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Coffee Break Training: Explosive Divisions
"Last week's Coffee Break Training, 'Explosive Magazines', explained the different magazine types required for explosive storage. This week, we describe how explosives, explosive materials, and pyrotechnic devices (fireworks) are classified based on their hazards. Explosive materials are classified by the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) in accordance with Title 18 United States Code, 'Importation, Manufacture, Distribution and Storage of Explosive Materials' and the hazardous materials regulations of Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The materials are assigned a United Nations/DOT 'Division' number based on their relative hazards."
United States Fire Administration
2008-03-04
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Coffee Break Training: Classifying Flammable and Combustible Liquids
"The key to successful application of building and fire codes in your jurisdiction is to collect accurate information, conduct solid research, and take your time to verify your facts. When it comes to regulating flammable and combustible liquids --easily one of our most common hazardous materials--the first step in this process is to classify the liquid in accordance with the codes and standards. Once the liquid is classified, the codes prescribe the limits on how much and where a particular liquid class may be stored, used, dispensed, handled, or transported, such as the containers in this flammable liquid storage room."
United States Fire Administration
2008-03-18
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Coffee Break Training: Construction Site Flammable and Combustible Liquids
"Development projects often require substantial earth moving or excavating operations related to site features and building construction. To keep the equipment moving and profitable, contractors may want to have fuel storage and dispensing on the project site. The fire code requirements for Class I and II flammable and combustible liquids at construction sites are slightly different from permanent installations due to the temporary nature and limited exposures of these special operations."
United States Fire Administration
2008-04-08
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Coffee Break Training: Plastics (Part V: Expanded and Unexpanded Plastics)
"The plastics-making process includes a series of important steps. Crude oil and natural gas are refined into ethane, propane, and hundreds of other petrochemical products. Using high-temperature furnaces, ethane and propane are 'cracked' into ethylene and propylene. Then, a catalyst is combined with ethylene or propylene in a reactor, resulting in a powdered polymer. The polymer is combined with additives in a continuous blender, extruded, and then melted. The plastic is cooled and then fed to apelletizer that cuts the product into small pellets. The pellets are used in processes such as extrusion, injection molding, and blow molding to make millions of plastic products. Plastics may be expanded or unexpanded. Expanded plastics are created when the plastic beads are placed into a mold, and a blowing agent or gas--usually pentane--is dissolved in the plastic. The closed mold is heated to soften the plastic, and the gas expands, or a blowing agent generates gas. The result is a fused, closed-cell structure of foamed plastic that conforms to a shape, such as expanded polystyrene cups. Styrofoam expanded polystyrene is made in a continuous extrusion process using expanded bead blowing."
United States Fire Administration
2008-07-15
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Coffee Break Training: Kitchen Exhaust Duct Wrap
"Model building or mechanical codes and NFPA [National Fire Protection Association] 96, 'Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Cooking Operations', require that hot grease vapor-carrying ducts have minimum clearances from combustible construction. The purpose for this spacing is to keep radiant heat from a duct fire from igniting nearby structural or finish materials. Generally, hoods, grease-removal devices, exhaust fans, and ducts must be located at least 18 inches (457 mm) from combustible material or 3 inches (76 mm) from combustible material covered by suitable gypsum wallboard. Grease-carrying equipment can be in direct contact to fully noncombustible construction. Hood, duct, or grease-removal devices evaluated and listed by independent third-party services for lesser clearances are permitted."
United States Fire Administration
2008-07-22
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Coffee Break Training: Plastics (Part III: Plastic, Elastomer, and Rubber Groups)
"For fire protection purposes, plastics, elastomers, and rubber are divided into three 'groups' based on their relative fire characteristics of both heat of combustion and heat release rate (HRR). Last week's Coffee Break Training 2008-26 explained how the plastic groups are defined."
United States Fire Administration
2008-07-01
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Coffee Break Training: Plastics (Part IV: Thermoset and Thermoplastic Polymers)
"A thermoset is a polymer that solidifies or 'sets' irreversibly when heated or cured. Imagine the difference between a raw and a cooked egg: A cooked egg cannot return to its original form once heated, and a thermoset polymer can't be softened once it has 'set.' Thermosets are strong and durable, and are used extensively in automobiles and construction, including applications such as adhesives, inks, and coatings. The most common thermoset is the rubber truck and automobile tire."
United States Fire Administration
2008-07-08
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Coffee Break Training: Plastics (Part II: Plastic Groups)
"In the past 50 years, plastics made from petroleum have changed our lives forever. Elastomers and natural rubber products have been around longer, but every day we handle products that are made from one or more of these materials. The amount of additional fuel these products adds to a fire may be substantial. We describe this as 'heat of combustion' and measure it in Btu/lb (J/kg)."
United States Fire Administration
2008-06-24
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Coffee Break Training: Fire Hydrant Inspection and Test Frequency
"Look closely at the fire hydrant in the photograph. While it may seem 'normal' at first glance, a closer examination shows that the hydrant has been knocked off of its base, and is inoperable. Since the hydrant appears 'normal,' this condition may go unnoticed until the hydrant is needed in an emergency. While there is no nationally mandated standard for the frequency of hydrant inspections and tests, fire service personnel may want to work with their local water purveyors to develop one. The American Water Works Association [AWWA] includes this statement in its AWWA Manual M17, 'Installation, Field Testing and Maintenance of Fire Hydrants, 3rd Edition', 1999: 'The Water utility, unless expressly relieved of its responsibility by the fire department in accordance with a written agreement, public ordinance or other ownership, should schedule regular and sufficiently frequent inspections of hydrants to assure they are in good working order.'"
United States Fire Administration
2008-08-05
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Coffee Break Training: Safeguarding Roofing Operations
"Roofing operations using heated asphalt can be a serious fire hazard; both from the heated combustible liquid and the potential for exposure fires when buildings are under construction or being remodeled. The wheeled apparatus in the photograph is known as an asphalt or roofing 'kettle.' It is used to heat solid asphalt blocks to a liquid state, allowing the asphalt to be pumped or carried to the roof where it is applied. Operating kettles must not be located inside of or on the roof of any building, and should be operated in a controlled area. The area must be identified by the use of traffic cones, barriers, and other suitable means. The kettle should be located at least 20 feet (6.9 m) from any combustible materials, combustible building surface, or any building opening. Kettles must be at least 10 feet (3 m) from exits or means of egress. An operating kettle should be attended by a minimum of one employee who knows how the device works and is aware of the hazards. Depending on the locally adopted code, the employee must be within 25 feet (7.6 m) to 100 feet (30.4 m) of the kettle and have the kettle within sight."
United States Fire Administration
2008-08-19
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Coffee Break Training: Clearances from Heat-Producing Appliances
"Every inspector knows that the combination of heating appliances and combustible materials can create a dangerous environment. If combustible materials are too close to heat sources they may be ignited easily, resulting in a serious fire. While some oil-fired or other open-flame heating appliances are obvious hazards, what about suspended tube or space heaters that have no visible flame but emit electromagnetic infrared energy that warms solid surfaces? What clearances from combustibles (structural or contents) should be provided for these appliances that may emit up to 200,000 Btu (211 MJ) with surface temperatures up to 1,400 °F (760 °C)? Unfortunately, there's no simple answer."
United States Fire Administration
2008-07-29
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Coffee Break Training: Fire Hydrant Marking Schemes
"Despite the fact this wet-barrel hydrant is partially obstructed by landscaping, its appearance provides important information for the Incident Commander (IC) and pump operator. The light blue color of the lowest nozzle cap indicates the water system is capable of delivering 1,500 gpm (5680 L/min) at 20 psi (1.4 bar) or more at that point. The color scheme for rating hydrants is referenced in NFPA [National Fire Protection Association] 291, 'Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants', and NFPA 24, 'Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and Their Appurtenances'."
United States Fire Administration
2008-08-12
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Coffee Break Training: Sprinkler Omissions for Exterior Roofs, Canopies, or Porte-Cocheres
"A seemingly endless debate among code enforcement officials involves automatic fire protection for drive-through porte-cocheres attached to otherwise sprinkle red hotels, motels, apartments, or other occupancies. [...] Sprinklers must be installed under roofs, canopies, or porte-cocheres over areas where combustibles are stored and handled."
United States Fire Administration
2008-08-26
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Coffee Break Training: Electrical Room Fire Sprinklers
"If you look closely at today's picture, you will see a black iron sprinkler branch line running from the upper left of the photograph through this main electrical equipment room. Many people are wary of the risk of accidental sprinkler discharge onto live electrical equipment. Since it is electrically conductive, water in an energized electrical room would create a potentially serious safety hazard as well as cause serious damage to expensive electrical equipment"
United States Fire Administration
2008-09-02
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Coffee Break Training: Sprinkler Escutcheons
"Escutcheons are protective or ornamental plates or flanges placed around sprinklers, often to hide holes cut in the ceiling tile. They may be made of metal, plastic or other material approved by the code official. It is important for the inspector to know whether the escutcheons are installed to perform a fire protection function or simply to improve aesthetics. In those circumstances where the escutcheon is installed solely for cosmetic purposes, the code official may have no authority to require its installation, repair, or replacement. Today's picture illustrates a common challenge to fire inspectors: when are sprinkler escutcheons required? Guidance may be found in two documents: NFPA [National Fire Protection Association]13, 'Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems', and the locally adopted building code. According to the sprinkler standard, escutcheons used with flush-type, concealed, or recessed (illustrated) sprinklers must be part of a listed sprinkler assembly. Using the wrong type of escutcheon with recessed or flush-type sprinklers can result in severe disruption of the spray pattern, which can minimize its effectiveness. Note that this standard does not require escutcheons, only that if they are installed with these sprinkler types they must be listed as part of the sprinkler assembly."
United States Fire Administration
2008-09-09
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Coffee Break Training: Part II: Modular Construction
"'Modular construction' is a type of construction in which portions of the building are divided into modules or sections that are manufactured in a remote facility and delivered to a site for final assembly into a building. The modules are assembled into a single building using either a crane or trucks. Most often encountered as modular homes, this method of construction is being used increasingly in multifamily dwellings and commercial and institutional occupancies. Once construction is complete, it is very difficult to tell whether a structure was built using modular construction methods. Modular homes use the same materials for framing, interior finishes, exterior finishes, and the same heating and cooling systems that are used in traditional construction. The appraised value of modular homes typically is identical to that of site-built homes. Modular home designs are customized to comply with local building and zoning codes. For example, homes built for final assembly in a hurricane- or earthquake-prone area will have additional bracing built in to meet local building codes. Modular components typically are constructed within a large indoor facility on assembly lines much like Henry Ford originally instituted for automobile assembly. Such facilities use an assembly-line track to move the modules from one workstation to the next. Independent third-party building inspectors are on site to supervise the construction and ensure that all building codes are adhered to during assembly."
United States Fire Administration
2008-09-30
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Coffee Break Training: Clearance from Noncontinuous Obstructions
"Today's photograph illustrates a common challenge for fire sprinkler installers: positioning sprinklers away from potential obstructions to the water discharge pattern. This truss web is defined by NFPA [National Fire Protection Association] 13, 'Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems' as a 'noncontinuous obstruction': where 'beams, trusses, or other members may impede heat flow or water distribution in a manner that materially affects the ability of sprinklers to control or suppress a fire.' In order to ensure that the sprinkler is located far enough from the structural element to minimize discharge interference, NFPA 13 establishes distance 'rules' based on the sprinkler type and size of the obstruction. For standard spray and large-drop sprinklers, the 'three times' rule applies; for extended coverage and residential sprinklers, use the 'four times' rule."
United States Fire Administration
2008-09-16
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Coffee Break Training: Part I: Factory-Built Structures
"Most of us are familiar with site-built, or 'stick-built' construction. These terms are used to describe the traditional method of constructing a building, where individual pieces of lumber or other materials are delivered to the site and are assembled in a logical sequence. Increasingly, buildings are being assembled in a factory and delivered to the site in one or more pieces for final assembly. Once a building is completed, very few people can tell the difference between buildings built using the different construction methods."
United States Fire Administration
2008-09-23
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Coffee Break Training: Inspection Techniques: Historic Fire Protection Features
"Eligible for Continuing Education Units (CEUs) at www.nfaonline.dhs.gov For archived downloads, go to: www.usfa.dhs.gov/nfa/coffee-break/ The fire shutters on this historic building are a means to keep heat from exposure fires from entering the building. Before the advent of modern construction techniques and fire protection systems, building owners explored a variety of ways to protect their property. One of those means is illustrated today: manually operated fire shutters that covered windows to minimize the likelihood of heat from an exposure fire getting into the building through the windows. While not a common means of exposure protection in today's building techniques, fire shutters still are recognized in the codes and standards as 'opening protectives.' Fire shutters generally occur in three types: swinging door, horizontally or vertically sliding door, and rolling steel door. Shutters may be installed on the inside or outside of an opening or between jambs but preferably are located on the inside or between jambs for ease of maintenance and protection from adverse weather conditions. Where rolling steel horizontally or vertically sliding fire shutters are installed on the exterior of a building, they should be protected against the weather to ensure operation."
United States Fire Administration
2009-06-23
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Coffee Break Training: Building Construction: Atrium Fire Protection Requirements
"An 'atrium' is a popular architectural feature that provides a visual impression of openness in large buildings. However, atriums bring a special set of fire protection challenges. The atrium may act as a roofed-over chimney providing an unrestricted path for heat and fire gases from anywhere in the building. Occupied spaces, such as hotel rooms or offices, may open directly onto the atrium so tenants may be exposed immediately to toxic conditions upon leaving these spaces. The main means of egress may require occupants to pass through the atrium to safety. In the model building codes, an atrium is 'a large volume space created by floor openings connecting two or more stories and is closed at the top.' Shafts for enclosed stairways, elevators, hoistways, plumbing, electrical, air conditioning, or other equipment are not included in this definition."
United States Fire Administration
2009-06-09
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Coffee Break Training: Inspection Techniques: Fire Detection Device Placement Beneath Ceilings
"The proper placement of fire protection equipment is essential in increasing the likelihood they will operate during an emergency. The sprinkler and smoke detector in the photograph were installed in accordance with the prescriptive requirements of their respective installation standards: NFPA 13, 'Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems', and NFPA 72, 'National Fire Alarm Code'. Notice that neither of the devices is immediately below the ceiling plane where one might expect heat and smoke to collect in the early stages of a fire. However, research has shown that at the intersection of the wall and ceiling there may be a 'dead zone' caused by smoke stratification where combustion products cannot reach the fire protection devices. Therefore, they must be located a specific distance down from the ceiling when they are installed on a wall like these."
United States Fire Administration
2009-06-19
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Coffee Break Training: Inspection Techniques: What's Wrong with This Picture?
"One of the fire sprinkler industry's trade journals has a monthly feature called 'What's Wrong with This Picture?' where readers are invited to comment on obvious and not-so-obvious errors in fire protection system installations. So, what's wrong with this picture? From a code perspective, nothing, but it's a good opportunity to discuss placement of fire department connections for sprinklers, standpipes, and other water-based fire protection systems that may need pressure and volume supplemented by the fire department."
United States Fire Administration
2009-06-03
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Coffee Break Training: Commercial Cooking: Grease Collection Containers
"The rectangular container at the bottom of the picture is a grease collector installed in a commercial cooking ventilation hood. Where cooking occurs that produces smoke or grease-laden vapors, the cooking equipment must be covered by an adequately designed and substantially constructed hood and exhaust system that meet the requirements of either NFPA 96, 'Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Cooking Operations', or Chapter 5 of the 'International Mechanical Code'."
United States Fire Administration
2009-06-30
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Coffee Break Training: Portable Extinguishers: Overview of 'Class D' Agents
"Today's manufacturing materials and processes are vastly different from those used in the past. Special metals like titanium, magnesium, sodium, and lithium have become a part of our daily lives. These materials and manufacturing techniques present special challenges for today's firefighters. The burning characteristics of most combustible metals have both similarities and differences when compared to more common 'Class A' materials like wood or paper. Like 'Class A' materials, the energy required to ignite a metal depends on the configuration of the fuel; large solid blocks will require much more heat to ignite than will finely divided dust or chips from a lathe. However, unlike common combustibles, burning metals react violently when water is applied. Therefore, it is crucial that the fire protection expert understand the material being protected, its configuration, and its burning characteristics."
United States Fire Administration
2012-08-21
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Coffee Break Training: Fire Dynamics: Fire or Thermal Plumes
"In the space directly above a fire, a column of hot gases and combustion products rises upward. This column is known as a fire or thermal 'plume.' As the hot gases rise, cooler air is drawn in or entrained into the plume; this is known as 'entrainment.' This cooler air is drawn from around the base of the fire and the boundaries between the plume and the surrounding air. The temperature of the plume decreases with the height above the fire due to cooling effects of the entrained air. As long as the environment around the plume is relatively stable and not influenced significantly by ventilation, the plume will rise in the shape of a cone. (When this pattern remains on a vertical surface after a fire, investigators often describe it as a V-pattern.) If doors or windows are opened, or a smoke management system operates, the path of the plume may vary dramatically. Likewise, if the fuel array within the space is irregular, the plume may follow it."
United States Fire Administration
2012-08-28
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Coffee Break Training: Building Construction: Part 7: Fire Resistance Based on Separation
"The terms 'fire or horizontal separation distances' appeared in a table in last week's Coffee Break Training. These terms describe the minimum distance requirements from one building to another-or to a nearby property line or exposure-to minimize the likelihood of exposure fires and establish minimum fire resistance ratings for the exterior walls. NFPA [National Fire Protection Association] 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code' and 'International Building Code' (IBC) address these dimensions slightly differently. In NFPA 5000, horizontal separation is the 'width of the permanent open space as measured horizontally between a building exterior wall and the adjacent property line or the centerline of a facing street, alley or public way.'"
United States Fire Administration
2009-12-22
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Coffee Break Training: Access and Water Supply: Underground Water Pipe Depth-of-Cover
"Underground water mains for hydrant and fire protection systems must be protected from freezing and physical damage. In addition to jurisdictions where a water purveyor may have its own standards, or rely on the recommendations of the American Water Works Association (AWWA), the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) publishes a standard for fire protection water main installation on private property. The depth of cover over water pipes should be determined by the maximum depth of frost penetration in the locality where the pipe is laid. The top of the pipe should be buried not less than 1 foot (0.3 m) below the frost line. In those locations where frost is not a factor, the depth of cover should be not less than 2- 1/2 feet (0.8 m) to prevent mechanical damage. Pipe should be buried below the frost line when entering streams and other bodies of water."
United States Fire Administration
2009-12-29
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Coffee Break Training: Building Construction: Part 6: Required Fire Resistance
"The locally adopted building code establishes fire resistance ratings for various building elements based on the size, height, and intended use of a building. The requirements for fire resistance come from a table similar to the one below. A building must meet all of the criteria described in the table to achieve one of the five types of construction. (Note that four of the types have 'A' or 'B' subgroups.) For example, to meet the requirements of Type IB construction, a building's structural frame, bearing walls, and floor assemblies must be a minimum 2 hour rating, and the roof construction must be 1 hour. If such a building were to have 2 hour rated structural frame, bearing walls, and floor assemblies but non-rated roof construction, it would have to be classified no better than Type IIB. This 'lower' rating would limit its size, height and intended use."
United States Fire Administration
2009-12-15
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Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2019
From the Acknowledgments: "The ultimate objective of this report's effort is to reduce the number of firefighter deaths through an increased awareness and understanding of their causes and how they can be prevented. Firefighting, rescue and other types of emergency operations are essential activities in an inherently dangerous profession, and unfortunate tragedies do occur. These are the risks that all firefighters accept every time they respond to an emergency incident. However, the risks can be greatly reduced through efforts to improve training, emergency scene operations, and firefighter health and safety."
United States Fire Administration
2020-10
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COVID-19 and Its Continuing Challenges for the Fire Service [audio]
From the Webpage: "The last 2 years have been tumultuous for our country and our world. We've all grappled to learn a new normal and overcome challenges personally and professionally. [...] [In this episode] we wanted to discuss where the fire and emergency medical services are today. What does the future look like and how do we move into the endemic phase? What are some of the unforeseen consequences of the pandemic?" The duration of this audio is 21 minutes and 50 seconds.
United States Fire Administration
Neal, Teresa; Augustine, James
2022-06-16
