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Oil Spills: Background and Governance [September 15, 2017]
"Oil is a dominant source of energy in the United States, accounting for approximately 37% of total energy consumption in 2016. Its use is widespread, providing fuel for the transportation, industrial, and residential sectors. Vast quantities of oil continuously enter the country via vessel or pipeline. Vast quantities continually move throughout the country to various destinations. With such widespread use and nonstop movement, it is inevitable that some number of spills will occur. This report provides background information regarding oil spills and identifies the legal authorities and processes for oil spill prevention, response, liability, and compensation. The first section highlights background issues, including oil spill statistics and potential environmental impacts. The second section discusses the legal and regulatory framework that governs oil spill prevention and response."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2017-09-15
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated February 7, 2019]
The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. Issues such as Arctic territorial disputes; commercial shipping through the Arctic; Arctic oil, gas, and mineral exploration; endangered Arctic species; and increased military operations in the Arctic could cause the region in coming years to become an arena of international cooperation or competition. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial political, economic, energy, environmental, and other interests in the region. Decisions that Congress makes on Arctic-related issues could significantly affect these interests. This report provides an overview of Arctic-related issues for Congress, and refers readers to more in-depth CRS reports on specific Arctic-related issues.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2019-02-07
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U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the Electricity Sector: Factors, Trends, and Projections [January 7, 2019]
"This report examines recent trends in CO2 emissions from electricity generation and the factors that impact emission levels in that sector. The first section provides an overview of various sources of GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions in the United States. The second section discusses CO2 emissions from the electricity sector. The third section examines projections of CO2 emissions in the electric power sector, with a particular focus on the role of the 2015 CPP [Clean Power Plan] final rule and other factors. The final section provides some concluding observations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2019-01-07
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated March 4, 2019]
From the Document: "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. Issues such as Arctic territorial disputes; commercial shipping through the Arctic; Arctic oil, gas, and mineral exploration; endangered Arctic species; and increased military operations in the Arctic could cause the region in coming years to become an arena of international cooperation or competition. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial political, economic, energy, environmental, and other interests in the region. Decisions that Congress makes on Arctic-related issues could significantly affect these interests. This report provides an overview of Arctic-related issues for Congress, and refers readers to more in-depth CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports on specific Arctic-related issues. Congressional readers with questions about an issue discussed in this report should contact the author or authors of the section discussing that issue. The authors are identified by footnote at the start of each section."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2019-03-04
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Funding for EPA Water Infrastructure: A Fact Sheet [Updated March 6, 2019]
For the Department: "Federal funding to assist communities with capital projects to meet the water-related goals and requirements of federal laws has been provided through programs in the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Safe Drinking Water Act. This report provides a table showing budget requests and appropriations for the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) water infrastructure assistance programs under these two laws since 1973. The Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 (P.L. 80-845) established a grant program to assist localities with planning and design work and authorized loans for treatment plant construction. In subsequent amendments, federal assistance increased and a construction grant program replaced the loan program. In the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500, popularly known as the Clean Water Act), Congress established the first national standards for sewage treatment and significantly increased federal funding to help communities meet the law's standards."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary
2019-03-06
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Attaching a Price to Greenhouse Gas Emissions with a Carbon Tax or Emissions Fee: Considerations and Potential Impacts [March 22, 2019]
From the Document: "The U.S. Fourth National Climate Assessment, released in 2018, concluded that 'the impacts of global climate change are already being felt in the United States and are projected to intensify in the future--but the severity of future impacts will depend largely on actions taken to reduce greenhouse gas [GHG] emissions and to adapt to the changes that will occur.' Members of Congress and stakeholders articulate a wide range of perspectives over what to do, if anything, about GHG emissions, future climate change, and related impacts. If Congress were to consider establishing a program to reduce GHG emissions, one option would be to attach a price to GHG emissions with a carbon tax or GHG emissions fee. In the 115th Congress, Members introduced nine bills to establish a carbon tax or emissions fee program. However, many Members have expressed their opposition to such an approach. In particular, in the 115th Congress, the House passed a resolution 'expressing the sense of Congress that a carbon tax would be detrimental to the United States economy.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Leggett, Jane A.
2019-03-22
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated August 2, 2019]
From the Summary: "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. Record low extents of Arctic sea ice over the past decade have focused scientific and policy attention on links to global climate change and projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. These changes have potential consequences for weather in the United States, access to mineral and biological resources in the Arctic, the economies and cultures of peoples in the region, and national security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2019-08-02
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated January 23, 2020]
From the Summary: "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. The seven other Arctic states are Canada, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark (by virtue of Greenland), and Russia. The Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984 (Title I of P.L. 98-373 of July 31, 1984) 'provide[s] for a comprehensive national policy dealing with national research needs and objectives in the Arctic.' The National Science Foundation (NSF) is the lead federal agency for implementing Arctic research policy. Key U.S. policy documents relating to the Arctic include National Security Presidential Directive 66/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 25 (NSPD 66/HSPD 25) of January 9, 2009; the 'National Strategy for the Arctic Region' of May 10, 2013; the January 30, 2014, implementation plan for the 2013 national strategy; and Executive Order 13689 of January 21, 2015, on enhancing coordination of national efforts in the Arctic. The office of the U.S. Special Representative for the Arctic has been vacant since January 20, 2017."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2020-01-23
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated November 27, 2019]
From the Introduction: "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. Issues such as Arctic territorial disputes; commercial shipping through the Arctic; Arctic oil, gas, and mineral exploration; endangered Arctic species; and increased military operations in the Arctic could cause the region in coming years to become an arena of international cooperation, tension, or competition. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial political, economic, energy, environmental, and other interests in the region. Decisions that Congress makes on Arctic-related issues could significantly affect these interests. This report provides an overview of Arctic-related issues for Congress, and refers readers to more in-depth CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports on specific Arctic-related issues. Congressional readers with questions about an issue discussed in this report should contact the author or authors of the section discussing that issue. The authors are identified by footnote at the start of each section."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2019-11-27
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated December 20, 2019]
From the Summary: "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. Record low extents of Arctic sea ice over the past decade have focused scientific and policy attention on links to global climate change and projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. These changes have potential consequences for weather in the United States, access to mineral and biological resources in the Arctic, the economies and cultures of peoples in the region, and national security. Although there is significant international cooperation on Arctic issues, the Arctic is increasingly being viewed by some observers as a potential emerging security issue. Some of the Arctic coastal states, particularly Russia, have taken actions to enhance their military presences in the high north. U.S. military forces, particularly the Navy and Coast Guard, have begun to pay more attention to the region in their planning and operations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2019-12-20
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Flood Resilience and Risk Reduction: Federal Assistance and Programs [Updated December 17, 2019]
From the Summary: "Recent flood disasters have raised congressional and public interest in reducing flood risks and improving 'flood resilience', which is the ability to adapt to, withstand, and rapidly recover from floods. Federal programs that assist communities in reducing their flood risk and improving their flood resilience include programs funding infrastructure projects (e.g., levees, shore protection) and other flood mitigation activities (e.g., nature-based flood risk reduction) and mitigation incentives for communities that participate in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Carter, Nicole T.; Horn, Diane P.; Boyd, Eugene . . .
2019-12-17
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Market-Based Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Legislation: 108th Through 116th Congresses [Updated January 29, 2020]
From the Document: "Congressional interest in market-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emission control legislation has fluctuated over the past 15 years. During that time, legislation has often involved market-based approaches, such as a cap-and-trade system or a carbon tax or emissions fee program. Both approaches would place a price--directly or indirectly--on GHG emissions or their inputs, namely fossil fuels. Both would increase the price of fossil fuels, and both would reduce GHG emissions to some degree. Both would allow emission sources to choose the best way to meet their emission requirements or reduce costs, potentially by using market forces to minimize national costs of emission reductions. Preference between the two approaches ultimately depends on which variable policymakers prefer to precisely control--emission levels or emission prices."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2020-01-29
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U.S. Rail Transportation of Crude Oil: Background and Issues for Congress [May 5, 2014]
"North America is experiencing a boom in crude oil supply, primarily due to growing production in the Canadian oil sands and the recent expansion of shale oil production from the Bakken fields in North Dakota and Montana as well as the Eagle Ford and Permian Basins in Texas. Taken together, these new supplies are fundamentally changing the U.S. oil supply-demand balance. The United States now meets 66% of its crude oil demand from production in North America, displacing imports from overseas and positioning the United States to have excess oil and refined products supplies in some regions. The rapid expansion of North American oil production has led to significant challenges in transporting crudes efficiently and safely to domestic markets--principally refineries--using the nation's legacy pipeline infrastructure. In the face of continued uncertainty about the prospects for additional pipeline capacity, and as a quicker, more flexible alternative to new pipeline projects, North American crude oil producers are increasingly turning to rail as a means of transporting crude supplies to U.S. markets. According to rail industry officials, U.S. freight railroads are estimated to have carried 434,000 carloads of crude oil in 2013 (roughly equivalent to 300 million barrels), compared to 9,500 carloads in 2008. In 2014, 650,000 carloads of crude oil are expected to be carried. Crude imports by rail from Canada have increased more than 20-fold since 2011. The amount of oil transported by rail may also be influenced by a tight market for U.S.-built tankers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Frittelli, John; Parfomak, Paul W.; Ramseur, Jonathan L. . . .
2014-05-05
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated September 23, 2019]
From the Summary: "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. Record low extents of Arctic sea ice over the past decade have focused scientific and policy attention on links to global climate change and projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. These changes have potential consequences for weather in the United States, access to mineral and biological resources in the Arctic, the economies and cultures of peoples in the region, and national security."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Leggett, Jane A.; Comay, Laura B. . . .
2019-09-23
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Water Infrastructure Financing: History of EPA Appropriations [Updated April 10, 2019]
From the Document: "The Clean Water Act (CWA) authorizes the principal federal program to aid municipal wastewater treatment plant construction and related eligible activities. Congress established this program in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500) (although prior versions of the act had authorized less ambitious grants assistance since 1956). Title II of P.L. 92-500 authorized grants to states for wastewater treatment plant construction under a program administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Federal funds were provided through annual appropriations under a state-by-state allocation formula contained in the act itself. [...] The first section of this report includes a table that summarizes the history of appropriations for both wastewater and drinking water infrastructure programs. The next section discusses several historical developments in water infrastructure funding. The last section contains a detailed chronology of congressional activity regarding wastewater and drinking water infrastructure funding for each fiscal year since the 1987 CWA amendments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary
2019-04-10
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Water Infrastructure Financing: History of EPA Appropriations [August 1, 2018]
"The Clean Water Act (CWA) authorizes the principal federal program to aid municipal wastewater treatment plant construction and related eligible activities. Congress established this program in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500) (although prior versions of the act had authorized less ambitious grants assistance since 1956). Title II of P.L. 92-500 authorized grants to states for wastewater treatment plant construction under a program administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Federal funds were provided through annual appropriations under a state-by-state allocation formula contained in the act itself. States used their allotments to make grants to cities to build or upgrade wastewater treatment plants, supporting the overall objectives of the act: restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters. The federal share of project costs, originally 75% under P.L. 92-500, was reduced to 55% in 1981."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary
2018-08-01
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Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Selected Issues for Congress [July 15, 2010]
From the Summary: "On April 20, 2010, an explosion and fire occurred on the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico. This resulted in 11 worker fatalities, a massive oil release, and a national response effort in the Gulf of Mexico region by the federal and state governments as well as BP. Based on estimates from the Flow Rate Technical Group, which is led by the U.S. Geological Survey, the 2010 Gulf spill has become the largest oil spill in U.S. waters. The oil spill has damaged natural resources and has had regional economic impacts. In addition, questions have been raised as to whether offshore regulation of oil exploration has kept pace with the increasingly complex technologies needed to explore and develop deeper waters. Crude oil has been washing into marshes and estuaries and onto beaches in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. Oil has killed wildlife, and efforts are underway to save oil-coated birds. The most immediate economic impact of the oil spill has been on the Gulf fishing industry: commercial and recreational fishing have faced extensive prohibitions within the federal waters of the Gulf exclusive economic zone. The fishing industry, including seafood processing and related wholesale and retail businesses, supports over 200,000 jobs with related economic activity of $5.5 billion. Other immediate economic impacts include a decline in tourism. On the other hand, jobs related to cleanup activities could mitigate some of the losses in the fishing and tourism industry."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Hagerty, Curry L.
2010-07-15
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Market-Based Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Legislation: 108th Through 117th Congresses [Updated May 6, 2021]
From the Introduction: "Congressional interest in GHG [greenhouse gas] emission control legislation has fluctuated over the last 20 years. A number of proposals to limit GHG emissions have focused on market-based approaches, such as a GHG emission cap-and-trade program or a GHG emissions tax (often referred to as a carbon tax) or fee. In general, a market-based approach would place a price on GHG emissions (e.g., through an emissions cap or emission tax or fee), allowing covered entities to determine their pathway of compliance. This report focuses on these types of approaches to address GHG emissions. [...] The first section of this report provides background information on cap-and-trade and carbon tax or emission fee programs. The second section compares the GHG emission reduction legislation in each Congress (108th -117th)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.
2021-05-06
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U.S. Rail Transportation of Crude Oil: Background and Issues for Congress [February 6, 2014]
"The rapid expansion of North American oil production has led to significant challenges in transporting crudes efficiently and safely to domestic markets--principally refineries--using the nation's legacy pipeline infrastructure. In the face of continued uncertainty about the prospects for additional pipeline capacity, and as a quicker, more flexible alternative to new pipeline projects, North American crude oil producers are increasingly turning to rail as a means of transporting crude supplies to U.S. markets. According to rail industry officials, U.S. freight railroads are estimated to have carried more than 400,000 carloads of crude oil in 2013 (roughly equivalent to 280 million barrels), compared to 9,500 carloads in 2008. Crude imports by rail from Canada have increased more than 20-fold since 2011. While oil by rail has demonstrated benefits with respect to the efficient movement of oil from producing regions to market hubs, it has also raised significant concerns about transportation safety and potential impacts to the environment. […] Legislation introduced in Congress following the Lac Mégantic disaster would require railroads to have at least two crew members aboard all trains. In addition, policymakers are discussing regulatory changes involving tank car design, prevention of derailments, and selection of preferred routes for transporting oil by rail."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Frittelli, John; Parfomak, Paul W.; Ramseur, Jonathan L. . . .
2014-02-06
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U.S. Rail Transportation of Crude Oil: Background and Issues for Congress [December 4, 2014]
"The United States now meets 66% of its crude oil demand from production in North America, displacing imports from overseas and positioning the United States to have excess oil and refined products supplies in some regions. The rapid expansion of North American oil production has led to significant challenges in transporting crudes efficiently and safely to domestic markets--principally refineries--using the nation's legacy pipeline infrastructure. In the face of continued uncertainty about the prospects for additional pipeline capacity, and as a quicker, more flexible alternative to new pipeline projects, North American crude oil producers are increasingly turning to rail as a means of transporting crude supplies to U.S. markets. Railroads are more willing to enter into shorter-term contracts with shippers than pipelines, offering more flexibility in a volatile oil market. […] While oil by rail has demonstrated benefits with respect to the efficient movement of oil from producing regions to market hubs, it has also raised significant concerns about transportation safety and potential impacts to the environment. The most recent data available indicate that railroads consistently spill less crude oil per ton-mile transported than other modes of land transportation. Nonetheless, safety and environmental concerns have been underscored by a series of major accidents across North America involving crude oil transportation by rail […] Legislation introduced in Congress following the Lac Mégantic disaster would require railroads to have at least two crew members aboard all trains. In addition, policy makers are proposing regulatory changes involving tank car design, prevention of derailments, and selection of preferred routes for transporting oil by rail. Congress may evaluate these changes in the reauthorization of the Rail Safety Improvement Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-432)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Frittelli, John; Andrews, Anthony; Parfomak, Paul W. . . .
2014-12-04
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Water Infrastructure Financing: The Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA) Program [April 5, 2017]
From the Summary: "In recent years, policymakers have considered several legislative options to help finance water infrastructure projects, including projects to build and upgrade wastewater and drinking water treatment systems. This report examines one particular option, a 'Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act' (WIFIA) program, which Congress included in the Water Resources Reform and Development Act of 2014 (WRRDA, P.L. 113-121)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary
2017-04-05
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Water Infrastructure Financing: The Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA) Program [September 26, 2018]
"Water infrastructure issues, regarding funding in particular, continue to receive attention from some Members of Congress and a wide array of stakeholders. Localities are primarily responsible for providing wastewater and drinking water infrastructure services. According to the most recent estimates by states and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), expected capital costs for such facilities total $744 billion over a 20-year period. While some analysts and stakeholders debate whether these estimates understate or overstate capital needs, most agree that the affected communities face formidable challenges in providing adequate and reliable water infrastructure services. Capital investments in water infrastructure are necessary to maintain high quality service that protects public health and the environment, and capital facilities are a major investment for local governments. The vast majority of public capital projects are debt-financed (i.e., they are not financed on a pay-as-you-go basis from ongoing revenues to the water utility). The principal financing tool that local governments use is the issuance of tax-exempt municipal bonds. At least 70% of U.S. water utilities rely on municipal bonds and other debt to some degree to finance capital investments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary
2018-09-26
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Water Infrastructure Financing: The Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA) Program [Updated May 1, 2019]
From the Introduction: "Water infrastructure issues, particularly regarding funding, continue to receive attention from some Members of Congress and a wide array of stakeholders. Localities are primarily responsible for providing wastewater and drinking water infrastructure services. According to the most recent estimates by states and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), expected capital costs for such facilities total $744 billion over a 20-year period. 1 While some analysts and stakeholders debate whether these estimates understate or overstate capital needs, most agree that the affected communities face formidable challenges in providing adequate and reliable water infrastructure services."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humphreys, Elena H.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary
2019-05-01
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated August 23, 2019]
From the Introduction: "The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. Issues such as Arctic territorial disputes; commercial shipping through the Arctic; Arctic oil, gas, and mineral exploration; endangered Arctic species; and increased military operations in the Arctic could cause the region in coming years to become an arena of international cooperation, tension, or competition. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial political, economic, energy, environmental, and other interests in the region. Decisions that Congress makes on Arctic-related issues could significantly affect these interests. This report provides an overview of Arctic-related issues for Congress, and refers readers to more in-depth CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports on specific Arctic-related issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2019-08-23
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EPA's Affordable Clean Energy Proposal [November 2, 2018]
"In August 2018, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed the 'Affordable Clean Energy' (ACE) rule. ACE would modify provisions for existing power plants under two major Clean Air Act (CAA) programs. Among other things, ACE would 'replace the Clean Power Plan (CPP),' a greenhouse gas (GHG) rulemaking that EPA promulgated under CAA Section 111(d) in 2015. ACE would also modify an applicability determination for New Source Review (NSR), which is a CAA preconstruction permitting program intended to ensure that new and modified stationary sources of air pollution do not significantly degrade air quality. EPA proposed ACE in response to Executive Order 13783, in which President Trump directed federal agencies to 'review existing regulations and policies that potentially burden the development or use of domestically produced energy resources.' Among the order's specific directives was that EPA review the CPP, which was one of the Obama Administration's key actions directed at reducing GHG emissions. EPA's review also led the agency to convene an 'NSR Reform Task Force' to assess opportunities to simplify the NSR application and review process. This report provides background information about the CAA and GHG emissions from the power sector and highlights some of the major components of EPA's ACE proposal. The topics discussed do not represent an exhaustive list of the proposal's elements."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shouse, Kate C.; Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tsang, Linda
2018-11-02
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Funding for EPA Water Infrastructure: A Fact Sheet [November 5, 2018]
"Federal funding to assist communities with capital projects to meet the water-related goals and requirements of federal laws has been provided through programs in the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Safe Drinking Water Act. This report provides a table showing budget requests and appropriations for the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) water infrastructure assistance programs under these two laws since 1973. The Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 (P.L. 80-845) established a grant program to assist localities with planning and design work and authorized loans for treatment plant construction. In subsequent amendments, federal assistance increased and a construction grant program replaced the loan program. In the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500, popularly known as the Clean Water Act), Congress established the first national standards for sewage treatment and significantly increased federal funding to help communities meet the law's standards"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Tiemann, Mary
2018-11-05
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Attaching a Price to Greenhouse Gas Emissions with a Carbon Tax or Emissions Fee [July 17, 2018]
"Significant debate continues about what, if any, policy initiatives may be appropriate or feasible to address greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Major scientific assessments in the United States and internationally conclude that 'it is extremely likely that human activities, especially emissions of greenhouse gases, are the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century.' Human-related GHG emissions, if continued, would tend to drive further warming, sea level rise, ocean acidification, and other impacts. Small future climate changes may bring benefits for some and adverse effects to others. Large climate changes would be increasingly adverse for a widening scope of populations and ecosystems. Many nations and subnational governments (including U.S. state and local governments) have begun to address the risks of GHG-induced climate change by enacting GHG emission abatement programs. In the United States, combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) released 76% of U.S. GHG emissions in 2016. Over 99% of the combustion emissions are carbon dioxide (CO2), the principal human-related GHG. Congressional interest in legislation that would establish a market-based approach (e.g., cap-and-trade or carbon price proposals) to address GHG emissions has fluctuated over the last decade. In the 115th Congress, Members have introduced at least eight bills that would attach a price to GHG emissions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Leggett, Jane A.
2018-07-17
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Flood-Risk Reduction and Resilience: Federal Assistance and Programs [November 13, 2017]
"Recent flood disasters have raised congressional and public interest in not only reducing flood risks, but also improving flood resilience, which is the ability to adapt to, withstand, and rapidly recover from floods. Congress has established various federal programs that may be available to assist U.S. state, local, and territorial entities and tribes in reducing flood risks. Among the most significant current federal programs assisting communities with improvements to reduce their flood risks and improve their flood resilience are (1) programs that assist with flood-risk reduction infrastructure and other flood mitigation activities, and (2) programs of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) that provide incentives to reduce flood risks."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Carter, Nicole T.; Horn, Diane P.; Brown, Jared T. . . .
2017-11-13
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Federally Supported Water Supply and Wastewater Treatment Programs [November 28, 2017]
"This report provides background information on the types of water supply and wastewater treatment projects traditionally funded by the federal government and the several existing programs to assist communities with water supply and wastewater treatment. For more than four decades, Congress has authorized and refined several programs to help communities address water supply and wastewater problems. The agencies that administer these programs differ in multiple ways. For example, in terms of funding mechanisms, projects developed by the Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers typically require direct, individual project authorizations from Congress."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Ramseur, Jonathan L.; Boyd, Eugene; Carter, Nicole T. . . .
2017-11-28
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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress [Updated December 13, 2018]
"The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region's future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. Record low extents of Arctic sea ice over the past decade have focused scientific and policy attention on links to global climate change and projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. These changes have potential consequences for weather in the United States, access to mineral and biological resources in the Arctic, the economies and cultures of peoples in the region, and national security. The five Arctic coastal states--the United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (of which Greenland is a territory)--have made or are in the process of preparing submissions to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf regarding the outer limits of their extended continental shelves. The Russian submission includes the underwater Lomonosov Ridge, a feature that spans a considerable distance across the center of the Arctic Ocean."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
O'Rourke, Ronald; Comay, Laura B.; Folger, Peter (Peter Franklin) . . .
2018-12-13
