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• Latin America and the Caribbean: Illicit Drug Trafficking and U.S. Counterdrug Programs [January 25, 2011]

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  This Congressional Research Service (CRS) report "provides an overview of the drug flows in the Americas and U.S. antidrug assistance programs in the region. It also raises some policy issues for Congress to consider as it exercises oversight of U.S. antidrug programs and policies in the Western Hemisphere. [...]. Drug trafficking is viewed as a primary threat to citizen security and U.S. interests in Latin America and the Caribbean despite decades of anti-drug efforts by the United States and partner governments. The production and trafficking of popular illicit drugs--cocaine, marijuana, opiates, and methamphetamine--generates a multi-billion dollar black market in which Latin American criminal and terrorist organizations thrive. These groups challenge state authority in source and transit countries where governments are often fragile and easily corrupted. Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) largely control the U.S. illicit drug market and have been identified by the U.S. Department of Justice as the 'greatest organized crime threat to the United States.' Drug trafficking-related crime and violence in the region has escalated in recent years, raising the drug issue to the forefront of U.S. foreign policy concerns. [...]. Congress has influenced U.S. drug control policy in Latin America by appropriating certain types and levels of funding for counterdrug assistance programs and conditioning the provision of antidrug funding on the basis of human rights and other reporting requirements. Congress has also sought to ensure that counterdrug programs are implemented in tandem with judicial reform, anti-corruption, and human rights programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wyler, Liana Sun; Seelke, Clare Ribando; Beittel, June S.

  2011-01-25
• Central America Regional Security Initiative: Background and Policy Issues for Congress [March 30, 2011]

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  "The security situation in Central America has deteriorated in recent years as gangs, drug traffickers, and other criminal groups have expanded their activities in the region, contributing to escalating levels of crime and violence that have alarmed citizens and threaten to overwhelm governments. Violence is particularly intense in the 'northern triangle' countries of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras, which have some of the highest homicide rates in the world. Citizens of nearly every Central American nation now rank public insecurity as the top problem facing their countries. Moreover, some analysts maintain that the pervasive lack of security in the region not only threatens Central American governments and civil society, but presents a potential threat to the United States. Given the proximity of Central America, instability in the region-- whether in the form of declining support for democracy as a result of corrupt governance, drug traffickers acting with impunity as a result of weak state presence, or increased emigration as a result of economic and physical insecurity--is likely to affect the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Meyer, Peter J.; Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2011-03-30
• Dominican Republic: Background and U.S. Relations [January 3, 2011]

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  "The Dominican Republic, a country of roughly 9.7 million people that shares the Caribbean island of Hispaniola with Haiti, is a key U.S. trade partner and political ally in the region. The United States is the Dominican Republic's main trading partner, with two-way trade totaling more than $10.6 billion in 2008 before falling to $8.6 billion in 2009. In addition to trade, U.S. interest in the Dominican Republic has focused on anti-drug cooperation and governance/human rights issues, as well as the country's role in helping resolve regional conflicts. After a July 12, 2010, official meeting, President Barack Obama praised Dominican President Leonel Fernández's regional leadership, particularly the role he and his government have played in the aftermath of the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti and in helping to resolve the political crisis in Honduras. President Fernández of the center-left Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) took office for his third term in August 2008. Fernández previously served as President from 1996-2000 and 2004-2008. In 2009, President Fernández achieved one of his primary political goals: securing congressional approval of a new constitution. The new constitution, which took effect in January 2010, allows presidents to complete one term and then serve again after sitting out of office for four years, making President Fernández eligible to run again in 2016. Few have criticized Fernández for changing the constitution to allow himself to run for another term, but some have spoken out against calls from the PLD for further changes that would enable him to run in 2012. Despite some lingering economic and security challenges that have yet to be resolved and concerns about corruption in his Administration, President Fernández has remained popular. His party dominated legislative elections held on May 16, 2010."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2011-01-03
• Dominican Republic: Background and U.S. Relations [November 1, 2010]

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  "The Dominican Republic, a country of roughly 9.7 million people that shares the Caribbean island of Hispaniola with Haiti, is a key U.S. trade partner and political ally in the region. The United States is the Dominican Republic's main trading partner, with two-way trade totaling more than $10.6 billion in 2008 before falling to $8.6 billion in 2009. In addition to trade, U.S. interest in the Dominican Republic has focused on anti-drug cooperation and governance/human rights issues, as well as the country's role in helping resolve regional conflicts. After a July 12, 2010, official meeting, President Barack Obama praised Dominican President Leonel Fernández's regional leadership, particularly the role he and his government have played in the aftermath of the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti and in helping to resolve the political crisis in Honduras. President Fernández of the center-left Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) took office for his third term in August 2008. Fernández previously served as President from 1996-2000 and 2004-2008. In 2009, President Fernández achieved one of his primary political goals: securing congressional approval of a new constitution. The new constitution, which took effect in January 2010, allows presidents to complete one term and then serve again after sitting out of office for four years, making President Fernández eligible to run again in 2016. Few have criticized Fernández for changing the constitution to allow himself to run for another term, but some have spoken out against calls from the PLD for further changes that would enable him to run in 2012. Despite some lingering economic and security challenges that have yet to be resolved and concerns about corruption in his Administration, President Fernández has remained popular. His party dominated legislative elections held on May 16, 2010."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2010-11-01
• U.S.-Mexican Security Cooperation: The Mérida Initiative and Beyond [August 16, 2010]

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  "In recent years, U.S.-Mexican security cooperation has increased significantly, largely as a result of the development and implementation of the Mérida Initiative, a counterdrug and anticrime assistance package for Mexico and Central America that was first proposed in October 2007. With the recent enactment of the FY2010 Supplemental Appropriations Act (H.R. 4899/P.L. 111- 212), Congress has provided almost $1.8 billion for the Mérida Initiative. Congress provided $248 million of that funding to Central America and included an additional $42 million for Caribbean countries. However, Congress has dedicated the vast majority of the funds--roughly $1.5 billion--to support programs in Mexico, with an emphasis on training and equipping Mexican military and police forces engaged in counterdrug efforts. Escalating drug traffickingrelated violence in Mexico and the increasing control that Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) have over the illicit drug market in the United States have focused congressional attention on the efficacy of U.S-Mexican efforts and related domestic initiatives in both countries. With funding for the original Mérida Initiative technically ending in FY2010 and new initiatives underway for Central America and the Caribbean, the Obama Administration proposed a new four-pillar strategy for U.S.-Mexican security cooperation in its FY2011 budget request. That strategy focuses on (1) disrupting organized criminal groups; (2) institutionalizing the rule of law; (3) building a 21st century border; and (4) building strong and resilient communities. The first two pillars largely build upon existing efforts, whereas pillars three and four broaden the scope of Mérida Initiative programs to include new efforts to facilitate 'secure flows' of people and goods through the U.S.-Mexico border and to improve conditions in violence-prone border cities. The Administration's FY2011 budget request includes $310 million for Mérida programs in Mexico."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando; Finklea, Kristin M.

  2010-08-16
• El Salvador: Political, Economic, and Social Conditions and U.S. Relations [March 17, 2010]

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  "Throughout the last few decades, the United States has maintained a strong interest in El Salvador, a small Central American country with a population of 7.2 million. During the 1980s, El Salvador was the largest recipient of U.S. aid in Latin America as its government struggled against the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN) insurgency during a 12-year civil war. A peace accord negotiated in 1992 brought the war to an end and formally assimilated the FMLN into the political process as a political party. After the peace accords were signed, U.S. involvement shifted toward helping the government rebuild democracy and implement marketfriendly economic reforms. Mauricio Funes of the FMLN was inaugurated to a five-year presidential term in June 2009. Funes won a close election in March 2009, marking the first FMLN presidential victory and the first transfer in political power between parties since the end of El Salvador's civil war. Funes' victory followed strong showings by the FMLN in the January 2009 municipal and legislative elections, in which the party won a plurality of the seats in the National Assembly and the largest share of the municipal vote."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2010-03-17
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Illicit Drug Trafficking and U.S. Counterdrug Programs [April 30, 2010]

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  "Drug trafficking is viewed as a primary threat to citizen security and U.S. interests in Latin America and the Caribbean despite decades of anti-drug efforts by the United States and partner governments. The production and trafficking of popular illicit drugs--cocaine, marijuana, opiates, and methamphetamine--generates a multi-billion dollar black market in which Latin American criminal and terrorist organizations thrive. These groups challenge state authority in source and transit countries where governments are often fragile and easily corrupted. Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) largely control the U.S. illicit drug market and have been identified by the U.S. Department of Justice as the 'greatest organized crime threat to the United States.' […]. Congress has also conditioned the provision of antidrug funding on the basis of human rights and other reporting requirements. It has sought to ensure that counterdrug programs are implemented in tandem with judicial reform, anti-corruption, and human rights programs. Several bills address counternarcotics issues in the region, including House-passed H.R. 2410 (Berman), House-passed H.R. 2134 (Engel) and S. 3172 (Menendez). Congress has been active in evaluating drug assistance programs through multiple oversight hearings. This report provides an overview of the drug flows in the Americas and U.S. antidrug assistance programs in the region. It also raises some policy issues for Congress to consider as it exercises oversight of U.S. antidrug programs and policies in the Western Hemisphere."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wyler, Liana Sun; Seelke, Clare Ribando; Beittel, June S.

  2010-04-30
• Mérida Initiative for Mexico and Central America: Funding and Policy Issues [April 19, 2010]

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  "Increasing violence perpetrated by drug trafficking organizations and other criminal groups is threatening citizen security in Mexico and Central America. Drug trafficking-related violence claimed more than 6,500 lives in Mexico in 2009, and several Central American countries have among the world's highest homicide rates. Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) dominate the illicit drug market in the United States and are expanding their operations by forming partnerships with U.S. gangs. […]. Congress has also monitored enforcement of Mérida's human rights conditions, particularly with respect to Mexico. Congress is playing a role in the design of post-Mérida security cooperation with Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean Basin during its consideration of the Obama Administration's FY2011 budget request. For FY2011, the Administration has asked for $310 million in assistance for Mérida programs in Mexico, $100 million for CARSI, and $79 million for CBSI. Detailed strategy documents for CARSI and CBSI are not yet available, but Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced a new strategy for U.S.-Mexican security cooperation after a high-level meeting in Mexico City on March 23, 2010. The plan focuses on (1) disrupting organized criminal groups; (2) institutionalizing the rule of law; (3) building a 21st-century border; and (4) building strong and resilient communities. This report provides an overview of the funding provided for the Mérida Initiative and related assistance programs in Central America and the Caribbean, the status of Mérida implementation, and a discussion of some policy issues that Congress may consider as it oversees the initiative and related programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2010-04-19
• Gangs in Central America [December 4, 2009]

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  "The 111th Congress has maintained an interest in the effects of crime and gang violence in Central America, and on the expanding activities of transnational gangs with ties to that region operating in the United States. The violent Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and its main rival, the '18th Street' gang (also known as M-18) continue to threaten citizen security and challenge government authority in Central America. Gang-related violence has been particularly acute in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, which have among the highest homicide rates in the world. [...]. Between February 2005 and September 2009, U.S. officials arrested some 2,572 alleged MS-13 members in cities across the United States, many of whom were subsequently deported. Evidence suggests, however, that previously deported members of both the MS-13 and the M-18 often reenter the United States illegally across the U.S.-Mexico border. Several U.S. agencies have been actively engaged on both the law enforcement and preventive side of dealing with Central American gangs. An inter-agency committee worked together to develop a U.S. Strategy to Combat Criminal Gangs from Central America and Mexico, first announced at a July 2007 U.S.-Central American Integration System (SICA) summit on security issues. The strategy, which is now being implemented, states that the U.S. government will pursue coordinated anti-gang activities through five broad areas: diplomacy, repatriation, law enforcement, capacity enhancement, and prevention. [...]. This report describes the gang problem in Central America, discusses country and regional approaches to deal with the gangs, and analyzes U.S. policy with respect to gangs in Central America."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2009-12-04
• International Violence Against Women: U.S. Response and Policy Issues [Updated August 10, 2009]

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  "This report addresses causes, prevalence, and consequences of violence against women. It provides examples of completed and ongoing U.S. activities that address [violence against women] VAW directly or include anti-VAW components. It outlines possible policy considerations for the 111th Congress, including the scope and effectiveness of U.S. programs; further integrating anti-VAW programs into U.S. assistance and foreign policy mechanisms; and strengthening U.S. government coordination of anti-VAW activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Serafino, Nina M.; Blanchfield, Luisa; Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2009-08-10
• Mérida Initiative for Mexico and Central America: Funding and Policy Issues [Updated August 21, 2009]

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  "Policy issues that have emerged in consideration of Mérida include what levels and types of funding should be provided; how well U.S. agencies and their foreign counterparts are implementing the Initiative; and the degree to which the nations involved are fulfilling their domestic obligations under Mérida . Congress has expressed a keen interest in enforcement of Mérida's human rights conditions, particularly with respect to Mexico. This report provides an overview of the funding provided for the Mérida Initiative, the status of Mérida implementation, and a discussion of some policy issues that Congress may consider as it oversees the Initiative."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2009-08-21
• Trafficking in Persons: U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress [July 2, 2009]

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  "Trafficking in persons (TIP) for the purposes of exploitation is believed to be one of the most prolific areas of international criminal activity and is of significant concern to the United States and the international community. The overwhelming majority of those trafficked are women and children. According to the most recent Department of State estimates, roughly 800,000 people are trafficked across borders each year. If trafficking within countries is included in the total world figures, official U.S. estimates are that some 2 to 4 million people are trafficked annually. However, there are even higher estimates, ranging from 4 to 27 million for total numbers of forced or bonded laborers. As many as 17,500 people are believed to be trafficked to the United States each year. Human trafficking is now a leading source of profits for organized crime syndicates, together with drugs and weapons, generating billions of dollars. TIP affects virtually every country in the world. [...] On June 16, 2009, the State Department issued its ninth annual, congressionally mandated report on human trafficking. In addition to outlining major trends and ongoing challenges in combating TIP, the report provides a country-by-country analysis and ranking, based on what progress foreign countries have made, from April 2008 through March 2009, in their efforts to prosecute, protect, and prevent TIP. The report categorizes countries into four 'tiers' according to the government's efforts to combat trafficking. Those countries that do not cooperate in the fight against trafficking (Tier 3) have been made subject to U.S. foreign assistance sanctions. The Tier 3 group named in 2009 includes a total of 17 countries: Burma, Chad, Cuba, Eritrea, Fiji, Iran, Kuwait, Malaysia, Mauritania, Niger, North Korea, Papua New Guinea, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Swaziland, Syria, and Zimbabwe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Siskin, Alison; Wyler, Liana Sun; Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2009-07-02
• Brazil-U.S. Relations [Updated June 3, 2009]

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  "This report, which will be updated periodically, analyzes Brazil's political, economic, and social conditions, and how those conditions affect its role in the region and its relationship with the United States."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Meyer, Peter J.; Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2009-06-03
• Merida Initiative for Mexico and Central America: Funding and Policy Issues [June 1, 2009]

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  "Increasing violence perpetrated by drug trafficking organizations, gangs, and other criminal groups is threatening citizen security in Mexico and Central America. Drug-related violence claimed more than 5,300 lives in Mexico in 2008, and several Central American countries have some of the highest homicide rates in the world. Mexican drug cartels dominate the illicit drug market in most regions of the United States and are expanding their operations by forming partnerships with U.S. gangs. As a result, some of the drug-related violence in Mexico has begun to spillover into the United States. On October 22, 2007, the United States and Mexico announced the Mérida Initiative, a multi-year proposal for $1.4 billion in U.S. assistance to Mexico and Central America aimed at combating drug trafficking and organized crime. The Administration requested $500 million for Mexico and $50 million for Central America in FY2008 supplemental appropriations, and another $450 million for Mexico and $100 million for Central America in the FY2009 budget request. While the Bush Administration did not request any additional funding for domestic programs to complement the Mérida Initiative, U.S. officials pledged to step up efforts to prevent arms, precursor chemicals, and bulk cash flows from the United States into Mexico, and to reduce U.S. drug demand. [...]This report provides an overview of the funding provided for the Mérida Initiative and a discussion of some policy issues that Congress may consider as it oversees implementation of the Initiative. For related information, see CRS Report RL32724, Mexico-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress, by Mark P. Sullivan and June S. Beittel. This report will be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando; Beittel, June S.

  2009-06-01
• Merida Initiative for Mexico and Central America: Funding and Policy Issues [January 21, 2010]

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  "Increasing violence perpetrated by drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) and other criminal groups is threatening citizen security in Mexico and Central America. Drug-related violence claimed more than 6,500 lives in Mexico in 2009, and several Central American countries have among the highest homicide rates in the world. Mexican DTOs dominate the illicit drug market in the United States and are expanding their operations by forming partnerships with U.S. gangs. As a result, some of the drug-related violence in Mexico has spilled over into the United States. On October 22, 2007, the United States and Mexico announced the Mérida Initiative, a proposed package of U.S. counterdrug and anticrime assistance for Mexico and Central America that would begin in FY2008 and last through FY2010. Congress appropriated roughly $1.3 billion for Mexico and Central America, as well as Haiti and the Dominican Republic, in the FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 110-252), FY2009 Omnibus Appropriations Act (P.L. 111- 8), and the FY2009 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-32). Each of these Acts contained human rights conditions on 15% of certain law enforcement and military assistance provided. Throughout 2009, drug-related violence in Mexico and the potential threat of spillover along the Southwest border focused congressional concern on the pace of implementation of the Mérida Initiative. On December 3, 2009, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a preliminary report for Congress on the status of funding for the Mérida Initiative."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2010-01-21
• Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the Caribbean [October 9, 2009]

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  "Trafficking in persons (TIP) for the purpose of exploitation is a lucrative criminal activity that is of major concern to the United States and the international community. According to the most recent U.S. State Department estimates, roughly 800,000 people are trafficked across borders each year. […] The 111th Congress may continue to exercise its oversight of TIP programs and operations, including U.S.-funded programs in Latin America. Congress may consider increasing funding for anti-TIP programs in the region, possibly through the Mérida Initiative, or through other assistance programs. Congress may also monitor new trends in human trafficking in the region, including the increasing involvement of Mexican drug trafficking organizations in TIP. Another issue of interest may be whether sufficient efforts are being applied to address all forms of TIP in Latin America, including not only sexual exploitation, but also forced labor."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2009-10-09
• Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the Caribbean [October 16, 2009]

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  "Trafficking in persons (TIP) for the purpose of exploitation is a lucrative criminal activity that is of major concern to the United States and the international community. According to the most recent U.S. State Department estimates, roughly 800,000 people are trafficked across borders each year. […] The 111th Congress may continue to exercise its oversight of TIP programs and operations, including U.S.-funded programs in Latin America. Congress may consider increasing funding for anti-TIP programs in the region, possibly through the Mérida Initiative, or through other assistance programs. Congress may also monitor new trends in human trafficking in the region, including the increasing involvement of Mexican drug trafficking organizations in TIP. Another issue of interest may be whether sufficient efforts are being applied to address all forms of TIP in Latin America, including not only sexual exploitation, but also forced labor."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2009-10-16
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated January 13, 2005]

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  "The Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides over the past two decades in terms of political and economic development. While the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, by the end of 2004, it had rebounded with an estimated growth rate of 5.5% for the year, surpassing even the most optimistic predictions. Nevertheless, several nations face considerable challenges that could threaten political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, and increasing crime."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Seelke, Clare Ribando; Storrs, K. Larry (Keith Larry), 1937-

  2005-01-13
• U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean [Updated March 30, 2005]

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  "U.S. foreign assistance programs to developing nations began in earnest after the conclusion of World War II. Trends in U.S. assistance to the region generally reflect the trends and rationales for U.S. foreign aid programs globally. Aid to the region increased during the 1960s with the Alliance for Progress and during the 1980s with aid to Central America. Since 2000, aid levels have again increased, especially in the Andean region as the focus has shifted from Cold War issues to counternarcotics and security assistance. Current aid levels to Latin America and the Caribbean comprise 11.4% of the worldwide aid budget, representing an increase over levels ten years ago of 8.2%. Aid levels to the region could increase further as new presidential initiatives -- the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and the Millennium Challenge Account -- are implemented. The annual Foreign Operations Appropriation bills have been the vehicles by which Congress provides funding for foreign assistance programs. Congress provided $17.5 billion out of the President's $18.8 billion international affairs request for FY2004. The President requested $21.3 billion for FY2005, with increases mainly due to the Millennium Challenge Account and the Global Aids Initiative. The FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (H.R. 4818/P.L. 108-447) provided $19.64 billion for the foreign assistance budget worldwide. Congress has expressed concerns about a number of related issues, including the general effectiveness of foreign aid programs, and how best to address the HIV/AIDS problem and poverty issues. Congress has also debated the U.S. role in fighting narcotics trafficking and illegally armed groups in Colombia, as well as stabilizing the situation in Haiti."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Veillette, Connie; Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2005-03-30
• Gangs in Central America [May 10, 2005]

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  In the past year, there has been increasing attention by the press and policymakers on the effects of crime and gang violence in Central America, and its spillover effects on the United States. The February 2005 arrest of some 103 members of the violent Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) gang in several cities across the United States " including a man charged in connection with a December 2004 bus massacre in Honduras that killed 28 people " raises concerns about the transnational activities of Central American gangs. Citizens in several Central American countries have identified crime and gang violence among the top issues of popular concern, and Honduras and El Salvador have recently enacted tough anti-gang legislation. Gang violence may threaten political stability, inhibit social development, and discourage foreign investment in Central America. Many analysts predict that illicit gang activities may accelerate illegal immigration, drug smuggling, and trafficking in persons and weapons to the United States. Some analysts maintain that contact between gang members in both regions is increasing, and that this tendency may serve to increase gang-related violent crime in the United States. Others assert that unless the root causes of gang violence, which include poverty, joblessness, and the social exclusion of at-risk youth, are addressed in a holistic manner, the problem will continue to escalate. This report will be updated periodically.

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2005-05-10
• Bolivia: Political and Economic Developments and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated January 25, 2006]

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  "In the past few years, Bolivia has experienced extreme political unrest resulting in the country having three presidents since 2003 and the election of a fourth at the end of 2005. All recent Bolivian presidents have been unable to resolve continuing discord over issues relating to the exploitation of Bolivia's natural resources, coca eradication programs, indigenous rights, and the extent of power sharing between the central government and the country's nine departments. Evo Morales, elected on December 18, 2005, was inaugurated on January 22, 2006. Bolivia is one of the poorest countries in Latin America, with a sizeable and active indigenous population, a long history of coca cultivation, and weak political institutions. Despite these challenges, the country has made some social and economic progress over the past several decades. Coca cultivation has decreased from its peak production years in the 1990s, but is still a source of conflict between the government and coca growers."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Veillette, Connie; Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2006-01-25
• U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean [Updated November 30, 2005]

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  "U.S. foreign assistance programs to developing nations began in earnest after the conclusion of World War II. Trends in U.S. assistance to the region generally reflect the trends and rationales for U.S. foreign aid programs globally. Aid to the region increased during the 1960s with the Alliance for Progress and during the 1980s with aid to Central America. Since 2000, aid levels have again increased, especially in the Andean region as the focus has shifted from Cold War issues to counternarcotics and security assistance. Current aid levels to Latin America and the Caribbean comprise about 9% of the worldwide aid budget, representing a slight increase over levels ten years ago of 8.2%. Aid levels to the region could increase further as new presidential initiatives - the Presidents Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and the Millennium Challenge Account - are implemented. For FY2005, U.S. assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean was estimated at $1.8 billion, the largest portion of which was allocated to the Andean region: $947 million. Mexico and Central America were slated to receive $311 million, while the Caribbean would receive $370 million, largely reflecting assistance for hurricane and flood damage. Brazil and the Southern Cone of South America were to receive an estimated $52 million. The United States also maintains programs of a regional nature that totaled an estimated $110 million in FY2005."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Veillette, Connie; Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2005-11-30
• Article 98 Agreements and Sanctions on U.S. Foreign Aid to Latin America [March 30, 2006]

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  "In July 2002, the Rome Statute that created the International Criminal Court (ICC), the first permanent world court created to judge cases involving serious human rights abuses, entered into force. The United States is not a party to the ICC and does not recognize its jurisdiction over U.S. citizens. The Bush Administration has sought bilateral agreements worldwide to exempt U.S. citizens from ICC prosecution, so-called 'Article 98 agreements.' There has been strong bipartisan support for legislation aimed at protecting U.S. soldiers and civilian officials from the jurisdiction of the ICC and sanctioning some foreign assistance to governments of countries that are parties to the ICC and that do not have Article 98 agreements with the United States. In 2002, Congress passed the American Servicemembers' Protection Act or ASPA (P.L. 107-206, title II), which prohibits military assistance to countries that are party to the ICC and that do not have Article 98 agreements. The Nethercutt Amendment to the FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (H.R. 4818/P.L. 108-447) and FY2006 Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (H.R. 3057/P.L. 109-102) prohibited some economic assistance to the governments of those same countries that do not have Article 98 agreements. Twelve Latin American countries (including Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Mexico) have been denied U.S. foreign assistance as a result. Some Members of Congress and Bush Administration officials have expressed concerns about the unintended effects of these sanctions on U.S. relations with Latin America. Policymakers are considering some options to mitigate these effects without undermining ASPA or diplomatic efforts to secure Article 98 agreements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2006-03-30
• U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean [Updated March 16, 2006]

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  "Trends in U.S. assistance to the Latin America and Caribbean region generally reflect the trends and rationales for U.S. foreign aid programs globally. Aid to the region increased during the 1960s with the Alliance for Progress and during the 1980s with aid to Central America. Since 2000, aid levels have increased, especially in the Andean region as the focus has shifted from Cold War issues to counternarcotics and security assistance. Current aid levels to Latin America and the Caribbean comprise about 11.8% of the worldwide FY2006 bilateral aid budget. Amounts requested for FY2007 would reduce this ration to 10.6%. Two countries - Honduras and Nicaragua - have signed compacts for Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) funds. Aid levels to the region could increase further as more countries become eligible for MCA. Both Haiti and Guyana are focus countries for the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Veillette, Connie; Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2006-03-16
• Article 98 Agreements and Sanctions on U.S. Foreign Aid to Latin America [April 10, 2006]

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  "In July 2002, the Rome Statute that created the International Criminal Court (ICC), the first permanent world court created to judge cases involving serious human rights abuses, entered into force. The United States is not a party to the ICC and does not recognize its jurisdiction over U.S. citizens. The Bush Administration has sought bilateral agreements worldwide to exempt U.S. citizens from ICC prosecution, so-called 'Article 98 agreements.' There has been strong bipartisan support for legislation aimed at protecting U.S. soldiers and civilian officials from the jurisdiction of the ICC and sanctioning some foreign assistance to governments of countries that are parties to the ICC and that do not have Article 98 agreements with the United States. In 2002, Congress passed the American Servicemembers' Protection Act or ASPA (P.L. 107-206, title II), which prohibits military assistance to countries that are party to the ICC and that do not have Article 98 agreements. The Nethercutt Amendment to the FY2005 Consolidated Appropriations Act (H.R. 4818/P.L. 108-447) and FY2006 Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (H.R. 3057/P.L. 109-102) prohibited some economic assistance to the governments of those same countries that do not have Article 98 agreements. Twelve Latin American countries (including Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Mexico) have been denied U.S. foreign assistance as a result. Some Members of Congress and Bush Administration officials have expressed concerns about the unintended effects of these sanctions on U.S. relations with Latin America. Policymakers are considering some options to mitigate these effects without undermining ASPA or diplomatic efforts to secure Article 98 agreements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2006-04-10
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Issues for the 109th Congress [Updated May 26, 2005]

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  "The Latin America and Caribbean region has made enormous strides over the past two decades in terms of political and economic development. While the region overall experienced an economic setback in 2002-2003, by the end of 2004, it had rebounded with an estimated growth rate of 5.5% for the year, surpassing even the most optimistic predictions. Nevertheless, several nations face considerable challenges that could threaten political stability, including persistent poverty, violent guerrilla conflicts, autocratic leaders, drug trafficking, and increasing crime."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Sullivan, Mark P.; Seelke, Clare Ribando; Hornbeck, J. F. (John F.)

  2005-05-26
• Latin America and the Caribbean: Illicit Drug Trafficking and U.S. Counterdrug Programs [May 12, 2011]

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  "Drug trafficking is viewed as a primary threat to citizen security and U.S. interests in Latin America and the Caribbean despite decades of anti-drug efforts by the United States and partner governments. The production and trafficking of popular illicit drugs - cocaine, marijuana, opiates, and methamphetamine - generate a multi-billion dollar black market in which Latin American criminal and terrorist organizations thrive. These groups challenge state authority in source and transit countries where governments are often fragile and easily corrupted. Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) largely control the U.S. illicit drug market and have been identified by the U.S. Department of Justice as the 'greatest organized crime threat to the United States.' Drug trafficking-related crime and violence in the region has escalated in recent years, raising the drug issue to the forefront of U.S. foreign policy concerns. [...] Congress has influenced U.S. drug control policy in Latin America by appropriating certain types and levels of funding for counterdrug assistance programs and conditioning the provision of antidrug funding on the basis of human rights and other reporting requirements. Congress has also sought to ensure that counterdrug programs are implemented in tandem with judicial reform, anti-corruption, and human rights programs. The 112th Congress has held hearings evaluating drug assistance programs and related domestic initiatives and border security efforts. This report provides an overview of the drug flows in the Americas and U.S. antidrug assistance programs in the region. It also raises some policy issues for Congress to consider as it exercises oversight of U.S. antidrug programs and policies in the Western Hemisphere."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Wyler, Liana Sun; Seelke, Clare Ribando; Beittel, June S.

  2011-05-12
• Bolivia: Political and Economic Developments and Relations with the United States [July 14, 2008]

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  "Bolivia has experienced a period of political volatility with the country having six presidents since 2001. Evo Morales, an indigenous leader and head of Bolivia's coca growers' union, and his party, the leftist Movement Toward Socialism (MAS), won a convincing victory in the December 18, 2005, presidential election with 54% of the votes. Early in his term, President Morales moved to fulfill his campaign promises to decriminalize coca cultivation, nationalize the country's natural gas industry, and enact land reform. Those policies pleased his supporters, but complicated Bolivia's relations with foreign investors and the United States. Since President Morales took office, Bolivians have become increasingly divided over the issues of constitutional reform and regional autonomy. A constitutional reform process began in mid-2006 and concluded in late 2007 when the Constituent Assembly (CA) passed a draft constitution without the presence of opposition delegates. Efforts by the Catholic Church, the Organization of American States (OAS), and neighboring governments have failed to ease tensions over the reform process between the MAS government in La Paz and the opposition. Whereas plans for a national referendum on constitutional reforms have stalled, four departmental referendums on autonomy have been held, despite the lack of congressional approval for them to be convened. A national recall referendum is scheduled for August 10, 2008 on whether President Morales, the vice president, and the prefects (departmental governors) should remain in office."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2008-07-14
• Bolivia: Political and Economic Developments and Relations with the United States [Updated November 14, 2008]

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  "Bolivia has experienced a period of political volatility, with the country having had six presidents since 2001. Evo Morales, an indigenous leader and head of Bolivia's coca growers' union, and his party, the leftist Movement Toward Socialism (MAS), won a convincing victory in the December 18, 2005, presidential election with 54% of the votes. Early in his term, President Morales moved to decriminalize coca cultivation and nationalized the country's natural gas industry. His efforts to reform the Bolivian constitution have, until recently, been stymied by a strong opposition movement led by the leaders (prefects) of Bolivia's wealthy eastern provinces who are seeking greater regional autonomy. In December 2007, the Constituent Assembly elected in mid-2006 passed a draft constitution without the presence of opposition delegates. In late August 2008, President Morales, buoyed by the strong support he received in a national recall referendum held on August 10, 2008, proposed to convoke a referendum on the draft constitution in December 2008. He later agreed to seek congressional approval for that referendum. Several opposition prefects were angered by Morales' proposal, and launched protests and blockades, which turned violent in mid-September. On October 20, 2008, after multiparty negotiations on the draft constitution's text, the Bolivian Congress approved legislation convoking a constitutional referendum to be held on January 25, 2009. U.S.-Bolivian relations have been strained by the Morales government's drug policy and its increasing ties with Venezuela."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2008-11-14
• Brazil-U.S. Relations [Updated October 6, 2008]

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  "This [CRS] report, which will be updated periodically, analyzes Brazil's political, economic, and social conditions, and how those conditions affect its role in the region and its relationship with the United States. [...] On January 1, 2007, Luis Inácio 'Lula' da Silva, of the leftist Workers Party (PT), was inaugurated for a second four-year term as President of Brazil. Lula was re-elected in the second round of voting with fairly broad popular support. His immediate tasks were to boost Brazil's lagging economic growth and address the issues of crime and violence. Despite President Lula's personal popularity, many predicted that intra-party rivalries within his fragile governing coalition would make it hard for him to push his agenda through Brazil's notoriously fractured legislature."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Seelke, Clare Ribando

  2008-10-06