement, which is most often called the U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (CFTA), is a comprehensive free trade agreement (FTA) between the United States and Colombia, which will eventually eliminate tariffs and other barriers in bilateral trade in goods and services. The FTA was signed by both countries almost five years earlier, on November 22, 2006. The Colombian Congress approved it in June 2007 and again in October 2007, after it was modified to include new provisions after the May 10, 2007 bipartisan understanding between congressional leadership and President George W. Bush. Before the FTA enters into force, the two countries must demonstrate that they have laws in place to meet their obligations under the agreement. Upon entry into force, the agreement will immediately eliminate duties on 80% of U.S. exports of consumer and industrial products to Colombia. Most remaining tariffs will be eliminated within 10 years of implementation."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2011-12-20
• ATPA Renewal: Background and Issues [January 9, 2012]

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  From the Document: "The Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) extends duty-free treatment to certain U.S. imports that meet domestic content and other requirements from designated countries in the Andean region. The purpose of ATPA is to promote economic growth in the Andean region and to encourage a shift away from dependence on illegal drugs by supporting legitimate economic activities. ATPA (Title II of P.L. 102-182) was enacted on December 4, 1991. It was renewed and modified under the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA; Title XXXI of P.L. 107-210) on August 6, 2002, extending trade preferences until December 31, 2006. Since that time, Congress has provided several short-term extensions of ATPA. The most recent extension took place on October 12, 2011, when the 112th Congress enacted implementing legislation for the U.S.-Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement (P.L. 112-42). As part of the free trade agreement implementing legislation, ATPA was renewed for Colombia and Ecuador until July 31, 2013."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2012-01-09
• Mexico's Free Trade Agreements [July 3, 2012]

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  "Mexico has had a growing commitment to trade integration and liberalization through the formation of free trade agreements (FTAs) since the 1990s and its trade policy is among the most open in the world. On June 18, 2012, President Barack Obama announced that an invitation was extended to Mexico to join the ongoing negotiations for the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), a proposed free trade agreement involving the United States and eight other countries. Canada was also invited to join the negotiations. Mexico's pursuit of FTAs with other countries not only provides economic benefits, but could also potentially reduce its economic dependence on the United States. The United States is, by far, Mexico's most significant trading partner. Almost 80% of Mexico's exports go to the United States and about 50% of Mexico's imports are supplied by the United States. In an effort to increase trade with other countries, Mexico has a total of 12 free trade agreements involving 44 countries. These include agreements with most countries in the Western Hemisphere including the United States and Canada under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Peru, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. In addition, Mexico has negotiated FTAs outside of the Western Hemisphere and entered into agreements with Israel, Japan, and the European Union."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2012-07-03
• ATPA Renewal: Background and Issues [July 18, 2007]

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  From the Document: "The Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) extends special duty treatment to certain U.S. imports from Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru that meet domestic content and other requirements. The ATPA (Title II of P.L. 102-182) was enacted on December 4, 1991, and renewed and modified under the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA; Title XXI of P.L. 107-210) on August 6, 2002. Andean trade preferences were scheduled to end on December 31, 2006. Legislation was enacted late in the 109th Congress to extend Andean trade preferences until June 30, 2007 and for an additional six months if a country enters into a free trade agreement with the United States before then. In the 110th Congress, legislation was enacted to extend the ATPA for all four countries until February 29, 2008 (P.L. 110-42). ATPA was intended to promote economic growth in the Andean region and to encourage a shift away from dependence on illegal drugs by supporting legitimate economic activities. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2007-07-18
• U.S.-Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement [August 2, 2007]

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  "On November 22, 2006, Deputy U.S. Trade Representative John Veroneau and Colombian Minister of Trade, Industry, and Tourism, Jorge Humberto Botero, signed the Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement (CTPA), a bilateral free trade agreement between the United States and Colombia. President Bush notified Congress on August 24, 2006, of his intention to enter into the CTPA. The CTPA is a comprehensive trade agreement which, if ratified, would eliminate tariffs and other barriers in goods and services trade between the United States and Colombia. The 110th Congress may consider implementing legislation for the agreement under the 2002 Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) procedures. Under TPA, the President would submit formally to Congress the draft agreement and implementing legislation after entering into the agreement, but with no time limit to do so. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2007-08-02
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 110th Congress [July 2, 2008]

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  "Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. Regular free and fair elections have become the norm. So far in 2008, Paraguay and the Caribbean nations of Barbados, Belize, and the Dominican Republic have held national elections, and Grenada is scheduled to have to hold parliamentary elections on July 8, 2008. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002- 2003, it has rebounded since 2004, most recently experiencing an estimated growth rate of 5.6% in 2007. Despite this progress, several nations face considerable challenges that affect U.S. interests and policy in the region. These include poverty, guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, and high rates of crime and violence. U.S. interests in Latin America and the Caribbean are diverse, and include economic, political and security concerns. Geographic proximity has ensured strong economic linkages between the United States and the region, with the United States being the major trading partner and largest source of foreign investment for most countries in the region. Free trade agreements with Mexico and Canada, Chile, Central America and the Dominican Republic (CAFTA-DR), and most recently with Peru have augmented U.S. economic linkages with the region. The region is also the largest source of migration, both legal and illegal, with geographic proximity and economic conditions in the region being major factors in the migration. […] This report provides an overview of U.S. relations with Latin America and the Caribbean and focuses on the role of Congress and congressional concerns. It will be updated periodically. For further information, see the CRS products listed after each topic."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rivas, Justin; Cid, Marisabel; Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2008-07-02
• ATPA Renewal: Background and Issues [December 6, 2006]

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  "The Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) extends special duty treatment to certain U.S. imports from Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru that meet domestic content and other requirements. The ATPA (Title II of P.L. 102-182) was enacted on December 4, 1991, and renewed and modified under the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA; title XXI of P.L. 107-210) on August 6, 2002. ATPA was intended to promote economic growth in the Andean region and to encourage a shift away from dependence on illegal drugs by supporting legitimate economic activities. Duty-free benefits under the ATPDEA are scheduled to end on December 31, 2006. Measures have been introduced in the 109th Congress to extend the Andean trade preferences program until 2008 (H.R. 6076 and S. 3904). This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2006-12-06
• U.S.-Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement [November 20, 2006]

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  "On February 27, 2006, U.S. Trade Representative Rob Portman and Colombia's Minister of Trade, Industry, and Tourism, Jorge Humberto Botero, announced the conclusion of a bilateral free trade agreement. The Administration announced recently that the Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement (CTPA) would be signed on November 22, 2006. President Bush notified Congress on August 24, 2006, of his intention to enter into the CTPA. Implementing legislation for the CTPA has not been introduced in the U.S. Congress. The CTPA is a comprehensive trade agreement which, if ratified, would eliminate tariffs and other barriers in goods and services trade between the United States and Colombia. A free trade agreement with Colombia was originally intended to be part of a broader U.S.-Andean free trade agreement (FTA), including Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2006-11-20
• U.S. Trade Statutes: Expiration Dates and Mandated Periodic Reports to Congress [October 2, 2007]

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  "This report is intended to assist Congress in exercising its oversight responsibilities regarding foreign trade. It is designed as a quick reference guide on two key elements of U.S. trade statutes: (a) expiration dates for major trade programs and trade statutes; and (b) mandated periodic reports to Congress. To this end, the report provides this information in two tables. Table 1 includes expiration dates of programs or laws. Table 2 includes information on mandated reports to Congress by the Executive branch, as required under various trade laws. The organization of, and information in, this report is based on the content and structure of the House Ways and Means Committee Print, 'Overview and Compilation of U.S. Trade Statutes, Parts I and II' (2005). Together, these two volumes are commonly referred to as the House Ways and Means 'Blue Book', referring to the color of their covers. The 'Blue Book' pulls together key information for Congress relating to the trade statutes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bolle, Mary Jane; Cooper, William H., 1949-; Fergusson, Ian F. . . .

  2007-10-02
• Trade Integration in the Americas [November 22, 2005]

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  "Since the 1990s, the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean have been a focus of United States trade policy, as demonstrated by the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the U.S.-Chile free trade agreement (FTA), and, more recently, the Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR). The Bush Administration has made bilateral and regional trade agreements important elements of U.S. trade policy. The United States currently is in the process of completing trade negotiations with Andean countries for an FTA and on reactivating talks for a U.S.-Panama FTA and a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). The FTAA is an on-going regional trade initiative that was first discussed in 1994 and formally started in 1998. The last FTAA trade ministerial meeting was held in Miami in November 2003, but the talks are currently stalled. […] Trade integration in the Americas is of interest to policymakers because of the implications for the United States. Issues under debate include the pros and cons of deepened trade relations with Latin America and the Caribbean, and whether the current focus on bilateral and regional FTAs is the most appropriate trade policy. Some analysts do not believe that such a policy is a good idea because it is creating a complicated network of trade agreements throughout the region could slow down the FTAA process. Others believe that regional trade agreements lead to the consolidation of regional trade areas into larger free trade areas, and although a slow process, may eventually lead to a hemispheric free trade area."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2005-11-22
• ATPA Renewal: Background and Issues [July 16, 2013]

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  "The Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) extends duty-free treatment to certain U.S. imports that meet domestic content and other requirements from Ecuador. There were four countries originally designated to qualify for trade preferences under ATPA, including Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Colombia and Peru are no longer designated beneficiary countries because both countries have free trade agreements with the United States that have entered into force. In the case of Bolivia, trade preferences were suspended in December 2008 because Bolivia failed to meet ATPA eligibility criteria related to counter-narcotics cooperation. Bolivia may only be reinstated as a beneficiary country under ATPA if Congress approves legislation to do so. The purpose of ATPA is to promote economic growth in the Andean region and to encourage a shift away from dependence on illegal drugs by supporting legitimate economic activities. ATPA (Title II of P.L. 102-182) was enacted on December 4, 1991. It was renewed and modified under the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA; Title XXXI of P.L. 107-210) on August 6, 2002, extending trade preferences until December 31, 2006. Since that time, Congress has provided several short-term extensions of ATPA. The most recent extension took place on October 12, 2011, when the 112th Congress enacted implementing legislation for the U.S.-Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement (P.L. 112-42). As part of the free trade agreement (FTA) implementing legislation, ATPA was renewed for Colombia and Ecuador until July 31, 2013. The implementing legislation directed the President to terminate Colombia's status as a designated beneficiary country once the agreement entered into force. The U.S.-Colombia FTA entered into force on May 15, 2012."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2013-07-16
• North American Leaders' Summit [July 5, 2016]

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  "Since 2005, the United States, Canada, and Mexico have made efforts to increase cooperation on broad economic and security issues through various endeavors, most notably by participating in trilateral summits known as the North American Leaders' Summits (NALS). On June 29, 2016, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau hosted President Barack Obama and Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada for the 10th NALS. The meeting served as an opportunity to discuss measures to boost economic competitiveness, expand trade ties, and work on a common climate-change strategy. Climate change and clean energy were the primary focus of the 2016 NALS. The prior NALS was hosted by President Peña Nieto in Toluca, Mexico on February 19, 2014. In 2015, former Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper reportedly canceled a summit because of disagreements with the Obama Administration related to the Keystone XL pipeline and tensions with Mexico over Canada's prior visa requirements for Mexican visitors. Prime Minister Trudeau, who assumed office in November 2015, announced on June 28, 2016 Canada's intention to lift the visa requirement for Mexican visitors beginning December 1, 2016."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2016-07-05
• Human Trafficking and Forced Labor: Trends in Import Restrictions {July 29, 2016]

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  From the Introduction: "More than 85 years ago, Congress passed a provision against forced labor in the Tariff Act of 1930 (19 U.S.C. 1307), which prohibited from import into the United States 'all goods, wares, articles, and merchandise mined, produced, or manufactured wholly or in part in any foreign country by convict labor or/and forced labor or/and indentured labor under penal sanctions' (Section 307 of the Act). Mirroring the International Labour Organization's (ILO) Forced Labour Convention of 1930 (though the United States is not party to this treaty), the Tariff Act defines forced labor as 'all work or service which is extracted from any person under the menace of any penalty for its nonperformance and for which the worker does not offer himself voluntarily.' The term forced labor also encompasses forced or indentured child labor-concepts recognized by the United States in other ILO commitments, including the 1998 Declaration on the Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and the 1999 Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labour. According to human rights and anti human trafficking awareness and advocacy groups, the use of Section 307 has been limited. In the over 85 years since the Tariff Act was enacted, U.S. authorities applied this provision to relatively few specific goods and manufactures. Some observers pointed to the so-called "consumptive demand" clause for the limited effect of this import prohibition. This clause excluded Section 307's application to any imports that were not made 'in such quantities in the United States to meet the consumptive demands of the United States.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Rosen, Liana W.; Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2016-07-29
• North American Leaders' Summit [June 16, 2016]

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  "The United States, Canada, and Mexico have been partners in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) since 1994, are parties to the proposed Trans-Pacific Partnership agreement (TPP), and benefit from a broad and expanding trade relationship (see CRS [Congressional Research Service] In Focus IF10047, 'North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)' and CRS Report R44489, 'The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP): Key Provisions and Issues for Congress'). Since 2005, the three countries have also made efforts to increase cooperation on broader economic and security issues through various endeavors, most notably by participating in trilateral summits known as the North American Leaders' Summits (NALS). On June 29, 2016, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau will host President Barack Obama and Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada for the 10th NALS. The upcoming meeting is expected to provide an opportunity to discuss measures to boost economic competitiveness, expand trade ties, and work on a common climate-change strategy. The most recent summit was hosted by President Peña Nieto in Toluca, Mexico on February 19, 2014. In 2015, former Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper reportedly canceled a summit because of disagreements with the Obama Administration related to the Keystone XL pipeline and tensions with Mexico over Canada's prior visa requirements for Mexican visitors. Prime Minister Trudeau, who assumed office in November 2015, removed these visa requirements in early 2016."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2016-06-16
• Pacific Alliance: A Trade Integration Initiative in Latin America [March 29, 2016]

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  From the Introduction: "The Pacific Alliance is a regional integration initiative comprised of Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. Costa Rica and Panama are candidates for becoming full members. The Alliance was created on April 28, 2011, in Lima, Peru, when the heads of state of Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru signed a Presidential Declaration for the Pacific Alliance, now known as the Lima Declaration, to facilitate the free flow of goods, services, capital, and people. The United States officially joined the Alliance as an observer on July 18, 2013. The project was an initiative of then-Peruvian President Alan Garcia, who extended the invitation to his counterparts in Chile, Colombia, and Mexico, with the purpose of deepening the integration of these economies. The initiative was developed as a way to supplement existing trade agreements among the four countries. The goal is for the four countries to act as a unified economic bloc to negotiate and trade with other countries. The Alliance is making efforts to liberalize trade in goods and services, open foreign investment, integrate securities markets, and allow the free movement of people among member countries. It has shared values in regard to the respect for rule of law, democracy, and protection of human rights, though the current focus is on liberalizing and increasing trade and investment. Member governments have committed to open markets, free trade policies, fiscal stability, openness to foreign investment, and strengthening trade relations with the Asia-Pacific region."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2016-03-29
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 110th Congress [Updated June 22, 2007]

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  "Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. Twelve countries held successful elections for head of government in 2006, including a close election in Mexico. To date in 2007, the Bahamas held elections in May, while presidential elections are scheduled in Guatemala (September) and Argentina (October), and parliamentary elections are due by October in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it has rebounded since 2004, most recently experiencing a growth rate over 5% in 2006. Despite this progress, several nations face considerable challenges that affect U.S. interests and policy in the region. These include persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of a new form of populism in several countries. In the 110th Congress, legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean is focusing on continued counternarcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; immigration reform and increased border security, which have been key issues in relations with Mexico; efforts to deal with threats to democracy and the rise of populism in such nations as Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador; debate over the best means to foster political change in Communist Cuba; trade issues, including the potential consideration of implementing legislation for free trade agreements (FTAs); and continued efforts to support stability and poverty alleviation in Haiti."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Cook, Colleen W.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.) . . .

  2007-06-22
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 110th Congress [January 23, 2007]

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  "Over the past two decades, the Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides in terms of political and economic development. Twelve countries held successful elections for head of government in 2006, including a close election in Mexico, and in 2007, five other countries have elections scheduled. Although the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, it has rebounded since 2004, and most recently experienced an average growth rate over 5% in 2006. Despite this progress, several nations face considerable challenges that threaten political stability or pose challenges for U.S. interests and policy in the region. These include persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, increasing crime, and the rise of a new form of populism in several countries. In the 110th Congress, legislative and oversight attention to Latin America and the Caribbean will likely focus on continued counternarcotics efforts, especially in the Andean region; potential immigration reform and increased border security, which have been key issues in relations with Mexico; efforts to deal with potential threats to democracy and the rise of populism in such nations as Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador; debate over the best means to foster political change in Communist Cuba; and trade issues, including the potential consideration of implementing legislation for free trade agreements (FTAs). Curbing the flow of illicit drugs from Mexico and South America into the United States has been a key component of U.S. relations with Latin America for almost two decades."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Cook, Colleen W.; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.) . . .

  2007-01-23
• North American Free Trade Agreement: Notification for Renegotiation [May 19, 2017]

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  "On May 18, 2017, the Trump Administration sent a 90-day notification to Congress of its intent to begin talks with Canada and Mexico to renegotiate the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)... Under U.S. Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) (P.L. 114-26), the President must consult with Congress before giving the required 90-day notice of his intention to start negotiations... Following the 90-day notice, and at least 30 days prior to the start of negotiations, USTR [U.S. Trade Representative] is to publish 'a detailed and comprehensive summary of the specific objectives with respect to the negotiations, and a description of how the agreement, if successfully concluded, will further those objectives and benefit the United States.' Based on the May 18 notification date, negotiations could start on August 16, 2017, at the earliest."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Villarreal, M. Angeles; Fergusson, Ian F.

  2017-05-19
• Trade Related Agencies: FY2019 Appropriations, Commerce, Justice, Science and Related Agencies (CJS) [October 5, 2018]

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  "This report provides an overview of the FY2019 budget request and appropriationsfor the International Trade Administration (ITA), the U.S. International Trade Commission (USITC), and the office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR). These three trade-related agencies are funded through the annual Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies (CJS) appropriations act. This report also provides a review of these agencies' trade-related programs. When comparing the Administration's FY2019 request with FY2018 funding, it should be considered that the Administration formulated its FY2019 budget request before full-year appropriations for FY2018 were enacted. In this report, FY2018 funding levels reflect the amounts appropriated in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2018 (P.L. 115-141), enacted on March 23, 2018."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hammond, Keigh E.; Villarreal, M. Angeles

  2018-10-05
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues in the 115th Congress [October 4, 2018]

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  "Geographic proximity has ensured strong linkages between the United States and Latin America and the Caribbean, based on diverse U.S. interests, including economic, political, and security concerns. The United States is a major trading partner and the largest source of foreign investment for many countries in the region, with free-trade agreements enhancing economic linkages with 11 countries. The region is a large source of U.S. immigration, both legal and illegal; proximity and economic and security conditions are major factors driving migration. Curbing the flow of illicit drugs has been a key component of U.S. relations with the region for more than three decades and currently involves close security cooperation with Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. U.S. support for democracy and human rights in the region has been long-standing, with particular current focus on Cuba, Nicaragua, and Venezuela."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Beittel, June S.; DeBruyne, Nese F. . . .

  2018-10-04