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• Liability and Compensation Issues Raised by the 2010 Gulf Oil Spill [March 11, 2011]

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  From the Document: "The 2010 Deepwater Horizon incident produced the largest oil spill that has occurred in U.S. waters, releasing more than 200 million gallons into the Gulf of Mexico. BP has estimated the combined oil spill costs--cleanup activities, natural resource and economic damages, potential Clean Water Act (CWA) penalties, and other obligations--will be approximately $41 billion. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill raised many issues for policymakers, including the ability of the existing oil spill liability and compensation framework to respond to a catastrophic spill. This framework determines (1) who is responsible for paying for oil spill cleanup costs and the economic and natural resource damages from an oil spill; (2) how these costs and damages are defined (i.e., what is covered?); and (3) the degree to which, and conditions in which, the costs and damages are limited and/or shared by other parties, including general taxpayers. The existing framework includes a combination of elements that distribute the costs of an oil spill between the responsible party (or parties) and the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF), which is largely financed through a per-barrel tax on domestic and imported oil. Responsible parties are liable up to their liability caps (if applicable); the trust fund covers costs above liability limits up to a per-incident cap of $1 billion."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2011-03-11
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Highlighted Actions and Issues [September 13, 2010]

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  "This report highlights actions taken and issues raised as a result of the April 20, 2010, explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig, and the resulting oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Readers can access a more extensive discussion in CRS Report R41262, Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Selected Issues for Congress. Congressional responses to the oil spill include at least 32 hearings in 10 committees in the House of Representatives and at least 27 hearings in 8 committees in the Senate. Members have introduced over 150 legislative proposals that would affect policies related to oil spills. As of the date of this report, one bill has been enacted into law (P.L. 111-191), which allows the Coast Guard to advance additional funds from the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund for response efforts. Executive branch actions involve multiple agencies working within the framework of the National Contingency Plan. For example, the U.S. Coast Guard plays a key role in response efforts, because the spill occurred in the coastal zone. In addition, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement (BOEMRE), formerly known as the Minerals Management Service (MMS), has initiated an internal review of agency regulatory parameters for safety inspections of deepwater rigs and platforms."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Hagerty, Curry L.

  2010-09-13
• Methane Capture: Options for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction [September 17, 2009]

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  "Research on climate change has identified a wide array of sources that emit greenhouse gases (GHGs). Among the six gases that have generally been the primary focus of concern, methane is the second-most abundant, accounting for approximately 8% of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2007. Methane is emitted from a number of sources. The most significant are agriculture (both animal digestive systems and manure management); landfills; oil and gas production, refining, and distribution; and coal mining. As Congress considers legislation to address climate change by capping or reducing GHG emissions, methane capture projects offer an array of possible reduction opportunities, many of which utilize proven technologies. Methane capture projects (e.g., landfill gas projects, anaerobic digestion systems) restrict the release of methane into the atmosphere. The methane captured can be used for energy or flared. Methane capture challenges differ depending on the source. Most methane capture technologies face obstacles to implementation, including marginal economics in many cases, restricted pipeline access, and various legal issues.[...]This report discusses legislative alternatives for addressing methane capture, sources of methane, opportunities and challenges for methane capture, and current federal programs that support methane recovery."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .

  2009-09-17
• Environmental Activities of the U.S. Coast Guard [May 7, 2009]

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  "The U.S. Coast Guard's (USCG's) environmental activities focus on prevention programs, accompanied by enforcement and educational activities. An important component is maritime oil spill prevention, which includes inspection of U.S. and foreign-flagged ships to ensure compliance with U.S. laws and international agreements. As required by the Oil Pollution Act and the Superfund law, the USCG's pollution preparedness and response activities aim to reduce the impact of oil and hazardous substances spills. USCG's National Pollution Funds Center manages the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, paying certain spill-related costs and certifying that vessels show evidence of financial responsibility. Another prevention effort, minimizing marine debris, addresses commercial items (e.g., lost nets and fishing lines), as well as trash from recreational fishing and boating (e.g., beverage cans, bottles, and pieces of foam plastic). The Administration estimates that the marine environmental protection mission will receive $339 million in FY2009, a decrease of approximately $12 million from the enacted amount estimated for FY2008."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2009-05-07
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: The Fate of the Oil [January 5, 2011]

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  "The April 20, 2010, explosion of the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig led to the largest oil spill in U.S. waters. Federal government officials estimated that the deepwater well ultimately released (over 84 days) over 200 million gallons (or 4.9 million barrels) of crude oil. Although decreasing amounts of oil were observed on the ocean surface following the well's containment on July 15, 2010, oil spill response officials and researchers have found oil in other places. A pressing question that has been raised by many stakeholders is where did the oil go? On August 4, 2010, the federal government released an estimate of the oil spill budget for the Deepwater Horizon incident. On November 23, 2010, the federal government released a peerreviewed 'Technical Document' that further explained how the estimates were derived, and in some cases, modified the initial estimates. The oil budget estimates divide the released oil into seven categories, accounting for the following percentages of the total oil released."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2011-01-05
• Environmental Activities of the U.S. Coast Guard [August 18, 2011]

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  "The U.S. Coast Guard's environmental activities focus on prevention programs, accompanied by enforcement and educational activities. A key component of the Coast Guard's environmental activities involves maritime oil spill prevention. As required by several environmental statutes, including the Clean Water Act and the Oil Pollution Act, the Coast Guard's pollution preparedness and response activities aim to reduce the impact of oil and hazardous substances spills. Related to this duty, the Coast Guard inspects U.S. and foreign-flagged ships to ensure compliance with U.S. laws and international agreements. In addition, the Coast Guard's National Pollution Funds Center (NPFC) manages the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF), which is primarily used to finance prompt responses to oil spills and to reimburse parties for applicable costs associated with oil spills (e.g., cleanup costs, natural resource damages, economic losses). The Coast Guard's approach to marine debris (e.g., discarded fishing lines or nets) is preventive, promoting compliance by boarding and inspecting vessels, and working with local port agencies to ensure there are facilities to receive garbage from vessels. With other agencies, the Coast Guard monitors and measures marine debris. The Coast Guard has a history of scientific study dating back to the 1880s, but its current role is that of a facilitator, supporting the scientific efforts of other groups. The Coast Guard operates three icebreakers in the Arctic and Antarctic, and provides supplies to remote stations. Coast Guard operations must comply with applicable environmental laws. Requirements include air emission standards and waste management."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2011-08-18
• Environmental Activities of the U.S. Coast Guard [May 22, 2008]

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  "The U.S. Coast Guard's (USCG's) environmental activities focus on prevention programs, accompanied by enforcement and educational activities. An important component is maritime oil spill prevention, which includes inspection of U.S. and foreign-flagged ships to ensure compliance with U.S. laws and international agreements. As required by the Oil Pollution Act and the Superfund law, the USCG's pollution preparedness and response activities aim to reduce the impact of oil and hazardous substances spills. USCG's National Pollution Funds Center manages the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, paying certain spill-related costs and certifying that vessels show evidence of financial responsibility. Another prevention effort, minimizing marine debris, addresses commercial items (e.g., lost nets and fishing lines), as well as trash from recreational fishing and boating (e.g., beverage cans, bottles, and pieces of foam plastic). The Administration estimates that the marine environmental protection mission will receive $339 million in FY2009, a decrease of approximately $12 million from the enacted amount estimated for FY2008."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2008-05-22
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Selected Issues for Congress [July 31, 2010]

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  "On April 20, 2010, an explosion and fire occurred on the 'Deepwater Horizon' drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico. This resulted in 11 worker fatalities, a massive oil release, and a national response effort in the Gulf of Mexico region by the federal and state governments as well as BP. Based on estimates from the Flow Rate Technical Group, which is led by the U.S. Geological Survey, the 2010 'Deepwater Horizon' spill is the largest oil spill in U.S. waters. The oil spill damaged natural resources, causing some regional economic impacts. In addition, questions have been raised as to whether offshore regulation of oil exploration has kept pace with the increasingly complex technologies needed to explore and develop deeper waters. […] Several issues are developing for Congress as a result of the 'Deepwater Horizon' incident. Questions include: What lessons should be drawn from the incident? What technological and regulatory changes may be needed to meet risks peculiar to drilling in deeper water? How should Congress distribute costs associated with a catastrophic oil spill? What interventions, if any, may be necessary to ensure recovery of Gulf resources and amenities? What does the 'Deepwater Horizon' incident imply for national energy policy, and the trade-offs between energy needs, risks of deepwater drilling, and protection of natural resources and amenities? This report provides an overview of selected issues related to the 'Deepwater Horizon' incident and is not intended to be comprehensive. This report will not be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hagerty, Curry L.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2010-07-31
• Carbon Tax: Deficit Reduction and Other Considerations [September 17, 2012]

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  "The federal budget deficit has exceeded $1 trillion annually in each fiscal year since 2009, and deficits are projected to continue. Over time, unsustainable deficits can lead to reduced savings for investment, higher interest rates, and higher levels of inflation. Restoring fiscal balance would require spending reductions, revenue increases, or some combination of the two. Policymakers have considered a number of options for raising additional federal revenues, including a carbon tax. A carbon tax could apply directly to carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or to the inputs (e.g., fossil fuels) that lead to the emissions. Unlike a tax on the energy content of each fuel (e.g., Btu tax), a carbon tax would vary with a fuel's carbon content, as there is a direct correlation between a fuel's carbon content and its CO2 emissions. Carbon taxes have been proposed for many years by economists and some Members of Congress, including in the 112th Congress. If Congress were to establish a carbon tax, policymakers would face several implementation decisions, including the point and rate of taxation. Although the point of taxation does not necessarily reveal who bears the cost of the tax, this decision involves trade-offs, such as comprehensiveness versus administrative complexity."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Leggett, Jane A.; Sherlock, Molly F.

  2012-09-17
• Controlling Air Emissions from Outer Continental Shelf Sources: A Comparison of Two Programs-EPA and DOI [November 26, 2012]

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  "The same group of air pollutant emissions from outer continental shelf (OCS) operations are subject to different regulatory programs, depending on the location of the operation. The Department of the Interior (DOI) has jurisdiction over OCS sources in federal waters in the western Gulf of Mexico and most of the central Gulf. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012 (P.L. 112-74), transferred air emission authority in the OCS off Alaska's north coast from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to DOI. EPA has jurisdiction over sources in all other federal waters. Congress established the programs through different statutes, and the two agencies implement the programs through separate regulations. Pursuant to the underlying statutes, the regulations have different scopes, emission thresholds for eligibility, and compliance obligations. Therefore, two identical operations, located in separate jurisdictions, could face considerably different requirements and procedural time frames. Some may criticize this arrangement for its inconsistent treatment of air emissions. Others may point out that the differences create inconsistent opportunities for oil and gas development."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2012-11-26
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Recent Activities and Ongoing Developments [January 31, 2013]

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  "In the wake of the explosion of the 'Deepwater Horizon' offshore drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010, the federal government, state governments, and responsible parties faced an unprecedented challenge. An oil discharge continued for 84 days, resulting in the largest oil spill in U.S. waters--estimated at approximately 206 million gallons (4.9 million barrels). Response activities, led by the U.S. Coast Guard, continue but have diminished substantially. 1. At the height of operations (summer of 2010), response personnel numbered over 47,000; as of January 2013, that figure has dropped to about 935. 2. As of January 2013, approximately 404 miles of shoreline, which includes beaches, marsh, and other areas, remain oiled to some degree. 3. As a responsible party, BP has spent over $14 billion in cleanup operations. To date, BP has paid over $10 billion to the federal government, state and local governments, and private parties for economic claims and other expenses, including response costs, related to the oil spill. BP estimates that a recently approved settlement will lead to an additional $7.8 billion in payments to private parties. […] In 2011, the Secretary of the Department of the Interior (DOI) redefined the responsibilities previously performed by the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and reassigned the functions of the offshore energy program among three separate organizations: the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE), and the Office of Natural Resources Revenue (ONRR). These agencies have promulgated several rulemaking changes, some of which are based on issues raised by the 'Deepwater Horizon' spill."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Hagerty, Curry L.

  2013-01-31
• Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico: CRS Experts [May 13, 2011]

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  "The following table provides access to names and contact information for CRS [Congressional Research Service] experts on policy concerns relating to oil spills."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2011-05-13
• Oil Spills in U.S. Coastal Waters: Background and Governance

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  "The impacts of an oil spill depend on the size of the spill, the rate of the spill, the type of oil spilled, and the location of the spill. Depending on timing and location, even a relatively minor spill can cause significant harm to individual organisms and entire populations. Oil spills can cause impacts over a range of time scales, from days to years, or even decades for certain spills. On April 20, 2010, an explosion occurred at the Deepwater Horizon drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico, resulting in 11 fatalities. The incident led to a significant release of oil: according to the federal government's estimate, the well released approximately 206 million gallons of oil before it was contained on July 15. The 2010 Gulf oil spill has generated considerable interest in oil spill governance issues. This report provides background information regarding oil spills in U.S. coastal waters and identifies the legal authorities governing oil spill prevention, response, and cleanup. Based on data between 1973 and 2007, the annual number and volume of oil spills have shown declines-- in some cases, dramatic declines. The 1989 Exxon Valdez spill in Alaskan waters played a large role in stimulating actions that contributed to this trend, particularly the decrease in the annual spill volumes."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2010-09-02
• Climate Change Legislation in the 110th Congress [Updated January 7, 2008]

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  "Congressional interest in climate change legislation has grown in recent years. In the 110th Congress, Members have introduced numerous bills that directly address various aspects of climate change. These bills cover a wide spectrum, ranging from climate change research to comprehensive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions cap-and-trade programs. Additional bills focus on GHG reporting or registration, or on power plant emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) as part of wider controls on pollutant emissions. […].Within several broad categories, climate change legislation varies in its approach to climate change issues. For example, some bills covering research issues focus solely on modeling the effects of future climate change, whereas others address the development of monitoring systems. Bills focusing on technology deployment do so through tax incentives and credit-based programs within the United States or by promoting technology deployment in developing countries. Bills that include GHG registries are designed either as a part of a larger reduction bill or as a method for establishing a baseline for some future reduction program. Bills with mandatory emission reductions differ by the entities covered, the gases limited, and the emission targets required. This report briefly discusses the basic concepts on which these bills are based, and compares major provisions of the bills in each of the following categories: climate change research; emissions reduction technologies; U.S. actions pursuant to international emission reduction agreements; adaptation to the effects of climate change; GHG reporting and registration; and GHG emissions reduction programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2008-01-07
• 'Deepwater Horizon' Oil Spill: Highlighted Activities [February 23, 2012]

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  "Members in the 112th Congress continue to express concerns regarding various oil spill-related policy matters. However, oil spill-related legislative activity in the 112th Congress has diminished compared to the 111th Congress. The House passed H.R. 3408 (the PIONEERS Act) on February 15, 2012; the act would create a Gulf Coast Restoration Trust Fund in the U.S. Treasury, financed by 80% of any Deepwater Horizon-related penalties, settlements, and fines under Clean Water Act (CWA) Section 311. The Trust Fund would be used to 'restore the ecosystems and economy of the Gulf Coast region. Unlike similar legislative proposals (e.g., S. 1400, which the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works reported on December 11, 2011), the monies in the Trust Fund would not be immediately available, but would require further congressional action to appropriate the funds. [...] In addition, the House has passed several bills intended to encourage oil and gas development on the OCS [Outer Continental Shelf]. The Senate has not reported analogous legislation. In 2011 the Secretary of the Department of the Interior (DOI) initiated a series of reforms aimed at replacing the former regulatory agency, the Minerals Management Service (MMS). Secretary Salazar redefined the responsibilities previously performed by MMS and reassigned the functions of the offshore energy program among three separate organizations: the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE), and the Office of Natural Resources Revenue (ONRR). BOEM and BSEE are charged with managing procedures for leases and operations, ONRR for revenue management."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2012-02-23
• Climate Change Legislation in the 110th Congress [Updated June 29, 2007]

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  "Congressional interest in climate change legislation has grown in recent years. In the 110th Congress, Members have introduced multiple bills that directly address various aspects of climate change. These bills cover a wide spectrum, ranging from climate change research to comprehensive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions cap-and-trade programs. Additional bills focus on GHG reporting or registration, or on power plant emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) as part of wider controls on pollutant emissions. This report briefly discusses the basic concepts on which these bills are based, and compares major provisions of the bills in each of the following categories: climate change research; emissions reduction technologies; U.S. actions pursuant to international emission reduction agreements; adaptation to the effects of climate change; GHG reporting and registration; and GHG emissions reduction programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2007-06-29
• Greenhouse Gas Reductions: California Action and the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative [April 13, 2007]

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  "In the absence of a federal program requiring greenhouse gas reductions, a growing group of U.S. states are taking action in this arena. Significant actions have been undertaken in California and by a coalition of states from the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions. California has undertaken several initiatives that seek to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 2004, the state issued regulations to reduce greenhouse gases from motor vehicles. Eleven other states have formally adopted California's new vehicle requirements. In 2006, California passed two climate change statutes. The first would establish a statewide cap on greenhouse gases. The second would effectively limit the use of coal-generated electricity in California. The state has also taken action to reduce the carbon intensity in its transportation fuels. The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), a partnership of eight Northeast and Mid-Atlantic states, would set up a cap-and-trade system aimed at limiting carbon dioxide emissions from power plants. The cap is scheduled to take effect in January 2009 and cap carbon dioxide emissions at 121 million metric tons through the end of 2014. In 2015, the cap would begin to decrease, so that by 2018, emissions would be capped at 10% below the initial level. Because some observers see RGGI as a possible model for a federal cap-and-trade program, several of RGGI's design elements are generating interest and debate."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2007-04-13
• Climate Change Legislation in the 110th Congress [Updated October 4, 2007]

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  "Congressional interest in climate change legislation has grown in recent years. In the 110th Congress, Members have introduced multiple bills that directly address various aspects of climate change. These bills cover a wide spectrum, ranging from climate change research to comprehensive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions cap-and-trade programs. Additional bills focus on GHG reporting or registration, or on power plant emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) as part of wider controls on pollutant emissions. Within several broad categories, the bills vary in their approaches to climate change issues. For example, some bills covering research issues focus solely on modeling the effects of future climate change, whereas others address the development of monitoring systems. Bills focusing on technology deployment do so through tax incentives and credit-based programs within the United States or by promoting technology deployment in developing countries. Bills that include GHG registries are designed either as a part of a larger reduction bill or as a method for establishing a baseline for some future reduction program. Bills with mandatory emission reductions differ by the entities covered, the gases limited, and the emission targets required. This report briefly discusses the basic concepts on which these bills are based, and compares major provisions of the bills in each of the following categories: climate change research; emissions reduction technologies; U.S. actions pursuant to international emission reduction agreements; adaptation to the effects of climate change; GHG reporting and registration; and GHG emissions reduction programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Yacobucci, Brent D.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2007-10-04
• Environmental Activities of the U.S. Coast Guard [May 24, 2006]

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  "The U.S. Coast Guard's (USCG's) environmental activities focus on prevention programs, accompanied by enforcement and educational activities. An important component is maritime oil spill prevention. Inspection of U.S. and foreign-flagged ships is carried out on both a random and targeted basis, to ensure compliance with U.S. laws and international agreements aimed at preventing oil spills and other marine pollution. Another prevention effort, minimizing marine debris, addresses commercial items like lost nets and fishing lines, as well as trash from recreational fishing and boating, such as beverage cans and bottles and pieces of foam plastic. As required by the Oil Pollution Act and the Superfund law, the USCG's pollution preparedness and response activities aim to reduce the impact of oil and hazardous substances spills. USCG's National Pollution Funds Center manages the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, paying certain spill-related costs and certifying that vessels show evidence of financial responsibility. The environmental compliance and restoration activity seeks to ensure USCG compliance with environmental laws. The FY2007 budget request for marine environmental protection is $332 million, a decrease of $55 million from FY2006 enacted level, and representing 3.9% of the USCG's total budget. This report will be updated as warranted."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Reisch, Mark; Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2006-05-24
• Superfund: Overview and Selected Issues [May 17, 2006]

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  "Superfund is the federal government's principal program for cleaning up the nation's contaminated waste sites and protecting public health and the environment from releases of hazardous substances. Enacted into law as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, P.L. 96-510), the program became known as Superfund because Congress established a large trust fund -- originally supported by taxes levied on specific petroleum products and chemicals -- to provide the majority of the program's funding needs. Although the 25-year-old program has seen less attention compared with earlier years, Superfund issues continue to generate debate. This report provides a background and overview of the Superfund program and examines four topics that have recently received interest. The first issue concerns Superfund program funding: who should pay for the program, general taxpayers or a dedicated tax on industry? The program was originally funded by a tax on industry that expired at the end of 1995. Without dedicated taxes, and with a relatively small balance in the trust fund, Congress has been using general revenues for a larger percentage of cleanup funds. Members of Congress have introduced bills to reinstate the taxes in recent years, but such efforts have lacked the necessary support. […] The fourth issue concerns Superfund's role at animal feeding operations. Stakeholders argue about whether these operations should be required to report ammonia air emissions, primarily resulting from animal waste, as hazardous substance releases. Another question concerns the responsibility for releases of animal waste that reach water bodies. Members sought to add language in the FY2006 agriculture appropriations bill that would have exempted manure from release provisions under Superfund. That effort failed, but similar language has been recently proposed in legislation. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Reisch, Mark

  2006-05-17
• Environmental Activities of the U.S. Coast Guard [January 28, 2008]

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  "The U.S. Coast Guard's (USCG's) environmental activities focus on prevention programs, accompanied by enforcement and educational activities. An important component is maritime oil spill prevention, which includes inspection of U.S. and foreign-flagged ships to ensure compliance with U.S. laws and international agreements. As required by the Oil Pollution Act and the Superfund law, the USCG's pollution preparedness and response activities aim to reduce the impact of oil and hazardous substances spills. USCG's National Pollution Funds Center manages the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, paying certain spill-related costs and certifying that vessels show evidence of financial responsibility. Another prevention effort, minimizing marine debris, addresses commercial items (e.g., lost nets and fishing lines), as well as trash from recreational fishing and boating (e.g., beverage cans, bottles, and pieces of foam plastic). The Administration estimates that the marine environmental protection mission will receive $372 million in FY2008, an increase of $31 million from the enacted amount estimated for FY2007."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Reisch, Mark

  2008-01-28
• State Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Comparison and Analysis [December 5, 2007]

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  "Instituting policies to manage or reduce GHGs would likely impact different states differently. Understanding these differences may provide for a more informed debate regarding potential policy approaches. However, multiple factors play a role in determining impacts, including alternative design elements of a GHG emissions reduction program, the availability and relative cost of mitigation options, and the regulated entities' abilities to pass compliance costs on to consumers. Three primary variables drive a state's human-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emission levels: population, per capita income, and the GHG emissions intensity. GHG emissions intensity is a performance measure. In this report, GHG intensity is a measure of GHG emissions from sources within a state compared with a state's economic output (gross state product, GSP). The GHG emissions intensity driver stands apart as the main target for climate change mitigation policy, because public policy generally considers population and income growth to be socially positive."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2007-12-05
• Voluntary Carbon Offsets: Overview and Assessment [November 7, 2007]

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  "Businesses and individuals are buying carbon offsets to reduce their 'carbon footprint' or to categorize an activity as 'carbon neutral.' A carbon offset is a measurable avoidance, reduction, or sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) or other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Offsets generally fall within the following four categories: biological sequestration, renewable energy, energy efficiency, and reduction of non-CO2 emissions. In terms of the carbon concentration in the atmosphere, an emission reduction, avoidance, or sequestration is beneficial regardless of where or how it occurs. A credible offset equates to an emission reduction from a direct emission source, such as a smokestack or exhaust pipe. The core issue for carbon offset projects is: do they actually offset emissions generated elsewhere? If the credibility of the voluntary offsets is uncertain, claims of carbon neutrality may be challenged. […] The viability of the voluntary offset market may influence future policy decisions regarding climate change mitigation. For example, credible offsets could play an important role, particularly in terms of cost-effectiveness, in an emissions control regime. There is some concern that the range in the quality of voluntary market offsets may damage the overall credibility of carbon offsets. If this occurs, it may affect policy decisions concerning whether or not to include offsets as an option in a mandatory reduction program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2007-11-07
• Environmental Activities of the U.S. Coast Guard [August 31, 2007]

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  "The U.S. Coast Guard's (USCG's) environmental activities focus on prevention programs, accompanied by enforcement and educational activities. An important component is maritime oil spill prevention, which includes inspection of U.S. and foreign-flagged ships to ensure compliance with U.S. laws and international agreements. As required by the Oil Pollution Act and the Superfund law, the USCG's pollution preparedness and response activities aim to reduce the impact of oil and hazardous substances spills. USCG's National Pollution Funds Center manages the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, paying certain spill-related costs and certifying that vessels show evidence of financial responsibility. Another prevention effort, minimizing marine debris, addresses commercial items (e.g., lost nets and fishing lines), as well as trash from recreational fishing and boating (e.g., beverage cans, bottles, and pieces of foam plastic). The Administration's FY2008 budget proposal estimates that the marine environmental protection mission would receive $332 million, an increase of $31 million from the enacted amount estimated for FY2007."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Reisch, Mark

  2007-08-31
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: The Fate of the Oil [December 16, 2010]

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  "The April 20, 2010, explosion of the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig led to the largest oil spill in U.S. waters. Federal government officials estimated that the deepwater well ultimately released (over 84 days) over 200 million gallons (or 4.9 million barrels) of crude oil. Although decreasing amounts of oil were observed on the ocean surface following the well's containment on July 15, 2010, oil spill response officials and researchers have found oil in other places. A pressing question that has been raised by many stakeholders is where did the oil go? [...] Direct observation and measurement of the fate of the vast majority of the estimated 200 million gallons of oil presents a considerable challenge. In some cases, the estimates used to calculate these percentages contain considerable uncertainty. Even assuming that approximately half of the oil has been removed from the Gulf ecosystem through direct recovery, burning, skimming, or evaporation, the fate of the remaining ('other') oil is unknown. A complete and definitive answer to the question of the remaining oil is unknown at this juncture. It is debatable whether the fate of the remaining oil will ever be established conclusively, because multiple challenges hinder this objective: the complexity of the Gulf system; resources required to collect data; and varied interpretations over the results and observations. Moreover, as time progresses, determining the fate of the oil will likely become more difficult. Regardless, the question of oil fate will likely be answered through an incremental process. [...] If policymakers have the perception that the oil has degraded with minimal impacts to the environment, attention to the oil spill's consequences and associated impacts may wane. On the other hand, a perception that a substantial volume of oil remains and poses a threat to the environment could result in continuing pressure on Gulf industries and livelihoods."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2010-12-16
• CRS Issue Statement on Environmental Cleanup and Waste Management [June 11, 2010]

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  From the Document: "Although environmental cleanup and waste management policies have a common goal - to reduce risk to human health and the environment - they raise distinct policy questions that are generally addressed with different policy approaches. For instance, environmental cleanup issues generally require reactive public policies that seek to address an existing problem: environmental contamination. Waste management issues, on the other hand, typically deal with current waste materials, and thus involve proactive policies, initiated to prevent environmental damages."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2010-06-11
• Carbon Tax and Greenhouse Gas Control: Options and Considerations for Congress [February 23, 2009]

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  "This report begins with an overview of the fundamental choices involved between a cost (tax) and a quantity (cap) control instrument. This includes a discussion of policy tools that could be employed to bridge the gap between a carbon tax and a cap-and-trade program. Following this overview, the report analyzes the potential advantages and disadvantages of a carbon tax. In many cases, carbon tax attributes are compared with those of a cap-and-trade program. The next section discusses implementation issues for a carbon tax, including where to apply the tax, at what level to set the tax, and options for distributing the tax revenues. The final section provides conclusions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Parker, Larry, 1954-

  2009-02-23
• Climate Change: Action by States to Address Greenhouse Gas Emissions [December 4, 2008]

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  "In the absence of a federal climate change program, a number of states have taken actions that directly address greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. States' efforts cover a wide range of policies. Although much of the early activity was largely symbolic, the more recent state actions have been more aggressive. Twenty-three states have joined one of the three regional partnerships that would require GHG (or just carbon dioxide) emission reductions. Set to take effect in 2009, the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) is a partnership of 10 Northeast and Mid-Atlantic states that creates a cap-and-trade system aimed at limiting carbon dioxide emissions from power plants. Seven western states (and four Canadian provinces) have formed the Western Climate Initiative, which set an economy-wide GHG emissions target of 15% below 2005 levels by 2020. In addition, six states (and one Canadian province) signed the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord, which aims to establish a multi-sector, GHG cap-and-trade program in the Midwest. The latter two programs are still in the early development stages; RGGI is on schedule for 2009, and participating states have already held one emission allowance auction. California has addressed GHG emissions on several fronts. To complement its statewide emissions reduction regime, California established GHG performance standards that would effectively limit the use of coal-generated electricity in California. In 2004, California issued regulations to reduce greenhouse gases from motor vehicles. At least 16 other states have indicated they intend to follow California's new vehicle requirements. In addition, the state has also taken action to reduce the carbon intensity in its transportation fuels"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2008-12-04
• Climate Change: Action by States to Address Greenhouse Gas Emissions [January 18, 2007]

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  "In the absence of a federal climate change program, a number of states have taken actions that directly address greenhouse gases. States' efforts cover a wide range of policies, from outlining possible strategies to setting mandatory greenhouse gas emission standards. Although much of the early activity was largely symbolic, the more recent state actions have been more pragmatic. The states' motivations may be as diverse as the actions themselves. Some states are motivated by projections of climatic changes, while others view their policies as economic opportunities. States also point to the potential co-benefits of reducing greenhouse gases: improvements in air quality, traffic congestion, and energy security. Another driver behind state action is the possibility of catalyzing federal legislation. Most of the states have shown at least a basic interest in climate change issues. Forty-two states have conducted greenhouse gas inventories; 30 states have either completed or are in the process of preparing climate change action plans; 12 states have set statewide greenhouse gas targets. However, only a small number of states have implemented or are creating mandatory emission reduction programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2007-01-18
• Potential Implications of a Carbon Offset Program to Farmers and Landowners [ February 26, 2010]

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  "Congress is currently debating climate legislation which could affect the U.S. agriculture and forestry sectors. In June 2009, the House passed H.R. 2454, the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009. In November 2009, the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works completed markup of S. 1733, the Clean Energy Jobs and American Power Act, by approving a 'Manager's Amendment' as a substitute, and ordered S. 1733 reported. Both the House-passed and the Senate-reported bills would establish cap-and-trade systems to regulate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as well as address energy efficiency, renewable energy, and other energy topics. Both bills would require major reductions in GHG emissions from entities comprising roughly 85% of current U.S. GHG emissions. Covered sectors would include electricity production, natural gas distribution, petroleum refining, and specific industrial sectors. These and related bills and issues are currently being debated in Congress. For more detailed information see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report R40896, 'Climate Change: Comparison of the Cap-and-Trade Provisions in H.R. 2454 and S. 1733'. Numerous studies have attempted to estimate the economic effects of potential climate legislation currently being considered by Congress. These studies have examined both the economy-wide effects, as well as the effects to specific sectors, such as the U.S. agriculture and forestry sectors. Some of these studies have also examined the potential market and industry effects from the proposed climate legislation, including possible resource shifts such as land use conversions and related crop production changes. Some studies further examine the potential economy-wide market effects, such as possible changes to retail food prices and supplies. This first section of this report describes results from some of the studies and discusses limitations and uncertainties associated with the economic models and their results. The second and third sections examine two particular concerns raised by the modeling results, involving (1) lands converted from agriculture to forestry, and (2) potential unequal opportunities and costs of carbon markets in various sectors of the agricultural community. The final section provides some conclusions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Stubbs, Megan; Gorte, Ross W.; Ramseur, Jonathan L. . . .

  2010-02-26