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Spyware: Background and Policy Issues for Congress [Updated January 31, 2006]
"The term 'spyware' is not well defined. Generally it is used to refer to any software that is downloaded onto a persons computer without their knowledge. Spyware may collect information about a computer users activities and transmit that information to someone else. It may change computer settings, or cause 'pop-up' advertisements to appear (in that context, it is called 'adware'). Spyware may redirect a Web browser to a site different from what the user intended to visit, or change the users home page. A type of spyware called 'keylogging' software records individual keystrokes, even if the author modifies or deletes what was written, or if the characters do not appear on the monitor. Thus, passwords, credit card numbers, and other personally identifiable information may be captured and relayed to unauthorized recipients...A central point of the debate is whether new laws are needed, or if industry selfregulation, coupled with enforcement actions under existing laws such as the Federal Trade Commission Act, is sufficient. The lack of a precise definition for spyware is cited as a fundamental problem in attempting to write new laws that could lead to unintended consequences. Opponents of new legislation further insist that, if legal action is necessary, existing laws provide sufficient authority. Consumer concern about control of their computers being taken over by spyware, and resulting impacts on their privacy, leads others to conclude that more legislation is needed. The FTC supports S. 1608, which would enhance FTC enforcement against spyware, focusing on cross-border fraud."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-31
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Space Launch Vehicles: Government Activities, Commercial Competition, and Satellite Exports [Updated January 31, 2006]
"Launching satellites into orbit, once the exclusive domain of the U.S. and Soviet governments, today is an industry in which companies in the United States, Europe, China, Russia, Ukraine, Japan, and India compete. In the United States, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) owns and launches its space shuttle. Private sector companies provide launch services for other NASA launches and most Department of Defense (DOD) launches. Commercial customers purchase launch services from the U.S. companies or their competitors. Since the early 1980s, Congress and successive Administrations have taken actions, including passing several laws, to facilitate the U.S. commercial space launch services business. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates the industry."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-31
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China's Space Program: An Overview [Updated January 31, 2006]
"The People's Republic of China successfully completed its second human spaceflight mission on October 17, 2005. China is only the third country, after Russia and the United States, able to launch people into space. Its first human spaceflight was in 2003 when a single astronaut, or 'taikonaut,' made a flight lasting slightly less than a day. The 2005 flight lasted five days, and involved two taikonauts. As the United States embarks upon President Bush's 'Vision for Space Exploration' to return astronauts to the Moon by 2020 and someday send them to Mars, some may view China's entrance into the human exploration of space as a competitive threat, while others may view China as a potential partner. This is the final edition of this report."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-31
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Military Space Programs: Issues Concerning DOD's SBIRS and STSS Programs [Updated January 30, 2006]
"The Department of Defenses (DOD's) programs to develop new satellites to alert U.S. military commanders to foreign missile launches, and to support missile defense objectives, are controversial because of cost growth and schedule slippage. SBIRSHigh, managed by the Air Force, would replace existing Defense Support Program early warning satellites. The Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS, formerly SBIRS-Low), managed by the Missile Defense Agency, would perform missile tracking and target discrimination for missile defense objectives. The SBIRS-High program has breached Nunn-McCurdy cost growth limits several times, resulting in several program restructurings."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-30
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Internet Privacy: Overview and Legislation in the 109th Congress, 1st Session [Updated January 26, 2006]
"Internet privacy issues encompass several types of concerns. One is the collection of personally identifiable information (PII) by website operators from visitors to government and commercial websites, or by software that is surreptitiously installed on a user's computer ('spyware') and transmits the information to someone else. Another is the monitoring of electronic mail and Web usage by the government or law enforcement officials, employers, or email service providers. [...] Congress passed the 2001 USA PATRIOT Act (P.L. 107-56) that, inter alia, makes it easier for law enforcement officials to monitor Internet activities. That act was amended by the Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296), loosening restrictions as to when, and to whom, Internet Service Providers may voluntarily release the content of communications if they believe there is a danger of death or injury. Some provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act, including two that relate to Internet use, would have expired on December 31, 2005. Congress passed a brief extension (to February 3, 2006) in P.L. 109-160. Debate over whether civil liberties protections need to be added if the provisions are to be made permanent is expected to continue in the second session of the 109th Congress. Revelations that President Bush directed the National Security Agency to monitor some communications, including e-mails, in the United States without warrants may affect those deliberations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-26
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National Aeronautics and Space Administration's FY2006 Budget Request: Description, Analysis, and Issues for Congress [Updated January 24, 2006]
"For FY2006, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) requested $16.456 billion. That amount was a 2.4% increase over the $16.070 billion (adjusted for the rescission) appropriated in the FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 108-447). NASA also received a $126 million supplemental for damages caused by the 2004 Florida hurricanes, yielding a total of $16.196 billion for FY2005. The FY2006 request was 1.6% above that amount. By comparison, the White House had projected in 2004 that NASA's budget would increase by 4.7%. NASA submitted a FY2006 budget amendment on July 15; total funding for the agency did not change. The Administration requested $324.8 million for NASA in the October 28, 2005 reallocation package that included funds for relief from the 2005 hurricanes. NASA's congressionally-approved FY2006 funding is a combination of $16.456 billion in the FY2006 Science, State, Justice, Commerce Appropriations Act ( P.L. 109-108), minus a 0.28% across-the-board rescission in that act, minus a 1% across-the- board rescission in the FY2006 Department of Defense appropriations and hurricane recovery act (P.L. 109-148), plus $350 million added for NASA for hurricane recovery in P.L. 109-148. Congress passed a 2005 NASA authorization bill (P.L.109-155). It contains many policy provisions, and authorizes NASA funding for FY2007-2008 (but not FY2006)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.; Morgan, Daniel (Daniel L.)
2006-01-24
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NASA's Space Shuttle Program: The 'Columbia' Tragedy, the 'Discovery' Mission, and the Future of the Shuttle [Updated January 4, 2006]
"On August 9, 2005, the space shuttle 'Discovery' successfully completed the first of two 'Return to Flight' (RTF) missions -- STS [Space Transportation System]-114. It was the first shuttle launch since the February 1, 2003, 'Columbia' tragedy. NASA announced on July 27, 2005, the day after STS-114's launch, that a second RTF mission would be indefinitely postponed because of a problem that occurred during 'Discovery's' launch that is similar to what led to the loss of 'Columbia'. The next launch is currently expected some time in 2006. This report discusses the 'Columbia' tragedy, the 'Discovery' mission, and issues for Congress regarding the future of the shuttle. For more information, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB93062, 'Space Launce [sic] Vehicles: Government Activities, Commercial Competition, and Satellite Exports', by Marcia S. Smith."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-04
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Space Stations [Updated January 4, 2006]
"The 'Expedition 12' crew, American John McArthur and Russian Valery Tokarev, continue their work aboard the International Space Station (ISS). ISS crews are taken to and from the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft while launches of the U.S. space shuttle are grounded. Shuttle launches have been postponed until at least May 2006 because of a problem during the most recent launch, STS-114, in July 2005. Until then, U.S. astronauts will remain dependent on Russia for access to the ISS. Russia has been providing crew transport and 'crew return' (i.e., a 'lifeboat' capability for emergencies) services to NASA at no cost under a 1996 agreement. Russia's obligations under that agreement have been fulfilled with the launch of Soyuz TMA-7. It will remain docked with the ISS during the Expedition 12 mission, scheduled to end in April 2006. In the future, NASA will have to pay for Soyuz services. NASA was prohibited from doing so unless Russia complied with the Iran Nonproliferation Act (INA), but Congress passed a new law amending the INA (P.L. 109-112) that allows NASA to pay Russia for ISS-related goods and services through January 1, 2012."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-04
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Military Space Programs: Issues Concerning DOD's SBIRS and STSS Programs [January 4, 2006]
From the Summary: "The Department of Defense's (DOD's) programs to develop new satellites to alert U.S. military commanders to foreign missile launches, and to support missile defense objectives, are controversial because of cost growth and schedule slippage. SBIRS [Space-Based InfraRed System]-High, managed by the Air Force, would replace existing Defense Support Program 'early warning' satellites. The Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS, formerly SBIRS-Low), managed by the Missile Defense Agency, would perform missile tracking and target discrimination for missile defense objectives. The SBIRS-High program has breached Nunn-McCurdy cost growth limits several times, and the program is being restructured again. This report will be updated."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-04
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Space Exploration: Issues Concerning the 'Vision for Space Exploration' [Updated January 4, 2006]
"On January 14, 2004, President George W. Bush announced new goals for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), directing the agency to focus on returning humans to the Moon by 2020, and eventually sending them to Mars and 'worlds beyond.' The President invited other countries to join. Most of the funding for this 'Vision for Space Exploration' is to be redirected from other NASA activities, including terminating the space shuttle program in 2010, and ending U.S. participation in the International Space Station by 2016. NASA released an implementation plan for the Vision on September 19, 2005, and estimated the cost of returning humans to the Moon by 2018 (NASA's current goal) at $104 billion. An estimate for sending people to Mars was not provided. This report identifies issues Congress has been considering as it debates the President's Vision."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2006-01-04
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Internet: An Overview of Key Technology Policy Issues Affecting Its Use and Growth [Updated December 20, 2005]
"In the decade between 1994 and 2004, the number of U.S. adults using the Internet increased from 15% to 63%, and by mid-2005, stood at 72%. From electronic mail to accessing information to online purchasing ('electronic commerce'), the Internet touches almost every aspect of modern life. The extent to which use of the Internet continues to grow, however, may be affected by a number of technology policy issues being debated in Congress. First is the availability of high-speed - or 'broadband' - Internet access. Broadband Internet access gives users the ability to send and receive data at speeds far greater than Internet access over traditional telephone lines. With deployment of broadband technologies accelerating, Congress is seeking to ensure fair competition and timely broadband deployment to all sectors and geographical locations of American society. Next are a range of issues that reflect challenges faced by those who do use the Internet, such as security, privacy (including spyware and identity theft), unsolicited commercial electronic mail ('spam'), protecting children from unsuitable material (such as pornography), and computer security, including the vulnerability of the nations critical infrastructures to cyber attacks. Other issues include the governance of the Internets domain name system (DNS), which is administered by a U.S.-based nonprofit corporation called the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). With the Department of Commerce currently exercising legal authority over ICANN, and in reaction to calls for greater international control over the Internet, the 109th Congress has expressed its support for maintaining U.S. control over the domain name system."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.; Smith, Marcia S.; Kruger, Lennard G.
2005-12-20
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NASA's Space Shuttle Program: The Columbia Tragedy, the Discovery Mission, and the Future of the Shuttle [December 6, 2005]
"On August 9, 2005, the space shuttle Discovery successfully completed the first of two 'Return to Flight' (RTF) missions -- STS-114. It was the first shuttle launch since the February 1, 2003, Columbia tragedy. NASA announced on July 27, 2005, the day after STS-114's launch, that a second RTF mission has been indefinitely postponed because of a problem that occurred during Discovery's launch that is similar to what led to the loss of Columbia. Two shuttle-related facilities in Mississippi and Louisiana were damaged by Hurricane Katrina, which is further affecting the shuttle schedule. It currently is expected some time in 2006. This report discusses the Columbia tragedy, the Discovery mission, and issues for Congress regarding the future of the shuttle. For more information, see CRS Issue Brief IB93062, 'Space Launce Vehicles: Government Activities, Commercial Competition, and Satellite Exports', by Marcia Smith. This report is updated regularly."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-12-06
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International Space Station and the Iran Nonproliferation Act (INA): The Bush Administrations Proposed INA Amendment [Updated December 5, 2005]
"The Iran Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 106-178), as originally enacted, prohibited the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from purchasing Russian goods and services for the U.S.-led International Space Station (ISS) unless the President certified that Russia was not proliferating certain technologies to Iran. On July 12, 2005, the Bush Administration submitted to Congress an amendment to allow NASA to purchase goods and services from Russia to support the ISS. That presented a classic policy dilemma. Without access to Russian spacecraft, the U.S. use of the ISS could be extremely limited. Yet Russian entities were continuing proliferation activities relating to missile proliferation according to the Department of State. This report explains the Bush Administration proposal and resulting congressional action. CRS Issue Brief IB93017 discusses the ISS program; CRS Report RS22072 discusses the origins of the Iran Nonproliferation Act (INA) and its relationship to the ISS program. Congress passed and the President signed into law (S. 1713, P.L.109-112) a version that is different from the proposal, but allows ISS-related goods and services to be purchased from and delivered by Russia through January 1, 2012."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Squassoni, Sharon A.; Smith, Marcia S.
2005-12-05
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National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Overview, FY2006 Budget in Brief, and Key Issues for Congress [Updated November 17, 2005]
"The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducts U.S. civilian space activities. For FY2006, NASA requested $16,456.3 million, a 2.4%increase over the $16,070.4 million it received in the FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 108-447), or 1.6% more than the total of $16,196.4 million it received for FY2005, including a hurricane supplemental. The final version of the FY2006 appropriations bill that includes NASA (H.R. 2862) approves $16,456.8 million ($500,000 above the request); it is awaiting signature by the President. A NASA authorization bill (H.R. 3070) passed the House with a $510 million increase above the request; the Senate-passed version (S. 1281) has a $100 million increase. The Administration included $324.8 million for NASA in the October 28, 2005 reallocation package that includes funds for hurricane relief."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.; Morgan, Daniel (Daniel L.)
2005-11-17
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Space Stations [Updated November 17, 2005]
"Congress continues to debate NASA's International Space Station (ISS), a permanently occupied facility in Earth orbit where astronauts live and conduct research. Congress appropriated approximately $35 billion for the program from FY1985-2005. The initial FY2006 ISS request was $2.180 billion: $1.857 billion for construction and operations and $324 million for research to be conducted by ISS crews. In a July budget amendment, NASA transferred $168 million for ISS Crew/Cargo Services to another part of the NASA budget and reduced the ISS request commensurately. The final version of the FY2006 appropriations bill that includes NASA (H.R. 2862) cuts $80 million from the originally submitted budget, and NASA now plans to spend $306 million, instead of $324 million, on ISS research in FY2006. The space station is being assembled in Earth orbit. ISS segments, crews, and cargo are taken into orbit by Russian or U.S. spacecraft. ISS has been permanently occupied by successive 'Expedition' crews rotating on 4-6 month shifts since November 2000. 'Expedition 12' is now aboard. Cost growth and schedule delays have characterized the program since its inception. The grounding of the space shuttle fleet after the 2003 'Columbia' tragedy and the July 2005 'Discovery' 'Return to Flight' mission is further affecting schedule, operations, and cost. Most of the remaining ISS segments are designed to be launched by the shuttle and construction therefore is suspended. President Bush's January 2004 'Vision for Space Exploration' also is affecting the ISS program. He directed that the shuttle program be terminated in 2010, and changed the focus of ISS-based research to only that which supports his 'Moon/Mars' Vision instead of the broadly-based program that was planned."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-11-17
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National Aeronautics and Space Administration's FY2006 Budget Request: Description, Analysis, and Issues for Congress [Updated November 17, 2005]
"For FY2006, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) requested $16.456 billion. That amount was a 2.4% increase over the $16.070 billion (adjusted for the rescission) appropriated in the FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 108-447). NASA also received a $126 million supplemental for damages caused by the 2004 Florida hurricanes, yielding a total of $16.196 billion for FY2005. The FY2006 request was 1.6% above that amount. By comparison, last year the White House projected that Nasa's budget would increase by 4.7%. NASA submitted a FY2006 budget amendment on July 15; total funding for the agency did not change. The Administration included $324.8 million for NASA in the October 28, 2005 reallocation package that includes funds for hurricane relief. The House and Senate have passed the final version of the FY2006 Science, State, Justice, Commerce appropriations bill (H.R. 2862), which includes NASA. It approves $16,456.8 million ($500,000 above the request), and is subject to a 0.28% across-the-board rescission. Congress also is debating a NASA authorization bill. The House-passed version (H.R. 3070) includes $510 million more than the request; the Senate-passed version (S. 1281) approves $100 million above the request. NASA is currently funded under a Continuing Resolution (P.L. 109-77)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.; Morgan, Daniel (Daniel L.)
2005-11-17
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International Space Station and the Iran Nonproliferation Act (INA): The Bush Administration's Proposed INA Amendment [Updated November 14, 2005]
"The Iran Nonproliferation Act (P.L. 106-178), as originally enacted, prohibited the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from purchasing Russian goods and services for the U.S.-led International Space Station (ISS) unless the President certified that Russia was not proliferating certain technologies to Iran. On July 12, 2005, the Bush Administration submitted to Congress an amendment to allow NASA to purchase goods and services from Russia to support the ISS. That presented a classic policy dilemma. Without access to Russian spacecraft, the U.S. use of the ISS could be extremely limited. Yet Russian entities were continuing proliferation activities relating to missile proliferation according to the Department of State. This report explains the Bush Administration proposal and resulting congressional action. CRS [Congressional Research Service] Issue Brief IB93017 discusses the ISS program; CRS Report RS22072 discusses the origins of the Iran Nonproliferation Act (INA) and its relationship to the ISS program. The House and Senate passed S. 1713, which is different from the Administration's proposal, but allows ISS-related goods and services to be purchased from and delivered by Russia through January 1, 2012. The bill is awaiting signature by the President."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.; Squassoni, Sharon A.
2005-11-14
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Internet Privacy: Overview and Pending Legislation [Updated October 19, 2005]
"Internet privacy issues generally encompass two types of concerns. One is the collection of personally identifiable information (PII) by website operators from visitors to government and commercial websites, or by software that is surreptitiously installed on a users computer ('spyware') and transmits the information to someone else. The other is the monitoring of electronic mail and Web usage by the government or law enforcement officials, employers, or email service providers. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks intensified debate over the issue of law enforcement monitoring, with some advocating increased tools for law enforcement officials to track down terrorists, and others cautioning that fundamental tenets of democracy, such as privacy, not be endangered in that pursuit. Congress passed the 2001 USA PATRIOT Act (P.L. 107-56) that, inter alia, makes it easier for law enforcement to monitor Internet activities. That act was later amended by the Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296), loosening restrictions as to when, and to whom, Internet Service Providers may voluntarily release the content of communications if they believe there is a danger of death or injury. The report of the 9/11 Commission called for a full and informed debate on the USA PATRIOT Act, and creation of a board to ensure that privacy and civil liberties are protected. Congress directed that a Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board be established as part of the law that implements many of the Commissions recommendations (P.L. 108-457)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-10-19
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Iran Nonproliferation Act and the International Space Station: Issues and Options [Updated August 22, 2005]
"The Iran Nonproliferation Act of 2000 (INA) was enacted to help stop foreign transfers to Iran of weapons of mass destruction, missile technology, and advanced conventional weapons technology, particularly from Russia. Section 6 of the INA bans U.S. payments to Russia in connection with the International Space Station (ISS) unless the U.S. President determines that Russia is taking steps to prevent such proliferation. The ISS being assembled in orbit. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) will become dependent on Russia for certain ISS crew-related services beginning in April 2006 for which NASA must pay, so the INA could affect U.S. utilization of ISS. Congress is considering an amendment to the INA proposed by the Bush Administration that would allow NASA to pay Russia for ISS-related services. This report will not be updated. For current information, see CRS Issue Brief IB93017."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Squassoni, Sharon A.; Smith, Marcia S.
2005-08-22
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National Aeronautics and Space Administration's FY2006 Budget Request: Description, Analysis, and Issues for Congress [Updated August 1, 2005]
"For FY2006, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is requesting $16.456 billion. That amount is a 2.4% increase over the $16.070 billion (adjusted for the rescission) appropriated in the FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 108-447). NASA also received a supplemental of $126 million for hurricane relief, for a total FY2005 appropriated level of $16.196 billion. The FY2006 request is 1.6% above that total amount. By comparison, last year the White House projected that NASA's budget would increase by 4.7%. NASA submitted a FY2006 budget amendment on July 15; total funding for the agency did not change. […] NASA Administrator Dr. Michael Griffin testified to Congress in May 2005 that NASA cannot afford all the programs currently on its plate, and priorities must be set. He also is changing the emphasis on some of the Vision-related activities. For example, he is accelerating development of a Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) to reduce an expected multi-year gap between when the space shuttle is to be terminated (2010) and the availability of the CEV. During that gap, the United States would not have its own ability to launch astronauts, and thus would be dependent on Russia for crew transportation to the International Space Station (ISS). To pay for accelerating the CEV, Dr. Griffin plans to reduce funding for other Vision-related activities such as developing nuclear power and propulsion systems (Project Prometheus) or performing research on ISS. […] This report will be updated. An abbreviated version is available as CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS22063."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.; Morgan, Daniel (Daniel L.)
2005-08-01
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Internet: An Overview of Key Technology Policy Issues Affecting Its Use and Growth [Updated July 20, 2005]
"The continued growth of the Internet for personal, government, and business purposes may be affected by a number of technology policy issues being debated by Congress. Among them are access to broadband (high-speed) Internet services, computer and Internet security, Internet privacy, the impact of 'spam,' concerns about what children may encounter (such as pornography) when using the Internet, management of the Internet Domain Name System, and government information technology management. This report provides overviews of those issues, plus appendices providing a list of pending legislation, a list of acronyms, a discussion of legislation passed in earlier Congresses, and a list of other CRS reports that provide more detail on these and related topics. Other issues that are not directly related to technology could also affect the use and growth of the Internet, such as intellectual property rights. They are not addressed in this report, but the list of CRS products in Appendix D includes reports on related topics. Because this report is updated only quarterly, it does not attempt to track legislation. For more timely information, see the other CRS reports identified in the following sections and in Appendix D."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-07-20
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NASA's Space Shuttle Program: Issues for Congress Related to The Columbia Tragedy and 'Return to Flight' [Updated June 2, 2005]
"On February 1, 2003, NASA's Space Shuttle 'Columbia' broke apart while returning to Earth from a 16-day science mission in orbit. All seven astronauts -- six Americans and one Israeli -- were killed. An investigation board issued its report on the accident on August 26, 2003. A synopsis is provided in CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS21606. This report summarizes the Columbia tragedy and the investigation board's report, and discusses issues for Congress including the 'Return to Flight' (RTF) effort, and the future of the shuttle. NASA currently hopes RTF will occur during a July 13-31, 2005 launch window. More information on the space shuttle is available in CRS Issue Brief IB93062. This report is updated regularly."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-06-02
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Spyware: Background and Policy Issues for Congress [Updated April 4, 2005]
"The term 'spyware' is not well defined. Generally it is used to refer to any software that is downloaded onto a persons computer without their knowledge. Spyware may collect information about a computer users activities and transmit that information to someone else. It may change computer settings, or cause 'pop-up' advertisements to appear (in that context, it is called 'adware'). Spyware may redirect a Web browser to a site different from what the user intended to visit, or change the users home page. A type of spyware called 'keylogging' software records individual keystrokes, even if the author modifies or deletes what was written, or if the characters do not appear on the monitor. Thus, passwords, credit card numbers, and other personally identifiable information may be captured and relayed to unauthorized recipients. Some of these software programs have legitimate applications the computer user wants. They obtain the moniker "spyware" when they are installed surreptitiously, or perform additional functions of which the user is unaware. Users typically do not realizethatspywareisontheircomputer. Theymayhaveunknowinglydownloaded it from the Internet by clicking within a website, or it might have been included in an attachment to an electronic mail message (e-mail) or embedded in other software. According to a survey and tests conducted by America Online and the National Cyber Security Alliance, 80% of computers in the test group were infected by spyware or adware, and 89% of the users of those computers were unaware of it. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) issued a consumer alert on spyware in October 2004. It provided a list of warning signs that might indicate that a computer is infected with spyware, and advice on what to do if it is."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-04-04
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Science and Technology Policy: Issues for the 109th Congress [March 28, 2005]
"Science and technology have a pervasive influence over a wide range of issues confronting the nation. Decisions on how much federal funding to invest in research and development (R&D), and determining what programs have the highest priority, for example, may have implications for homeland security, new high technology industries, government/private sector cooperation in R&D, and myriad other areas. This report indicates the sweep of science and technology in many public policy issues, although it cannot provide a comprehensive examination of every science or technology issue which may be of interest to Congress. In some areas, such as global climate change and stem cell research, the importance of science and technology is explicit and in the forefront of the policy debate. In others, such as patent protection and telecommunications reform, science and technology may not be as explicit, but are important drivers affecting how policy makers may make decisions. This report also addresses key issues that directly affect, or are affected by, science and technology."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-03-28
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Identity Theft: The Internet Connection [March 16, 2005]
"Concern is growing about identity theft -- where one person assumes the identity of another by stealing personally identifiable information (PII), such as credit card or Social Security numbers. High profile incidents disclosed in early 2005 involving ChoicePoint, Bank of America, and LexisNexis, where the PII of more than a million Americans may have been compromised, have refocused congressional attention on this issue. Many associate the rise in identity theft cases with the Internet, but surveys indicate that comparatively few victims cite the Internet as the source of their stolen PII. Still, the Internet may play a role, particularly through a practice known as 'phishing.' Congress already has passed several laws to address identity theft, and continues to debate whether additional action is needed."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-03-16
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U.S. Space Programs: Civilian, Military, and Commercial [Updated February 28, 2005]
"The 109th Congress is likely to address a broad range of civilian, military, and commercial space issues. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducts the most visible space activities. For FY2005, NASA requested $16.24 billion, and received $16.07 billion (adjusted for the rescission). Separately, Congress provided $126 million in a supplemental for hurricane relief, making a total FY2005 budget of $16.2 billion. The FY2006 request is $16.46 billion. The loss of the space shuttle Columbia on February 1, 2003, and the future of NASA's human space flight activities, is dominating debate about NASA. [...] The appropriate role of the government in facilitating commercial space businesses is an ongoing debate. For many years, the focus has been on space launch services, but commercial remote sensing satellites also pose complex questions. President Bush signed a new commercial remote sensing policy in 2003, and a new space launch policy in 2004, that try to strike a balance between facilitating commercial activities while ensuring the U.S. government has needed data and services. International cooperation and competition in space are affected by the world economic situation and the post-Cold War political climate. President Clinton's 1993 decision to merge NASA's space station program with Russia's is symbolic of the dramatic changes, and the risks."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-02-28
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Internet Privacy: Overview and Pending Legislation [Updated January 27, 2005]
"Internet privacy issues encompass concerns about the collection of personally
identifiable information (PII) from visitors to government and commercial websites,
as well as debate over law enforcement or employer monitoring of electronic mail
and Web usage. This report discusses Internet privacy issues and tracks legislation."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2005-01-27
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Internet: An Overview of Key Technology Policy Issues Affecting Its Use and Growth [Updated December 29, 2004]
"The growth of the Internet may be affected by a number of issues being debated by Congress. This report summarizes the following technology policy issues; internet privacy issues encompass concerns about information collected by website operators and by 'spyware,' and about the extent to which law enforcement officials are allowed to monitor an individual's Internet activities. Congress has passed several laws already, but continues to debate what other legislation may be needed, computer and Internet security in both the government and private sectors. Issues have also been raised about the vulnerability of the nation's critical infrastructures (e.g. electrical power supply) to cyber attacks. Issues for Congress include oversight and improvement of the protection of federal computer systems and cooperation with and between the private sectors, Broadband Internet access gives users the ability to send and receive data at speeds far greater than current Internet access over traditional telephone lines. With deployment of broadband technologies beginning to accelerate, Congress is seeking to ensure fair competition and timely broadband deployment to all sectors and geographical locations of American society, electronic commerce (e-commerce) -- have grown substantially. Among the issues facing Congress are encryption procedures to protect e-commerce transactions, extension of the three-year tax moratorium on domestic e-commerce taxation, the impact of the USA PATRIOT Act, and how the policies of the European Union and the World Trade Organization (WTO) may affect U.S. e-commerce activities, anti-spam law, the CAN-SPAM Act, permits, but does not require, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to create a 'do not e-mail' list similar to the National Do Not Call list for telemarketers. Whether to require the FTC to establish such a list, and the extent to which the new law will actually reduce the amount of spam, remain congressional issues in the wake of the law's enactment, internet's domain name system (DNS) is currently under transition from federal to private sector control. Congress is monitoring how the Department of Commerce is managing and overseeing this transition in order to ensure competition and promote fairness among all Internet constituencies, the evolving role of the Internet in the political economy of the United States continues to attract congressional attention. Among the issues are information technology research and development, the provision of online services by the government ('e-government'), and availability and use of 'open source' software."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.; Smith, Marcia S.; Kruger, Lennard G.
2004-12-29
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Science and Technology Policy: Issues for the 108th Congress, 2nd Session [Updated December 28, 2004]
"This report provides an overview of key science and technology policy issues that were debated in the 108th Congress, and identifies other CRS reports that treat those issues in more depth. Many of the issues are likely to receive continued attention in the next Congress. Most of the CRS reports cited herein are routinely updated, and should be consulted for timely information. Among the issues debated in the 108th Congress was how much federal funding should be allocated to research and development (R&D) across the federal government. For FY2005, the Bush Administration requested $132 billion, an increase of $6 billion over the FY2004 appropriation. CRS estimates that Congress appropriated $133 billion. In addition to debating funding issues, the 108th Congress addressed a wide range of science and technology policy issues, from cloning and stem cell research, to the deployment of "broadband" technologies to allow high speed access to the Internet. Several energy issues were debated, including President Bush's Hydrogen Fuel Initiative to develop hydrogen-fueled automobiles and for other applications. Agricultural biotechnology and global climate change research pose complex issues on both the domestic and international levels. Funding for aeronautics R&D, nanotechnology, and space programs (including President Bush's new space exploration goals for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA) also received congressional attention."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2004-12-28
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Internet Privacy: Overview and Pending Legislation [Updated December 22, 2004]
"Internet privacy issues generally encompass two types of concerns. One is the collection of personally identifiable information (PII) by website operators from visitors to government and commercial websites, or by software that is surreptitiously installed on a user's computer ('spyware') and transmits the information to someone else. The other is the monitoring of electronic mail and Web usage by the government or law enforcement officials, employers, or Internet Service Providers. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks intensified debate over the issue of law enforcement monitoring, with some advocating increased tools for law enforcement officials to track down terrorists, and others cautioning that fundamental tenets of democracy, such as privacy, not be endangered in that pursuit. Congress passed the 2001 USA PATRIOT Act (P.L. 107-56) that, inter alia, makes it easier for law enforcement to monitor Internet activities. That act was later amended by the Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296), loosening restrictions as to when, and to whom, Internet Service Providers may voluntarily release the content of communications if they believe there is a danger of death or injury. The report of the 9/11 Commission called for a full and informed debate on the USA PATRIOT Act, and creation of a board to ensure that privacy and civil liberties are protected. Congress directed that a Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board be established as part of the law that implements many of the Commission's recommendations (P.L.108-457, the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Smith, Marcia S.
2004-12-22
