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• Water Infrastructure Financing: The Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA) Program [Updated May 1, 2019]

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  From the Introduction: "Water infrastructure issues, particularly regarding funding, continue to receive attention from some Members of Congress and a wide array of stakeholders. Localities are primarily responsible for providing wastewater and drinking water infrastructure services. According to the most recent estimates by states and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), expected capital costs for such facilities total $744 billion over a 20-year period. 1 While some analysts and stakeholders debate whether these estimates understate or overstate capital needs, most agree that the affected communities face formidable challenges in providing adequate and reliable water infrastructure services."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Humphreys, Elena H.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary

  2019-05-01
• Water Infrastructure Financing: History of EPA Appropriations [Updated April 10, 2019]

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  From the Document: "The Clean Water Act (CWA) authorizes the principal federal program to aid municipal wastewater treatment plant construction and related eligible activities. Congress established this program in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500) (although prior versions of the act had authorized less ambitious grants assistance since 1956). Title II of P.L. 92-500 authorized grants to states for wastewater treatment plant construction under a program administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Federal funds were provided through annual appropriations under a state-by-state allocation formula contained in the act itself. [...] The first section of this report includes a table that summarizes the history of appropriations for both wastewater and drinking water infrastructure programs. The next section discusses several historical developments in water infrastructure funding. The last section contains a detailed chronology of congressional activity regarding wastewater and drinking water infrastructure funding for each fiscal year since the 1987 CWA amendments."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary

  2019-04-10
• Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund Tax: Background and Reauthorization Issues in the 116th Congress [April 3, 2019]

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  From the Document: "The Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) provides an immediate source of funds for federal responses to oil spills and compensation for certain damages. The regulatory procedures of the National Contingency Plan establish a framework for coordinating a federal response with state and local officials (40 C.F.R. Part 300). Historically, the OSLTF has been financed primarily by a per-barrel excise tax on domestic crude oil and imported petroleum products. As illustrated in Figure 1, the unappropriated balance of the trust fund increased five-fold over the last decade, largely through the accrual of receipts from the excise tax, which expired December 31, 2018. The President's FY2020 budget request proposed to reinstate the per-barrel tax. As Figure 1 indicates, if the tax were reinstated, the FY2020 end-of-year balance would increase by about $500 million."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2019-04-03
• Funding for EPA Water Infrastructure: A Fact Sheet [Updated March 6, 2019]

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  For the Department: "Federal funding to assist communities with capital projects to meet the water-related goals and requirements of federal laws has been provided through programs in the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Safe Drinking Water Act. This report provides a table showing budget requests and appropriations for the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) water infrastructure assistance programs under these two laws since 1973. The Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 (P.L. 80-845) established a grant program to assist localities with planning and design work and authorized loans for treatment plant construction. In subsequent amendments, federal assistance increased and a construction grant program replaced the loan program. In the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500, popularly known as the Clean Water Act), Congress established the first national standards for sewage treatment and significantly increased federal funding to help communities meet the law's standards."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary

  2019-03-06
• EPA's Proposed Greenhouse Gas Regulations for Existing Power Plants: Frequently Asked Questions [June 9, 2014]

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  "Taking action to address climate change by reducing U.S. emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is among President Obama's major goals. At an international conference in Copenhagen in 2009, he committed the United States to reducing emissions of greenhouse gases 17% by 2020, as compared to 2005 levels. At the time, 85 other nations also committed to reductions. […] In June 2013, the President released a Climate Action Plan that addressed this and other climate issues. At the same time, he directed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to propose standards for 'carbon pollution' (i.e., carbon dioxide, the principal GHG) from existing power plants by June of this year and to finalize them in June 2015. Under the President's timetable, by June 2016, states would be required to submit to EPA plans to implement the standards. […] This report summarizes EPA's proposal and answers many of these questions. In addition to discussing details of the proposed rule, the report addresses a number of questions regarding the reasons EPA is proposing this rule; EPA's authority under Section 111 of the CAA [Clean Air Act]; EPA's previous experience using that authority; the steps the agency must take to finalize the proposed rule; and other background questions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.; Meltz, Robert; Leggett, Jane A. . . .

  2014-06-09
• State CO2 Emission Rate Goals in EPA's Proposed Rule for Existing Power Plants [July 21, 2014]

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  "On June 18, 2014, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published a proposed rulemaking that would establish guidelines for states to use when developing plans that address carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from existing fossil fuel-fired electric generating units. The proposal creates CO2 emission rate goals--measured in pounds of CO2 emissions per megawatts-hours (MWh) of electricity generation--for each state to achieve by 2030 and an interim goal to be achieved 'on average' between 2020 and 2029. EPA estimates that if the states achieve their individual emission rate goals in 2030, the CO2 emissions from the electric power sector in the United States would be reduced by 30% compared to 2005 levels. This report discusses the methodology EPA used to establish state-specific CO2 emission rate goals that apply to states' overall electricity generation portfolio. The emission rate goals do not apply directly to individual emission sources. EPA established the emission rate goals by first determining each state's 2012 emission rate baseline, which is generally a function of each state's portfolio of electricity generation in 2012. The resulting baselines in each state vary considerably, reflecting, among other things, the different energy sources used to generate electricity in each state."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2014-07-21
• Oil and Chemical Spills: Federal Emergency Response Framework [October 10, 2013]

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  "Thousands of oil and chemical spills of varying size occur in the United States each year. State and local officials located in proximity to these incidents generally are the first responders and may elevate an incident for federal attention if greater resources are desired. The National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, often referred to as the National Contingency Plan (NCP), establishes the procedures for the federal response to oil and chemical spills. The scope of the NCP encompasses discharges of oil into or upon U.S. waters and adjoining shorelines and releases of hazardous substances into the environment. Several hundred toxic chemicals and radionuclides are designated as hazardous substances under the NCP, and other pollutants and contaminants also may fall within the scope of its response authorities. Unlike most federal emergency response plans that are administrative mechanisms, the NCP is codified in federal regulation and is binding and enforceable. The NCP was developed in 1968 and has been revised on multiple occasions to implement the federal statutory response authorities that Congress has expanded over time. […] This report discusses the statutory authorities of the NCP and relevant executive orders; outlines the federal emergency response framework of the NCP to coordinate federal, state, and local roles; and identifies the funding mechanisms to carry out a federal response to a discharge of oil or a release of a hazardous substance."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Bearden, David M.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2013-10-10
• Climate Change Legislation in the 113th Congress [September 16, 2013]

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  "In the 113th Congress, Members have introduced multiple bills that include provisions that would directly or indirectly address climate change-related issues. In some cases, it is difficult to distinguish between direct and indirect climate change bills, because a specific bill or action may seek to achieve multiple objectives. The bills listed in this report include provisions that 'directly' address climate change, as opposed to those that primarily address other issues (e.g., energy efficiency) but could have ancillary impacts on climate."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2013-09-16
• Oil Sands and the Keystone XL Pipeline: Background and Selected Environmental Issues [April 14, 2014]

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  "If constructed, the Keystone XL pipeline would transport crude oil (e.g., synthetic crude oil or diluted bitumen) derived from oil sands in Alberta, Canada to destinations in the United States. Because the pipeline crosses an international border, it requires a Presidential Permit that is issued by the Department of State (DOS). The permit decision rests on a 'national interest' determination, a term not defined in the authorizing Executive Orders. DOS states that it has 'significant discretion' in the factors it examines in this determination. [...] Although some groups have opposed previous oil pipeline permits, opposition to the Keystone XL proposal has generated substantially more interest among environmental stakeholders. Pipeline opponents are not a monolithic group: some raise concerns about potential local impacts, such as oil spills or extraction impacts in Canada; some argue the pipeline would have national energy and climate change policy implications."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Lattanzio, Richard K.; Luther, Linda G. . . .

  2014-04-14
• EPA's Proposed Greenhouse Gas Regulations for Existing Power Plants: Frequently Asked Questions [July 3, 2014]

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  "Taking action to address climate change by reducing U.S. emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is among President Obama's major goals. At an international conference in Copenhagen in 2009, he committed the United States to reducing emissions of greenhouse gases 17% by 2020, as compared to 2005 levels. At the time, 85 other nations also committed to reductions. Since U.S. GHG emissions peaked in 2007, a variety of factors--some economic, some the effect of government policies at all levels--have brought the United States more than halfway to reaching the 2020 goal. Getting the rest of the way would likely depend, to some degree, on continued GHG emission reductions from electric power plants, which are the largest source of U.S. emissions. In June 2013, the President released a Climate Action Plan that addressed this and other climate issues. At the same time, he directed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to propose standards for 'carbon pollution' (i.e., carbon dioxide, the principal GHG) from existing power plants by June 2014 and to finalize them in June 2015. Under the President's timetable, by June 2016, states would be required to submit to EPA plans to implement the standards. On June 2, 2014, EPA responded to the first of these directives by releasing the proposed standards."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.; Meltz, Robert; Leggett, Jane A. . . .

  2014-07-03
• Climate Change Legislation in the 113th Congress [March 12, 2014]

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  "In the 113th Congress, Members have introduced multiple bills that include provisions that would directly or indirectly address climate change-related issues. In some cases, it is difficult to distinguish between direct and indirect climate change bills, because a specific bill or action may seek to achieve multiple objectives. The bills listed in this report include provisions that 'directly' address climate change, as opposed to those that primarily address other issues (e.g., energy efficiency) but could have ancillary impacts on climate."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2014-03-12
• Gulf Coast Restoration: RESTORE Act and Related Efforts [January 27, 2014]

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  "The Gulf of Mexico coastal environment (Gulf Coast) stretches over approximately 600,000 square miles across five U.S. states: Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. It is home to more than 22 million people and more than 15,000 species of sea life. This environment has been degraded over time due to, among other things, altered hydrology, loss of barrier islands and coastal wetland habitat, issues associated with low water quality, and other human impacts and natural processes. Pre-existing environmental issues throughout the Gulf Coast have been affected and in some cases exacerbated by recent natural hazards and manmade catastrophes. Among other events, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita caused widespread damage to wetland and coastal areas along the Gulf. A number of federal efforts are ongoing to restore parts of the Gulf Coast, including major projects by the Army Corps of Engineers, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Environmental Protection Agency, among other federal agencies. Significant state and local efforts to restore the Gulf Coast have also been undertaken, in some cases in consultation with the federal government. The Deepwater Horizon explosion on April 20, 2010, resulted in an unprecedented discharge of oil in U.S. waters, and eventually resulted in the oiling of over 1,100 miles of shoreline. As an identified responsible party, BP is liable for response (i.e., cleanup) costs, as well as specified economic damages and natural resource damages related to the spill. As of the date of this report, oil cleanup operations continue, as well as various claims processes that seek to compensate parties for damages related to the spill."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Stern, Charles V.; Sheikh, Pervaze A.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2014-01-27
• U.S. Rail Transportation of Crude Oil: Background and Issues for Congress [February 6, 2014]

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  "The rapid expansion of North American oil production has led to significant challenges in transporting crudes efficiently and safely to domestic markets--principally refineries--using the nation's legacy pipeline infrastructure. In the face of continued uncertainty about the prospects for additional pipeline capacity, and as a quicker, more flexible alternative to new pipeline projects, North American crude oil producers are increasingly turning to rail as a means of transporting crude supplies to U.S. markets. According to rail industry officials, U.S. freight railroads are estimated to have carried more than 400,000 carloads of crude oil in 2013 (roughly equivalent to 280 million barrels), compared to 9,500 carloads in 2008. Crude imports by rail from Canada have increased more than 20-fold since 2011. While oil by rail has demonstrated benefits with respect to the efficient movement of oil from producing regions to market hubs, it has also raised significant concerns about transportation safety and potential impacts to the environment. […] Legislation introduced in Congress following the Lac Mégantic disaster would require railroads to have at least two crew members aboard all trains. In addition, policymakers are discussing regulatory changes involving tank car design, prevention of derailments, and selection of preferred routes for transporting oil by rail."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Frittelli, John; Parfomak, Paul W.; Ramseur, Jonathan L. . . .

  2014-02-06
• State CO2 Emission Rate Goals in EPA's Proposed Rule for Existing Power Plants [October 22, 2014]

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  "On June 18, 2014, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published a proposed rulemaking that would establish guidelines for states to use when developing plans that address carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from existing fossil fuel-fired electric generating units. The proposal creates CO2 emission rate goals--measured in pounds of CO2 emissions per megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity generation--for each state to achieve by 2030 and an interim goal to be achieved 'on average' between 2020 and 2029. EPA estimates that if the states achieve their individual emission rate goals in 2030, the CO2 emissions from the electric power sector in the United States would be reduced by 30% compared to 2005 levels. This report discusses the methodology EPA used to establish state-specific CO2 emission rate goals that apply to states' overall electricity generation portfolio."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2014-10-22
• Environmental Activities of the U.S. Coast Guard [August 18, 2011]

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  "The U.S. Coast Guard's environmental activities focus on prevention programs, accompanied by enforcement and educational activities. A key component of the Coast Guard's environmental activities involves maritime oil spill prevention. As required by several environmental statutes, including the Clean Water Act and the Oil Pollution Act, the Coast Guard's pollution preparedness and response activities aim to reduce the impact of oil and hazardous substances spills. Related to this duty, the Coast Guard inspects U.S. and foreign-flagged ships to ensure compliance with U.S. laws and international agreements. In addition, the Coast Guard's National Pollution Funds Center (NPFC) manages the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF), which is primarily used to finance prompt responses to oil spills and to reimburse parties for applicable costs associated with oil spills (e.g., cleanup costs, natural resource damages, economic losses). The Coast Guard's approach to marine debris (e.g., discarded fishing lines or nets) is preventive, promoting compliance by boarding and inspecting vessels, and working with local port agencies to ensure there are facilities to receive garbage from vessels. With other agencies, the Coast Guard monitors and measures marine debris. The Coast Guard has a history of scientific study dating back to the 1880s, but its current role is that of a facilitator, supporting the scientific efforts of other groups. The Coast Guard operates three icebreakers in the Arctic and Antarctic, and provides supplies to remote stations. Coast Guard operations must comply with applicable environmental laws. Requirements include air emission standards and waste management."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2011-08-18
• Controlling Air Emissions from Outer Continental Shelf Sources: A Comparison of Two Programs-EPA and DOI [November 26, 2012]

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  "The same group of air pollutant emissions from outer continental shelf (OCS) operations are subject to different regulatory programs, depending on the location of the operation. The Department of the Interior (DOI) has jurisdiction over OCS sources in federal waters in the western Gulf of Mexico and most of the central Gulf. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012 (P.L. 112-74), transferred air emission authority in the OCS off Alaska's north coast from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to DOI. EPA has jurisdiction over sources in all other federal waters. Congress established the programs through different statutes, and the two agencies implement the programs through separate regulations. Pursuant to the underlying statutes, the regulations have different scopes, emission thresholds for eligibility, and compliance obligations. Therefore, two identical operations, located in separate jurisdictions, could face considerably different requirements and procedural time frames. Some may criticize this arrangement for its inconsistent treatment of air emissions. Others may point out that the differences create inconsistent opportunities for oil and gas development."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2012-11-26
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Selected Issues for Congress [July 31, 2010]

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  "On April 20, 2010, an explosion and fire occurred on the 'Deepwater Horizon' drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico. This resulted in 11 worker fatalities, a massive oil release, and a national response effort in the Gulf of Mexico region by the federal and state governments as well as BP. Based on estimates from the Flow Rate Technical Group, which is led by the U.S. Geological Survey, the 2010 'Deepwater Horizon' spill is the largest oil spill in U.S. waters. The oil spill damaged natural resources, causing some regional economic impacts. In addition, questions have been raised as to whether offshore regulation of oil exploration has kept pace with the increasingly complex technologies needed to explore and develop deeper waters. […] Several issues are developing for Congress as a result of the 'Deepwater Horizon' incident. Questions include: What lessons should be drawn from the incident? What technological and regulatory changes may be needed to meet risks peculiar to drilling in deeper water? How should Congress distribute costs associated with a catastrophic oil spill? What interventions, if any, may be necessary to ensure recovery of Gulf resources and amenities? What does the 'Deepwater Horizon' incident imply for national energy policy, and the trade-offs between energy needs, risks of deepwater drilling, and protection of natural resources and amenities? This report provides an overview of selected issues related to the 'Deepwater Horizon' incident and is not intended to be comprehensive. This report will not be updated."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hagerty, Curry L.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2010-07-31
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Highlighted Actions and Issues [May 4, 2011]

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  "This report highlights actions taken and issues raised as a result of the April 20, 2010, explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig, and the resulting oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Readers can access more extensive discussions in various CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports, identified at the end of this report. Members in the 112th Congress continue to express concerns regarding various oil spill-related policy matters. At least three committees in both the House and the Senate have held hearings on issues associated with the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Members have introduced multiple proposals that would address various issues, including: 1) the regulatory regime for outer continental shelf (OCS) oil exploration and development activities; 2) the liability and compensation framework created by the 1990 Oil Pollution Act; 3) technological challenges involved with deepwater activities; 4) response activities (e.g., the use of chemical dispersants) and decision-making. However, some argue that, in response to the Deepwater Horizon incident, the Administration has adopted less than optimal policies toward offshore oil exploration and development. Expressing this viewpoint, some Members have offered proposals that seek to spur offshore oil exploration and development. Three such proposals (H.R. 1229, H.R. 1230, and H.R. 1231) were reported by the House Committee on Natural Resources on May 2, 2011."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hagerty, Curry L.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2011-05-04
• Market-Based Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Legislation: 108th Through 116th Congresses [Updated August 28, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Congressional interest in market-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emission control legislation has fluctuated over the past 15 years. During that time, legislation has often involved market-based approaches, such as a cap-and-trade system or a carbon tax or emissions fee program. [...] A primary policy concern with either approach is the economic impacts that may result. Expected energy price increases could have both economy-wide impacts (e.g., on the U.S. gross domestic product) and disproportionate effects on specific industries and particular demographic groups. The degree of these potential effects would depend on a number of factors, including the magnitude, design, and scope of the program and the use of tax or fee revenues or emission allowance values."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2019-09-28
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Highlighted Actions and Issues [January 28, 2011]

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  "This report highlights actions taken and issues raised as a result of the April 20, 2010, explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig, and the resulting oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Readers can access more extensive discussions in various CRS reports, identified at the end of this report. Some members of Congress and stakeholders have raised a range of issues after observing the Gulf oil spill and response efforts. Selected areas of concern that may emerge in the 112th Congress include 1) the regulatory regime for outer continental shelf (OCS) oil exploration and development activities; 2) the liability and compensation framework created by the 1990 Oil Pollution Act; 3) technological challenges involved with deepwater activities; 4) response activities (e.g., the use of chemical dispersants) and decision-making. Future congressional activity may be influenced by several factors, including conditions in the Gulf region, independent inquiries, judicial actions, and the availability of data for further study. Members of the 111th Congress raised a wide range of concerns as a result of the Gulf oil spill. The House of Representatives conducted at least 32 hearings in 10 committees; the Senate conducted at least 30 hearings in 8 committees. Members in the 111th Congress introduced more than 150 legislative proposals that would affect policies related to oil spills, enacting three of these proposals into law (P.L. 111-191, P.L. 111-212, and P.L. 111-281). These laws direct appropriations and authorizations related to oil spill activity; they do not address the key policy issues raised by the 2010 Gulf spill."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Hagerty, Curry L.

  2011-01-28
• Oil Spill Legislation in the 112th Congress [March 11, 2011]

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  "The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico continues to generate interest in a variety of oil spill-related issues. This report summarizes key provisions of selected legislative proposals in the 112th Congress that address oil spill-related policy issues, many of which were raised after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon incident. This report focuses primarily on oil spill policy matters that concern prevention, preparedness, response, liability and compensation, and Gulf restoration. For the most part, the underlying statutes for these provisions are found in either the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA, P.L. 101-380; 33 U.S.C. 2701 et seq.), the Clean Water Act (CWA) and its amendments (33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.), or the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) and its amendments (43 U.S.C. § 1331 et seq.). As of the date of this report, the most comprehensive proposal is H.R. 501 (Markey). This proposal includes many of the provisions that were part of H.R. 3534 (CLEAR Act), which passed the House in the 111th Congress on July 30, 2010. In addition, H.R. 501 seeks to implement some of the recommendations offered in the final report (January 2011) from the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2011-03-11
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: The Fate of the Oil [January 5, 2011]

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  "The April 20, 2010, explosion of the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig led to the largest oil spill in U.S. waters. Federal government officials estimated that the deepwater well ultimately released (over 84 days) over 200 million gallons (or 4.9 million barrels) of crude oil. Although decreasing amounts of oil were observed on the ocean surface following the well's containment on July 15, 2010, oil spill response officials and researchers have found oil in other places. A pressing question that has been raised by many stakeholders is where did the oil go? On August 4, 2010, the federal government released an estimate of the oil spill budget for the Deepwater Horizon incident. On November 23, 2010, the federal government released a peerreviewed 'Technical Document' that further explained how the estimates were derived, and in some cases, modified the initial estimates. The oil budget estimates divide the released oil into seven categories, accounting for the following percentages of the total oil released."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2011-01-05
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: The Fate of the Oil [December 16, 2010]

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  "The April 20, 2010, explosion of the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig led to the largest oil spill in U.S. waters. Federal government officials estimated that the deepwater well ultimately released (over 84 days) over 200 million gallons (or 4.9 million barrels) of crude oil. Although decreasing amounts of oil were observed on the ocean surface following the well's containment on July 15, 2010, oil spill response officials and researchers have found oil in other places. A pressing question that has been raised by many stakeholders is where did the oil go? [...] Direct observation and measurement of the fate of the vast majority of the estimated 200 million gallons of oil presents a considerable challenge. In some cases, the estimates used to calculate these percentages contain considerable uncertainty. Even assuming that approximately half of the oil has been removed from the Gulf ecosystem through direct recovery, burning, skimming, or evaporation, the fate of the remaining ('other') oil is unknown. A complete and definitive answer to the question of the remaining oil is unknown at this juncture. It is debatable whether the fate of the remaining oil will ever be established conclusively, because multiple challenges hinder this objective: the complexity of the Gulf system; resources required to collect data; and varied interpretations over the results and observations. Moreover, as time progresses, determining the fate of the oil will likely become more difficult. Regardless, the question of oil fate will likely be answered through an incremental process. [...] If policymakers have the perception that the oil has degraded with minimal impacts to the environment, attention to the oil spill's consequences and associated impacts may wane. On the other hand, a perception that a substantial volume of oil remains and poses a threat to the environment could result in continuing pressure on Gulf industries and livelihoods."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2010-12-16
• Market-Based Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Legislation: 108th Through 116th Congresses [Updated October 23, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Congressional interest in market-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emission control legislation has fluctuated over the past 15 years. During that time, legislation has often involved market-based approaches, such as a cap-and-trade system or a carbon tax or emissions fee program. Both approaches would place a price--directly or indirectly--on GHG emissions or their inputs, namely fossil fuels. Both would increase the price of fossil fuels, and both would reduce GHG emissions to some degree. Both would allow emission sources to choose the best way to meet their emission requirements or reduce costs, potentially by using market forces to minimize national costs of emission reductions. Preference between the two approaches ultimately depends on which variable policymakers prefer to precisely control--emission levels or emission prices. A primary policy concern with either approach is the economic impacts that may result. Expected energy price increases could have both economy-wide impacts (e.g., on the U.S. gross domestic product) and disproportionate effects on specific industries and particular demographic groups. The degree of these potential effects would depend on a number of factors, including the magnitude, design, and scope of the program and the use of tax or fee revenues or emission allowance values."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2019-10-23
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Highlighted Actions and Issues [May 13, 2011]

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  "This report highlights actions taken and issues raised as a result of the April 20, 2010, explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig, and the resulting oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Readers can access more extensive discussions in various CRS reports, identified at the end of this report. Members in the 112th Congress continue to express concerns regarding various oil spill-related policy matters. At least three committees in both the House and the Senate have held hearings on issues associated with the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Members have introduced multiple proposals that would address various issues, including: 1) the regulatory regime for outer continental shelf (OCS) oil exploration and development activities; 2) the liability and compensation framework created by the 1990 Oil Pollution Act; 3) technological challenges involved with deepwater activities; 4) response activities (e.g., the use of chemical dispersants) and decision-making. However, some argue that, in response to the Deepwater Horizon incident, the Administration has adopted less than optimal policies toward offshore oil exploration and development. Expressing this viewpoint, some Members have offered proposals that seek to spur offshore oil exploration and development. In recent days, the House passed three such bills: H.R. 1230 (May 5, 2011), H.R. 1229 (May 11, 2011), and H.R. 1231 (May 12, 2011). Future congressional activity may be influenced by several factors, including conditions in the Gulf region, independent inquiries, judicial actions, and the availability of data for further study."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Hagerty, Curry L.

  2011-05-13
• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Highlighted Actions and Issues [May 11, 2011]

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  "This report highlights actions taken and issues raised as a result of the April 20, 2010, explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig, and the resulting oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Readers can access more extensive discussions in various CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports, identified at the end of this report. Members in the 112th Congress continue to express concerns regarding various oil spill-related policy matters. At least three committees in both the House and the Senate have held hearings on issues associated with the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Members have introduced multiple proposals that would address various issues, including: 1) the regulatory regime for outer continental shelf (OCS) oil exploration and development activities; 2) the liability and compensation framework created by the 1990 Oil Pollution Act; 3) technological challenges involved with deepwater activities; 4) response activities (e.g., the use of chemical dispersants) and decision-making."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Hagerty, Curry L.

  2011-05-11
• Oil Sands and the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund: The Definition of 'Oil' and Related Issues for Congress [January 22, 2015]

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  "Imports of crude oil derived from Canadian oil sands have increased substantially in recent years, and some project further increases in the future. Recent pipeline oil spills, including the 2010 Enbridge spill in Michigan and the 2013 ExxonMobil spill in Arkansas, have involved this material and have generated interest from policy makers and a variety of stakeholders. The Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) provides an immediate source of federal funding to respond to oil spills in a timely manner. Monies from the OSLTF can be used to respond to a wide variety of oil types, including oil sands-derived crude oils. The OSLTF is primarily financed by an 8-cents per-barrel tax on domestic crude oil and imported crude oil and petroleum products. In the context of the per-barrel OSLTF tax provision, a 1980 House committee report stated: 'the term crude oil does not include synthetic petroleum, e.g., shale oil, liquids from coal, tar sands, or biomass, or refined oil.' […] If Congress were to explicitly include oil sands-derived crude oils within the scope of the per-barrel OSLTF tax, the revenue supporting the OSLTF would likely increase. Over the last five fiscal years, this tax has generated, on average, $495 million per year. Based on import data of Canadian oil sands-derived crude oil, the tax would have increased by approximately $41 million in 2013, assuming the IRS was not collecting the tax for these materials in that year."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2015-01-22
• EPA's Proposed Clean Power Plan: Conversion to Mass-Based Emission Targets [March17, 2015]

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  "The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed a rule in June 2014 that would require states to address carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from existing fossil fuel-fired electric generating units. The proposal would create CO2 emission rate goals--measured in pounds of CO2 emissions per megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity generation--for each state to achieve by 2030 and an interim goal in 2029, based on the average of a state's emission rates between 2020 and 2029. EPA's proposal would allow a state to establish its emission reduction requirements by converting the interim (2029) and final (2030) emission rate targets to mass-based targets--measured in metric tons of CO2. A state might consider using a mass-based target for a variety of reasons, including the opportunity to link with existing mass-based programs or to continue existing, state emission reduction goals. In addition, this report indicates that the mass-based reduction requirements may be less stringent in some states than the emission rate requirements."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2015-03-17
• Oil Sands and the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund: The Definition of 'Oil' and Related Issues for Congress [February 3, 2016]

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  From the Summary: "Imports of crude oil derived from Canadian oil sands have increased substantially in recent years, and some project further increases in the future. Recent pipeline oil spills, including the 2010 Enbridge spill in Michigan and the 2013 ExxonMobil spill in Arkansas, have involved this material and have generated interest from policymakers and a variety of stakeholders. The Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) provides an immediate source of federal funding to respond to oil spills in a timely manner. Monies from the OSLTF can be used to respond to a wide variety of oil types, including oil-sands-derived crude oils. The OSLTF is primarily financed by an 8-cents per-barrel tax on domestic crude oil and imported crude oil and petroleum products. In the context of the per-barrel OSLTF tax provision, a 1980 House committee report stated that 'the term crude oil does not include synthetic petroleum, e.g., shale oil, liquids from coal, tar sands, or biomass, or refined oil.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Ramseur, Jonathan L.

  2016-02-03
• EPA's Clean Power Plan for Existing Power Plants: Frequently Asked Questions [January 13, 2016]

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  "Taking action to address climate change by reducing U.S. emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is among President Obama's major goals. [...] In June 2013, the President released a Climate Action Plan and directed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to propose standards for 'carbon pollution' (i.e., carbon dioxide, the principal GHG) from existing power plants by June 2014 and to finalize the standards a year later. EPA proposed the standards on June 2, 2014, and finalized them on August 3, 2015. The rule, known as the Clean Power Plan, sets individual state targets for average emissions from existing power plants-interim targets for the period 2022-2029 and final targets to be met by 2030. [...] This report summarizes the final rule and describes how EPA answered these and other questions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, James E.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Leggett, Jane A. . . .

  2016-01-13