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• Intentionally Set Outdoor Fires

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  "Between 2004 and 2006, an estimated 176,100 outdoor fires were intentionally set each year in the United States. These intentionally set fires accounted for approximately 27 percent of outdoor fires reported to fire departments and 7 percent of all fires. Intentionally set outdoor fires resulted in an estimated 250 civilian injuries and 20 civilian deaths. Property losses for intentionally set outdoor fires are sometimes difficult to assess as intentionally set outdoor fires. For example, rubbish fires often do not have dollar losses associated with them. Nationally, losses from intentionally set outdoor fires are estimated at $23 million. The term 'outdoor fires' can include a variety of fires that occur out of doors: wildland fires, crop fires, rubbish fires, and others. Intentionally set fires are those fires that are deliberately set and include fires that result from deliberate misuse of a heat source, fires of an incendiary nature (arson), as well as controlled burn fires of crops, rubbish, and waste that required fire service intervention. This topical report focuses on intentionally set outdoor fires that are reported to the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) using the standard fire reporting modules and does not include wildland fires."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-11
• Intentionally Set Fires

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  "From 2004 to 2006, an estimated 210,300 intentionally set fires occurred each year in the United States. Intentionally set fires account for 13 percent of fires responded to by fire departments across the Nation. These fires resulted in an average of approximately 375 deaths; 1,300 injuries; and $1.06 billion in property loss each year. Intentional fires are those fires that are deliberately set and include fires that result from deliberate misuse of a heat source, fires of an incendiary nature (arson), as well as controlled burn fires, such as crop clearing, that required fire service intervention. This topical report addresses the characteristics of intentionally set fires reported to the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) between 2004 and 2006. Subsets of the intentionally set fire problem-outside, vehicle, and residential building intentionally set fires-are further investigated in separate topical reports. Each topical report addresses specific concerns related to these subsets of the intentional fire problem."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-11
• University Housing Fires

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  This short topical report addresses the nature of university housing fires and highlights important findings from the data. According to the report, "an estimated 3,800 university housing fires occur each year in the United States. Eighty-three percent of university housing fires are cooking fires. Small, confined cooking fires account for 77 percent of university housing fires. Cooking fires account for 6 percent of all nonconfined university housing fires. University housing fires peak in September and October; this peak accounts for 23 percent of fires. The three main causes of nonconfined university housing fires are intentionally set fires (17 percent), open flames (15 percent), and other unintentional causes (12 percent). One-fifth of nonconfined university housing fires in bedrooms are started by candles."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-11
• Coffee Break Training: Automatic Sprinklers: Sprinkler 'Heat Collectors'

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  "Look closely beneath the windows and you will see two sidewall sprinklers. Each sprinkler has a small (about 8 ½ x 11-inches [216 to 280 mm]) panel mounted immediately above it. Although not visible in the picture, there are no sprinklers at the ceiling of this large opening between two floors of a hotel. These panels are intended to serve as nominal 'heat collectors,' to trap thermal plumes from a fire long enough to open the adjacent sprinklers to discharge water onto the floor area below. 'Heat collectors' often are installed when the sprinkler design or installation does not comply with the requirements in NFPA [National Fire Protection Association] 13, 'Standard for the Installation of Automatic Sprinkler Systems', for the maximum distance between a ceiling and a sprinkler deflector."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-10-27
• Coffee Break Training: Means of Egress: Exterior Exit Balconies

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  "Today's photograph illustrates a design feature common to many occupancies including motels, hotels, condominiums, offices, retail shops and apartments: the exterior egress balcony. In this design, the dwelling or tenant space opens onto an open-air means of egress that provides two or more options leading to an exit. Since an exterior egress balcony is essentially a three-sided corridor (floor, ceiling and one wall), it must meet the same construction requirements as corridors for width, headroom, dead-ends and projections."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-10-20
• Coffee Break Training: Standpipe Systems: Stair Landing Hose Outlets

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  "Standpipe systems in tall or large buildings provide a ready and convenient water supply for fire suppression personnel. In the stair enclosure pictured, the Class I standpipe hose station outlets are located behind the stainless steel cabinet doors at the intermediate landings. (See Coffee Break Training 2006-41 and 2006-42 for an explanation of standpipe 'classes.') While every jurisdiction may have its own firefighting protocols for standpipe operations, a common historical practice was for the fire attack team to connect to the standpipe outlet on the same floor level as the fire, and stretch hose in the stair enclosure to the floor below before leaving the stair enclosure to the fire. Many organizations, including tactical courses at the National Fire Academy, now recommend connecting at the floor below the fire, then stretching hose in the stair enclosure above the fire floor before entering for an attack, therefore assisting line advancement."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-10-13
• Coffee Break Training: Means of Egress: Ceiling Height

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  "With few exceptions, the model building codes prescribe a minimum ceiling height of 90 inches (2286 mm) throughout habitable spaces including the means of egress system."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-10-06
• Fire in the United States 2003-2007: Fifteenth Edition

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  "The National Fire Data Center (NFDC) of the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA) periodically publishes Fire in the United States, a statistical overview of the fires in the United States with the focus on the latest year in which data were available at the time of preparation. This report is designed to equip the fire service and others with information that motivates corrective action, sets priorities, targets specific fire programs, serves as a model for State and local analyses of fire data, and provides a baseline for evaluating programs. This Fifteenth Edition covers the 5-year period of 2003 to 2007 with a primary focus on 2007. Only native National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) 5.0 data are used for NFIRS-based analyses. In 2007, the native NFIRS 5.0 data account for 98 percent of the fire incident data. The report addresses the overall national fire problem. Detailed analyses of the residential and non-residential fire problem, firefighter casualties, and other subsets of the national fire problem are not included. These topic-specific analyses are addressed as separate, stand-alone publications. The primary source of data is from NFIRS. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) annual survey results, mortality data from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), data from State Fire Marshals' offices or their equivalents, population data from the U.S. Census Bureau, and inflation adjustments from the Bureau of Labor Statistic's Consumer Price Index also are used."

  United States Fire Administration; United States. Federal Emergency Management Agency

  2009-10
• Are We Ready? Small Town Preparedness for Large Scale Emergencies

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  "The City of Waycross, Georgia, is no different than any other community in Georgia or the United States when it comes to potential large scale emergencies/events and preparing for them. The problem is that the plans in place to handle these emergencies are based on training methods geared towards medium to large communities that have personnel and equipment to handle larger scale emergencies. The purpose of this research was to determine if the current training methods and curriculum used to train emergency workers for large scale emergencies/events was adequately meeting the needs of the Waycross Fire Department and City of Waycross, Georgia. The descriptive method was used to answer the following questions: a) What training is available and required for emergency responders on large scale incidents? b) Do emergency responders feel that the training provided adequately prepares their local emergency responders for large scale emergencies? c) What funding is available for training? d) What resource options are available to other small towns in emergency situations? e) What changes, if any, should be made to current training to address small town preparedness? The procedures used in this research consisted of literature review, tow surveys, internet search, emails, and interviews. The results clearly showed that Waycross needs to tailor the available training to meet the needs of its community."

  United States Fire Administration; United States. Federal Emergency Management Agency

  Eddins, David E.

  2009-10
• Coffee Break Training: Building Construction: Solar Energy Systems

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  "Every single day our sun projects enough solar energy onto the surface of the earth to supply all the world's energy needs for 4 to 5 years! This enormous supply of energy remains virtually untapped by the earth's inhabitants, but is changing rapidly. In a world hungry for energy, solar energy collection is happening now at locations near you, and it is going to increase. Fire officers, firefighters, inspectors, plan reviewers, and code officials need to know about these systems and the potential hazards that they may pose. Two types of solar energy systems are most common: water heating systems and photovoltaic (PV) systems. Water heating systems are used to heat water for domestic use (hot tap water), heating, and recreational use (pool heating). Water heating systems typically have much smaller solar panels than those used in PV systems. PV systems convert the sun's rays into electricity, and are used in a wide range of applications where electricity is needed. Some PV systems have batteries to store electricity that they generate for later use; other systems (i.e., grid-tied) feed unused electricity back into the electric grid."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-09-29
• Coffee Break Training: Automatic Sprinklers: Riser Clamps

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  "The 'brackets' around these sprinkler and standpipe risers are clamps used to transfer some of the pipes' vertical load (weight) to the building's structural support. Pipe clamps are required in multistory buildings. The clamps are intended to prevent pipe movement and should be secured and located so that the system piping remains in its original location and position."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-09-22
• Coffee Break Training: Automatic Sprinklers: Hanger Spacing for Nonmetallic Pipe

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  "Hangers are an important component of a fire sprinkler system. They support the pipe to keep it off of other building components and can act as a restraint to prevent pipe movement when a sprinkler operates. Most listed hangers designed for metal pipe are suitable for nonmetallic pipe. Hangers with sufficient load bearing surface must be used based on the comparative pipe size. For example, 1- 1/2-inch (40 mm) hangers must be used for 1- 1/2-inch pipe (40 mm). The hanger should not have rough or sharp edges that come in contact with the pipe. The pipe hangers must comply with the requirements in NFPA [National Fire Protection Association] 13, 'Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems', 13D, 'Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes', and 13R, 'Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Residential Occupancies up to and Including Four Stories' in Height, the standards for the installation of automatic sprinkler systems."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-09-15
• Coffee Break Training: Storage Practices: Part Four: 'Plastic Pallets and Sprinkler Design'

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  "For many years, commodities in warehouses may have been arranged on wooden or metal pallets, but as storage, marketing, and product handling methods change, the materials from which pallets are made is changing too. In an effort to make pallets more durable and recyclable, many manufacturers are making them from plastic materials such a polypropylene or high density polyethylene (HDPE). The unintended consequence of this change is that going from wood or metal to plastic pallets may have an effect on the fire sprinkler system design. Remember, the sprinkler hazard class corresponds to the highest hazard commodity class being stored."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-09-08
• Coffee Break Training: Storage Practices: Part Three: 'Commodity Fire Protection'

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  "Why should an owner, fire inspector, or code official care about the commodity classes stored in a building? The answer may be found from a complex formula of cost, ease of business operation, required fire protection features, and structural design considerations. Fire protection design in these occupancies takes many factors into consideration: commodity class, storage arrangement, storage height, aisle width, public accessibility, pallet materials, ceiling height, etc. The complexity is too significant for just a few Coffee Break Trainings. In its simplest form, the level of fire protection must be proportional to the hazard being protected. If, for example, the items stored in a warehouse meet all the requirements for Class I commodities, the fire protection features the owner must install may be simpler and less expensive than for Class IV commodities."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-09-01
• Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2008

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  "This report continues a series of annual studies by USFA of onduty firefighter fatalities in the United States. The specific objective of this study is to identify all on-duty firefighter fatalities that occurred in the United States and its protectorates in 2008 and to analyze the circumstances surrounding each occurrence. The study is intended to help identify approaches that could reduce the number of firefighter deaths in future years. [...]. One-hundred and eighteen (118) firefighters died while on duty in 2008, the same number of firefighter fatalities as the previous year. This total includes firefighters who died under circumstances that are included in this report as a result of inclusion criteria changes resulting from the Hometown Heroes Act of 2003. The number of firefighter fatalities using the pre-Hometown Heroes criteria was 107, up by two fatalities in comparison to 2007."

  United States Fire Administration; United States. Federal Emergency Management Agency

  2009-09
• Coffee Break Training: Storage Practices: Part Two: 'Commodity Examples'

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  "In storage area fire protection, the commodities being stored must be categorized into groups according to their relative combustibility and rate of heat release in the event of a fire. By definition, a 'commodity' is the combination of products, packing material, and containers that determines commodity classification. Commodities are assigned a Roman numeral character 'Class' based on the relative fire hazard. Class I is the lowest category and Class IV is the highest. The 'International Fire Code' includes a 'high hazard' category. The model fire codes and many insurance underwriters and research organizations have detailed lists of commodities and their classes based on live fire test results. Classifying a commodity can be a significant engineering challenge to ensure the appropriate level of fire protection is provided, and should not be taken lightly."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-08-25
• Coffee Break Training: Storage Practices: Part One: 'Commodities'

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  "If you were asked to define a 'commodity,' how would you respond? Is it a consumer product sitting on a shelf at the neighborhood pharmacy? Is it an Airbus 320 sitting on the tarmac of the international airport? Is it tons of corn in a grain elevator waiting for a better price on the Chicago Exchange? In fire protection, a specific definition for commodity is important because it provides the basis for applying the appropriate codes and standards for storage arrays, sprinkler protection, building construction, smoke and heat venting, fire detection, firefighter access, and a host of other issues in storage occupancies. By definition, a 'commodity' is the combination of products, packing material, and container that determines commodity classification. Commodities are assigned a Roman numeral character 'Class' based on the relative fire hazard."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-08-18
• Coffee Break Training: Automatic Sprinklers: Rubbish and Linen Chute Protection

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  "Today's dramatic eye-catching picture illustrates an important fire protection consideration in multistory buildings: protection of rubbish and linen chutes. Look closely at the right-hand side center of the picture and you will see the deflector of an automatic sprinkler. Rubbish and linen chutes are found in a variety of occupancies. While they are common in hotels, motels, apartment buildings, and other residential properties, they can occur in almost any multistory building. While these chutes are a convenient way for occupants to dispose of garbage or send dirty linen to a laundry room, they create a potential fire hazard because they are an unobstructed vertical path for fire and smoke. To minimize the hazard, the model fire and building codes require that automatic sprinklers be installed in the top of the chutes as well as the 'terminal room:' the space at the bottom of the chute where the rubbish and linen accumulate."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-08-11
• Coffee Break Training: Means of Egress: Discharge Identification Barriers

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  "Coffee Break Training FP-2009-12 described the three components of the means of egress: the exit access, the exit, and the exit discharge. Today we add one more element to better understand the importance of proper egress design: the level of exit discharge. The 'level of exit discharge' in the model building codes is the horizontal plane or lowest story located at the point on or near ground level on the exterior wall line where an exit terminates and an exit discharge begins. In simple language, it is where the exit doors lead to the outdoors and away from the building. Depending upon the occupancy or use of a particular space, the architect or designer and code official must verify that a certain amount of the exits discharge at the appropriate level. The level of exit discharge also is used as a reference point for other requirements. For example, in schools, every portion of the building beneath the level of exit discharge must be protected by automatic sprinklers."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-08-04
• Special Report: Fire Departments and Maritime Interface Area Preparedness

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  "Waterfronts, where commercial, industrial, and recreational activities are established, are part of our critical infrastructure. They are facilities, systems, and networks essential to the health, safety, and economic well-being of the United States. These maritime interface areas are protected by the local emergency services agencies, the U.S. Coast Guard, and sometimes, industrial fire brigades. This report addresses fire department preparedness for incidents in maritime areas and the importance of establishing a multiagency response capability that includes law enforcement, the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), port authorities, the private sector, and emergency management agencies. Stakeholders in maritime emergency preparedness include Federal, State, and local governments as well as commercial private-sector entities and labor organizations. In many communities, these stakeholders only recently have begun working together for disaster preparedness and emergency response planning. […] Protecting ports and terminals from the risks of natural disasters, accidents, and terrorism is a significant challenge to our Nation's disaster preparedness and emergency response agencies, not only at the local level but for the Federal Government as well. In addition to the aforementioned commerce-related importance of ports, ports also are key locations for recreation, tourism, and employment through myriad related businesses. Such businesses include land-based transportation of goods to and from ports, construction and maintenance of port facilities and equipment, and the actual operations of the port and vessels. Ports are multi-model transportation centers where rail and truck and off-loading operations are tied to maritime commerce."

  United States Fire Administration

  Stambaugh, Hollis; Laun, Joseph

  2009-08
• Emergency Vehicle Visibility and Conspicuity Study

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  "This report, produced in partnership between the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA) and the International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA), with support from the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), National Institute of Justice (NIJ), analyzes emergency vehicle visibility and conspicuity with an eye toward expanding efforts in these areas to improve vehicle and roadway operations safety for all emergency responders. Emphasis in this report is placed on passive visibility/conspicuity treatments; additional studies are underway on active technologies such as emergency vehicle warning lighting systems. […] Over the past decade, numerous law enforcement officers, firefighters, and emergency medical services (EMS) workers were injured or killed along roadways throughout the United States. In 2008, as with the prior 10 years, more law enforcement officers died in traffic-related incidents than from any other cause; National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial over the past 12 years, an average of one officer per month was struck and killed by a vehicle in the United States. Preliminary firefighter fatality statistics for 2008 reflect 29 of 114 firefighters killed on duty perished in motor vehicle crashes, similar to figures posted in previous years. According to a 2002 study that aggregated data from several independent sources, at least 67 EMS providers were killed in ground transportation-related events over the 6 years from 1992 to 1997. These sobering facts clearly demonstrate the importance of addressing vehicle characteristics and human factors for reducing the morbidity and mortality of public safety personnel operating along the Nation's highways and byways."

  United States Fire Administration; United States. Federal Emergency Management Agency

  2009-08
• Coffee Break Training: Automatic Sprinklers: Sprinkler Hanger Dangers

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  "Inspectors may have to look in confined and hidden spaces to find and correct potential problems. An attentive-to-detail fire inspector found this situation that could have resulted in an unwanted water leak from the fire sprinkler system. The listed hanger that supports the pipe has been tightened against the all-thread rod so much that one end of the rod is in direct contact with the plastic pipe. Over time, if the pipe expands and contracts due to thermal changes, moves due to water hammer or simply moves with the building, friction between the pipe and all-thread rod could wear a hole in the pipe. Nonmetallic chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe has dramatically changed the fire sprinkler industry with its ease of installation and superior flow characteristics compared to black iron pipe. The lightweight and easy-to-handle product makes it desirable for some specific applications in accordance with its listing."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-07-28
• Coffee Break Training: Building Construction: Opening Protective Fusible Link Releases

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  "This overhead rolling fire door is what the building codes call an 'opening protective.' Where firewalls, partitions, or barriers have openings for moving people or products, these openings must be protected with an automatic or self-closing door, curtain, shutter, or similar device. 'Automatic' closing opening protectives are those that normally remain in the 'open' position, and close automatically upon operation of a fire detection system, smoke detector, fusible link, sprinkler water flow, or some other fire protection system that releases the device. 'Self-closing' opening protectives are those that close by themselves after someone or something has passed through them."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-07-21
• Coffee Break Training: Hazardous Materials: Battery Storage Systems

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  "As more and more computers and telecommunications systems are used in the workplace, there is a corresponding demand for reliable power supplies to protect critical and sensitive data. Stationary battery systems are a popular means of providing back-up power in the event of a primary power loss. There are inherent hazards, though, with stationary battery systems. During lead-acid battery electrolysis, oxygen and hydrogen gases can be released into the atmosphere forming flammable mixtures. Nickel cadmium and lithium ion batteries can have a thermal runaway resulting in high temperature fires. Batteries can be a source of ignition or explode. Batteries also may contain corrosive materials."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-07-14
• Coffee Break Training: Means of Egress: Delayed Egress Devices

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  "Frequent flyers are familiar with this type of door arrangement that provides a direct means of egress from the terminal to the outdoors. The door is secured to keep unauthorized personnel from wandering around the flight line while providing an escape route in the event of an emergency. The model building codes allow these devices known as 'delayed egress locks,' but do not agree on where they may be installed. The 'International Building Code' prohibits delayed egress locks in Group A, E, and H occupancies, while NFPA 5000, 'Building Construction and Safety Code' allows them in all occupancies except detention and correctional facilities."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-07-07
• Coffee Break Training: Commercial Cooking: Grease Collection Containers

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  "The rectangular container at the bottom of the picture is a grease collector installed in a commercial cooking ventilation hood. Where cooking occurs that produces smoke or grease-laden vapors, the cooking equipment must be covered by an adequately designed and substantially constructed hood and exhaust system that meet the requirements of either NFPA 96, 'Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Cooking Operations', or Chapter 5 of the 'International Mechanical Code'."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-06-30
• Coffee Break Training: Inspection Techniques: Historic Fire Protection Features

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  "Eligible for Continuing Education Units (CEUs) at www.nfaonline.dhs.gov For archived downloads, go to: www.usfa.dhs.gov/nfa/coffee-break/ The fire shutters on this historic building are a means to keep heat from exposure fires from entering the building. Before the advent of modern construction techniques and fire protection systems, building owners explored a variety of ways to protect their property. One of those means is illustrated today: manually operated fire shutters that covered windows to minimize the likelihood of heat from an exposure fire getting into the building through the windows. While not a common means of exposure protection in today's building techniques, fire shutters still are recognized in the codes and standards as 'opening protectives.' Fire shutters generally occur in three types: swinging door, horizontally or vertically sliding door, and rolling steel door. Shutters may be installed on the inside or outside of an opening or between jambs but preferably are located on the inside or between jambs for ease of maintenance and protection from adverse weather conditions. Where rolling steel horizontally or vertically sliding fire shutters are installed on the exterior of a building, they should be protected against the weather to ensure operation."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-06-23
• Coffee Break Training: Inspection Techniques: Fire Detection Device Placement Beneath Ceilings

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  "The proper placement of fire protection equipment is essential in increasing the likelihood they will operate during an emergency. The sprinkler and smoke detector in the photograph were installed in accordance with the prescriptive requirements of their respective installation standards: NFPA 13, 'Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems', and NFPA 72, 'National Fire Alarm Code'. Notice that neither of the devices is immediately below the ceiling plane where one might expect heat and smoke to collect in the early stages of a fire. However, research has shown that at the intersection of the wall and ceiling there may be a 'dead zone' caused by smoke stratification where combustion products cannot reach the fire protection devices. Therefore, they must be located a specific distance down from the ceiling when they are installed on a wall like these."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-06-19
• Coffee Break Training: Exploring Invisible Web Resources: Part II

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  "In the previous Coffee Break Training on the Invisible Web we discussed how a lot of valuable content is not available through a typical Web search engine. One of the reasons for this is that search engine spiders aren't able to log into a password protected resource. LLIS [Lessons Learned Information Sharing] is a good example of a Web resource containing original content that is password protected. LLIS is an online resource that allows some 40,000 emergency responders to share and find information critical to their work. LLIS original content is 'invisible' to search engines."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-06-10
• Coffee Break Training: Building Construction: Atrium Fire Protection Requirements

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  "An 'atrium' is a popular architectural feature that provides a visual impression of openness in large buildings. However, atriums bring a special set of fire protection challenges. The atrium may act as a roofed-over chimney providing an unrestricted path for heat and fire gases from anywhere in the building. Occupied spaces, such as hotel rooms or offices, may open directly onto the atrium so tenants may be exposed immediately to toxic conditions upon leaving these spaces. The main means of egress may require occupants to pass through the atrium to safety. In the model building codes, an atrium is 'a large volume space created by floor openings connecting two or more stories and is closed at the top.' Shafts for enclosed stairways, elevators, hoistways, plumbing, electrical, air conditioning, or other equipment are not included in this definition."

  United States Fire Administration

  2009-06-09