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Turkey: Politics of Identity and Power [September 21, 2010]
"The main theme of the report is that the ongoing struggle for power in Turkey will determine the country's identity, and that will have consequences for U.S. policymakers. Turkey's secular identity has long been considered unique among majority Muslim states, as secularism was a founding principle of the modern Turkish Republic as well as the principle that has produced the most domestic political tension. The AKP [Justice and Development Party], formed in 2001, has Islamist roots but claims to be conservative and democratic. Its emergence and acquisition of power have exacerbated concerns, especially in secularist circles, about whether AKP is intent on altering Turkey's identity. Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his AKP have governed in an increasingly confident manner since a court refused to ban the party for being 'a focal point of anti-secular activities' in 2008. Already in control of the executive and legislature, they have gained influence over bastions of secularism in the judiciary and military. These developments may enable the AKP to implement a domestic agenda that is more consistent with its core identity. However, the AKP has failed to deal comprehensively with a significant domestic group's struggle for recognition of its own identity--the Kurds in a majority Turkish state. The government initiated a 'Kurdish opening,' but managed it poorly, produced unfulfilled expectations, and may have contributed to an escalation in terrorism. [...] For in-depth information on the period prior to this report, see CRS Report RL34646, 'Turkey: Update on Crisis of Identity and Power', by Carol Migdalovitz."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2010-09-21
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [Updated August 12, 2009]
"Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties, and the 111th Congress is engaged in these matters. Congress also has endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-08-12
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [Updated April 2, 2009]
This report discusses Israel's relations with the United States and highlights the recent developments in domestic politics, election results, government formation, the peace process with the Palestinians and with Iran. "After the brief war called Operation Cast Lead against Hamas in the Gaza Strip ended on January 18, 2009, security became the main issue in the final weeks of the political campaign for the February 10, 2009 Israeli national elections. Kadima Party leader and Foreign Minister Tzipi Livni, Likud Party leader Benjamin Netanyahu, commonly referred to by his nickname 'Bibi,' and Labor Party leader and Defense Minister Ehud Barak as the heads of the leading parties in the outgoing Knesset were seen as the main contestants. Polls also predicted that Yisrael Beitenu (Israel Our Home) led by Avigdor Lieberman would make a strong showing."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-04-02
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [June 9, 2009]
"After the first Gulf war, in 1991, a new peace process consisting of bilateral negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon achieved mixed results. Milestones included the Israeli-Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Declaration of Principles (DOP) of September 13, 1993, providing for Palestinian empowerment and some territorial control, the Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty of October 26, 1994, and the Interim Self-Rule in the West Bank or Oslo II accord of September 28, 1995, which led to the formation of the Palestinian Authority (PA) to govern the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, Israeli-Syrian negotiations were intermittent and difficult, and postponed indefinitely in 2000. Negotiations with Lebanon also were unsuccessful, leading Israel to withdraw unilaterally from south Lebanon on May 24, 2000. President Clinton held a summit with Israeli and Palestinian leaders at Camp David on final status issues that July, but they did not produce an accord. A Palestinian uprising or intifadah began in September. On February 6, 2001, Ariel Sharon was elected Prime Minister of Israel, and rejected steps taken at Camp David and afterwards [...] Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties, and the 111th Congress is engaged in these matters. Congress also has endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations. This CRS report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-06-09
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [March 9, 2009]
"After the first Gulf war, in 1991, a new peace process consisting of bilateral negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon achieved mixed results. Milestones included the Israeli-Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Declaration of Principles (DOP) of September 13, 1993, providing for Palestinian empowerment and some territorial control, the Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty of October 26, 1994, and the Interim Self-Rule in the West Bank or Oslo II accord of September 28, 1995, which led to the formation of the Palestinian Authority (PA) to govern the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, Israeli-Syrian negotiations were intermittent and difficult, and postponed indefinitely in 2000. Negotiations with Lebanon also were unsuccessful, leading Israel to withdraw unilaterally from south Lebanon on May 24, 2000. President Clinton held a summit with Israeli and Palestinian leaders at Camp David on final status issues that July, but they did not produce an accord. A Palestinian uprising or intifadah began in September. On February 6, 2001, Ariel Sharon was elected Prime Minister of Israel, and rejected steps taken at Camp David and afterwards [...] Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties, and the 111th Congress is engaged in these matters. Congress also has endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations. This CRS report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-03-09
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [March 7, 2009]
"Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. U.S.-Israeli bilateral relations are multidimensional. The United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process, but U.S. and Israeli views differ on some issues, such as the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and settlements. The Bush Administration and Congress supported Israel's 2006 military campaigns against Hezbollah and Hamas as acts of self-defense. Shortly after taking office in January 2009, President Obama stated that Israel is a strong ally of the United States. The United States and Israel concluded a free-trade agreement in 1985. Israel is a prominent recipient of U.S. foreign aid. The two countries also have close security relations. Other issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage-related cases. This report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-03-07
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [September 25, 2009]
"Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties, and the 111th Congress is engaged in these matters. Congress also has endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-09-25
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Greece Update [Updated August 25, 2009]
"In June 2009, the conservative New Democracy (ND) party, in power since 2004, experienced losses in the elections for the European Parliament and it is having to respond to the consequences of an economic downturn that may be prolonged. Kostas Karamanlis, who is ND's leader and Greece's Prime Minister, continues to advocate for economic reforms to enhance growth and create jobs. The government's foreign policy focuses on the European Union (EU), sometimes strained relations with Turkey, reunifying Cyprus, resolving a dispute with Macedonia over its name, other Balkan issues, and sustaining good relations with the United States. Greece has assisted with the war on terrorism, but is not a member of the U.S.-led coalition in Iraq and has a limited presence with NATO in Afghanistan."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-08-25
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Greece: Threat of Terrorism and Security at the Olympics [April 30, 2004]
"The summer 2004 Olympic Games will take place in Athens, Greece, where their
success is a point of national pride. The Greek government is planning unprecedented security measures to deal with possible terrorist threats. Attacks by Al Qaeda or its allies in Europe and elsewhere heightened the government's awareness of the potential for terrorism at the Olympics. Athens believes that it has effectively dismantled major domestic terrorist groups in recent years and is preparing mainly for external threats, although anarchists and anti-globalization groups may be disruptive as well. The Greek Ministry of Public Order is in charge of security and Greece requested assistance from NATO and others, including the United States. The U.S. Administration is taking its
own steps to protect the U.S. Olympic team. This report will be updated if developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2004-04-30
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Israel and Hamas: Conflict in Gaza (2008-2009) [January 15, 2009]
"On December 27, 2008, Israel launched a major military campaign dubbed 'Operation Cast Lead' against the Palestinian Islamist militant group Hamas in the Gaza Strip in order to counter Palestinian rocket fire and, more broadly, to significantly weaken all aspects of Hamas rule in Gaza. On January 3, 2009, Israel began a ground offensive into Gaza intended to eliminate Hamas's willingness or capability to launch rockets at Israeli towns and cities. As of January 14, Israeli bombings and ground forces had reportedly killed over 1,000 Palestinians, while 13 Israelis had been killed by Palestinian rockets and attempts to counter the ground invasion. [...]. U.S. President-elect Barack Obama will likely be compelled to address the Gaza situation directly at the outset of his administration. The incoming 111th Congress may be called upon to increase various forms of assistance to Israel, to the Palestinian Authority headed by President Mahmoud Abbas, and to Palestinian civilians in order to support a sustainable post-conflict order that guarantees Israel's security and attends to the needs of the Palestinian humanitarian situation. The Gaza crisis constitutes a conundrum for all involved. [...]. Linking the cessation of violence in and around Gaza with international enforcement of a truce or a broader regional security initiative may be possible, but, at present, no proposed solution appears straightforward. This report will be updated as necessary to reflect further developments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Migdalovitz, Carol; Zanotti, Jim
2009-01-15
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Iraq: Regional Perspectives and U.S. Policy [December 1, 2008]
"Iraq's neighbors have influenced events in Iraq since the fall of the Saddam Hussein regime in 2003, and developments in Iraq have had political, economic, and security implications for Iraq's neighbors and the broader Middle East. Declining levels of violence in Iraq and discussion of options for modifying U.S. policy toward Iraq are fueling consideration of Iraq's future and the current and potential policies by Iraq's neighbors. Policymakers and observers are now considering several potential 'Iraq scenarios,' ranging from the resolution of outstanding Iraqi political disputes and the successful consolidation of Iraq's government and security forces, to a competition among Iraq's neighbors for influence in Iraq or the return to widespread civil violence. Understanding regional perspectives on Iraq and the potential nature and likelihood of regional policies toward Iraq will be essential for Members of the 111th Congress as they consider the future of U.S. policy, including troop withdrawal options, the implementation of U.S.-Iraq security agreements, and annual appropriations and authorization legislation. The National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) on Iraq released in August 2007 assessed that 'Iraq's neighbors will continue to focus on improving their leverage in Iraq in anticipation of a Coalition drawdown.' The NIE identified Iranian assistance to armed groups and the 'reluctance' of Iraq's Sunni Arab neighbors to support the Iraqi government as particularly problematic. This report provides information about the current perspectives and policies of Iraq's neighbors; analyzes potential regional responses to continued insurgency, sectarian and ethnic violence, and long-term stabilization; discusses shared concerns and U.S. long-term regional interests; and reviews U.S. policy options for responding to various contingencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Katzman, Kenneth; Migdalovitz, Carol; Blanchard, Christopher M.
2008-12-01
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Iraq: Turkey, the Deployment of U.S. Forces, and Related Issues [Updated May 2, 2003]
"On March 1, 2003, the Turkish parliament, in a close vote, failed to pass a resolution authorizing the United States to deploy troops to Turkish territory to open a northern front in a war against Iraq. The vote surprised the U.S. government and its Turkish counterpart. Both governments may have greatly overestimated their understanding of the Turkish political situation that contributed to the defeat of the resolution. This report focuses on that political scene, Turkish concerns about an Iraq conflict, the tentative, but unfulfilled, bargain struck between the U.S. and Turkish governments to authorize the U.S. deployment--to the extent that it is known, the final arrangements for U.S. access to Turkish airspace, and attendant issues. This report also reviews the implications of parliament's actions for the bilateral U.S.-Turkish relationship, regional relations, Turkey's domestic politics, its economy, and broader issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2005-05-02
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Israel's Disengagement from Gaza [Updated September 16, 2005]
"In December 2003, Prime Minister Sharon announced that Israel would unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip; the evacuation of settlers began on August 17, 2005, and was completed on August 23. Disengagement was carried out efficiently, rapidly, and without major violence. Related issues coordinated with the Palestinians included disposition of settler assets and security. The implications of disengagement for the West Bank, the 'Road Map,' and a future Palestinian state are uncertain. The total cost of disengagement exceeds $2 billion, and Congress may deal with a special Israeli aid request in the future. See also CRS Issue Brief IB91137, 'The Middle East Peace Talks,' and CRS Issue Brief IB82008, 'Israel: Background and Relations with the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2005-09-16
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Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict [Updated August 8, 2003]
"The Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict, a clash between the principles of territorial integrity and self-determination, is the longest interethnic dispute in the former Soviet Union. Ethnic Armenians, the majority in the Nagorno Karabakh region of Azerbaijan, have a different culture, religion, and language than Azeris. They seek to join Armenia or to become independent. Azerbaijan seeks to preserve its national integrity. The dispute has produced violence, mutual expulsion of rival nationals, charges and countercharges. After the December 1991 demise of the Soviet Union and subsequent dispersal of sophisticated Soviet weaponry, the Nagorno Karabakh conflict worsened, and thousands of deaths and 1.4 million refugees resulted...The United States is officially neutral in the dispute in part because it is a Minsk Group co-chair and mediator. Congress has tended to favor Armenia. Sec. 907 of P.L. 102-511, October 24, 1992, is a ban on U.S. aid to the Azerbaijan government aimed at pressuring it to lift its blockades of Armenia and Karabakh. Subsequent legislation modified the ban but retained it. P.L. 107-115, January 10, 2002, the foreign operations appropriations bill for 2002, granted the President authority to waive 907. The President did so in January 2002 and 2003.
"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2003-08-08
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Cyprus: Status of U.N. Negotiations [Updated December 8, 2005]
From the Summary: "Cyprus has been divided since 1974. Greek Cypriots, nearly 80% of the population, live in the southern two-thirds of the island. Turkish Cypriots live in the 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' (TRNC, recognized only by Turkey), with about 36,000 Turkish troops providing security. United Nations (U.N.) peacekeeping forces maintain a buffer zone between the two. Since the late 1970s, the U.N., with U.S. support, has promoted negotiations aimed at creating a federal, bicommunal, bizonal republic on Cyprus. [...] Members of Congress have urged the Administration to be more active, although they have not proposed an alternative to the U.N.-sponsored talks. Since the referenda, the Administration has been working to end the isolation of the Turkish Cypriots in order to limit economic disparities between the two communities on the island and pave the way for reunification. Some Members have questioned the Administration's methods."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2005-12-08
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [Updated May 18, 2006]
"Prime Minister Ariel Sharon formed a three-party coalition in January 2005 to secure support for withdrawing from the Gaza Strip and four small settlements in the West Bank. In November, however, new Labor party leader Amir Peretz withdrew his party from the government and called for early elections. Sharon then resigned from the Likud party to form a new party, Kadima. On January 4, 2006, Sharon suffered an incapacitating stroke; Deputy Prime Minister Ehud Olmert succeeded Sharon. Kadima placed first in the March 28, 2006, Knesset (parliament) election, and Olmert has formed a four-party coalition government. Israel has an advanced industrial, market economy in which the government plays a substantial role. The economy is now doing very well, and increased social spending is expected. Israel's foreign policy is focused largely on its region, Europe, and the United States. The government views Iran as an existential threat due to its nuclear ambitions and support for anti-Israel terrorists. Israel negotiated a series of agreements with the Palestinians in the 1990s, but the Oslo peace process ended in 2000, after the beginning of the intifadah or uprising against Israeli occupation. Israeli and Palestinian officials resumed contacts after the November 2004 death of Yasir Arafat."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2006-05-18
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Iraq: The Turkish Factor [Updated October 31, 2002]
Turkey will likely be pivotal to any U.S. military operation against Iraq, but it has many concerns. Foremost, it seeks to preserve Iraq's territorial integrity and prevent the emergence of a Kurdish state in northern Iraq. It wants its linguistic/ethnic kin in that
region, the Iraqi Turkomans, to be fairly represented in a future government. Turkey also is worried about the economic consequences of a war, especially since it is just
recovering from a devastating recession. Finally, it is concerned about the possibilities for a humanitarian refugee crisis and regional instability. The Bush Administration is consulting closely with Turkish officials to assuage their concerns and has provided
increased economic assistance while attempting to enhance trade through (free trade)qualified industrial zones in H.R. 5385. Turkey expects still greater rewards for its
support. See also CRS Report RL31429, Turkey: Issues for U.S. Policy and CRS Report RL31339, Iraq: U.S. Efforts to Change the Regime. This report will be updated if
developments warrant.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2002-10-31
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Turkey: Issues for U.S. Policy [May 22, 2002]
Turkey has long been considered a strategic U.S. and NATO ally. That it
combines a predominantly Muslim identity with a secular democratic government has added to Turkey's significance to the United States since September 11, 2001. A number of foreign policy issues join U.S. and Turkish interests. In the war
on terrorism, Turkey is playing a major role in Afghanistan, where it will assume command of the international peacekeeping force. Yet, Turkey is reluctant to see the
war expand to Iraq. The United States has been Turkey's main arms source and, after a three-year
hiatus, the United States resumed providing assistance to Turkey after September 11. The amount of aid is expected to increase sharply in view of U.S. support for Turkey's command of peacekeeping forces in Afghanistan. For its part, Turkey
would like U.S.-Turkish trade to get more attention.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2002-05-22
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [Updated July 8, 2008]
"On November 27, at an international conference in Annapolis, MD, President Bush read a Joint Understanding in which Abbas and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert agreed to simultaneously resume bilateral negotiations on core issues and implement the Road Map. The negotiations continue. On May 21, 2008, Israel, Syria, and Turkey announced that Syria and Israel had begun indirect peace talks via the Turks. Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties, and the 110th Congress is engaged in these matters. Congress also has endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations. This CRS report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-06-08
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [July 8, 2008]
"On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence and was immediately engaged in a war with all of its neighbors. Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a vibrant parliamentary democracy, albeit with relatively fragile governments. The Kadima Party placed first in the March 28, 2006, Knesset (parliament) election; Prime Minister Ehud Olmert formed a coalition government. The tenure of the government is now uncertain due to a scandal involving Olmert. Israel has an advanced industrial, market economy with a large government role. Israel's foreign policy is focused largely on its region, Europe, and the United States. It views Iran as an existential threat due to its nuclear ambitions and support for anti-Israel terrorists. Israel concluded peace treaties with Egypt in 1979 and Jordan in 1994, but never achieved accords with Syria and Lebanon. Israel unilaterally withdrew from southern Lebanon in 2000. Hezbollah, which then took over the south, sparked a 34-day war when it kidnaped two Israeli soldiers in July 12, 2006. Israel negotiated a series of agreements with the Palestinians in the 1990s, but that process ended in 2000. Israel resumed talks with the Palestinian Authority (PA) in June 2007, after PA President Mahmud Abbas dissolved an Hamas-led unity government in response to Hamas's military takeover of Gaza. On November 27, the international Annapolis Conference officially welcomed the renewed negotiations. "
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-07-08
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [Updated September 8, 2008]
This is an updated report from the Congressional Research Service on U.S.-Israel relations. "Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. U.S.-Israeli bilateral relations are multidimensional. The United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process, but U.S. and Israeli views differ on some issues, such as the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and settlements. The Bush Administration and Congress supported Israel's 2006 military campaigns against Hezbollah and Hamas as acts of self-defense. The United States and Israel concluded a free-trade agreement in 1985. Israel is a prominent recipient of U.S. foreign aid. The two countries also have close security relations. Other issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales to China, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage-related cases."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-09-08
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [Updated September 8, 2008]
"Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties, and the 110th Congress is engaged in these matters. Congress also has endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations." "On April 30, 2003, the United States, the U.N., European Union, and Russia (known as the 'Quartet') presented a 'Road Map' to Palestinian statehood. It has not been implemented. Israel unilaterally disengaged (withdrew) from the Gaza Strip and four small settlements in the West Bank in August 2005. On January 9, 2005, Mahmud Abbas became President of the PA. The victory of Hamas, which Israel and the United States consider a terrorist group, in the January 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections complicated prospects for peace as the United States, Israel, and the Quartet would not deal with a Hamas-led government until it disavowed violence, recognized Israel, and accepted prior Israeli-Palestinian accords. President Abbas's dissolution of the Hamas-led government in response to the June 2007 Hamas military takeover of the Gaza Strip led to resumed international contacts with the PA. […]. On May 21, 2008, Israel, Syria, and Turkey announced that Syria and Israel had begun indirect peace talks in Istanbul with Turkish mediators."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-09-08
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Turkey: Update on Crisis of Identity and Power [September 2, 2008]
"The United States is concerned for stability in Turkey because it is a strategic partner and NATO ally. The Bush Administration has closely monitored recent developments in Turkey, which it continues to view as a secular democracy that could serve as an inspiration for other Muslim majority countries. The recent domestic turmoil may either strengthen Turkey's democracy or cast a shadow on it." "Secularism has been one of the 'fundamental and unchanging principles' guiding the Turkish Republic since its founding in 1923. It also has been the principle that has produced considerable domestic political tension. Over the years, political parties have emerged that appeared to challenge that principle and to strive to restore religion to a central place in the state. Each time, the party has eventually been banned from the political stage. The Justice and Development Party (AKP), formed in 2001, has Islamist roots and claims to be conservative and democratic. The AKP won the 2002 and 2007 national elections by wide margins, yet its victories have not ended the secular-religious tensions in the country."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-09-02
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Turkey: Update on Selected Issues [Updated August 12, 2004]
"Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his Justice and Development Party (AKP) remain popular and have a firm hold on power in Turkey. The AKP is trying to recast itself from an Islamist-rooted party to a centrist 'conservative democratic' party. Although some AKP actions fuel secularist suspicions of a hidden Islamist agenda, the high priority that the party gives to attaining European Union (EU) membership may mitigate fears about its intentions and support its centrist ambitions. The government remains focused on the economy. With the aid of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), it has undertaken major macroeconomic reforms, achieved solid growth, and reduced inflation. The IMF has reviewed the government's economic performance positively and is expected to approve a new three-year stand-by agreement for 2005-2007. The government also has been challenged by terrorism and is dealing with both Kurdish terrorism, a radical religious terrorist threat with possible international links, and remnants of leftist terrorism."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2004-08-12
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Kosovo: Greek and Turkish Perspectives [Updated May 27, 1999]
From the Document: "Western governments have cited a danger of the Kosovo conflict spreading to NATO allies Greece and Turkey as justification for military intervention in Kosovo. These two eastern Mediterranean neighbors have difficult bilateral relations. Their overarching goals for Kosovo are similar, but their views of NATO's military campaign differ. Greece opposes NATO's approach for reasons based on history, culture, competing foreign policy goals, and public opinion. Its sympathies lie with the Serbs. Turkey supports NATO out of alliance loyalty and because of its shared history, culture, and attendant sympathies with the Kosovar Albanians. Turkey is participating in the military operation; Greece is not. Greece and Turkey both reject the notion that a war between them might arise from the current conflict. Greece is concerned about the refugee crisis destabilizing the region. It also is concerned about the implications that its position on Kosovo might have on relations with the United States and Europe, while Turkey does not accept that the crisis might have implications for its southeast and Kurds. See CRS Issue Brief 98041, Kosovo and U.S. Policy, and CRS Issue Brief IB10027 Kosovo: U.S. and Allied Military Operations. This report will be updated if developments warrant.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
1999-05-27
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [Updated February 23, 2008]
"On April 30, 2003, the United States, the U.N., European Union, and Russia (known as the 'Quartet') presented a 'Road Map' to Palestinian statehood. It has not been implemented. [...] The victory of Hamas, which Israel and the United States consider a terrorist group, in the January 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections complicated prospects for peace because the United States, Israel, and the Quartet would not deal with a Hamas-led government until it disavowed violence, recognized Israel, and accepted prior Israeli-Palestinian accords. The June 2007 Hamas military takeover of the Gaza Strip and President Abbas's dissolution of the Hamas-led government resulted in resumed international contacts with the PA. On November 27, President Bush convened an international conference in Annapolis, MD, and read a Joint Understanding reached by Abbas and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert in which they agreed to simultaneously resume bilateral negotiations on core issues and implement the Road Map. Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties, and the 110th Congress is engaged in these matters. Congress also has endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations. This CRS report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-02-23
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [Updated February 26, 2008]
"On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence and was immediately engaged in a war with all of its neighbors. Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a vibrant parliamentary democracy, albeit with relatively fragile governments. […] It views Iran as an existential threat due to its nuclear ambitions and support for anti-Israel terrorists. Israel concluded peace treaties with Egypt in 1979 and Jordan in 1994, but never achieved accords with Syria and Lebanon. Israel unilaterally withdrew from southern Lebanon in 2000. […] In 2003, Israeli and Palestinian officials accepted the 'Road Map,' an international framework for achieving a two-state solution to their conflict, but never implemented it. Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip in 2005 and is constructing a security barrier in the West Bank to separate from the Palestinians. Hamas's victory in 2006 Palestinian elections complicated Israeli- Palestinian relations. […] Israel resumed talks with the Palestinian Authority (PA) in June 2007, after PA President Mahmud Abbas dissolved the Hamas-led unity government in response to Hamas's military takeover of Gaza. On November 27, the international Annapolis Conference officially welcomed the renewed bilateral negotiations. Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. […]The United States and Israel concluded a free-trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. Israel is a prominent recipient of U.S. foreign aid. The two countries also have close security relations. Other issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales to China, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage-related cases."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-02-26
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [November 14, 2006]
"After the first Gulf war, in 1991, a new peace process involved bilateral negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon with mixed results. Milestones included the Israeli-Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Declaration of Principles (DOP) of September 13, 1991, providing for Palestinian empowerment and some territorial control, the Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty of October 26, 1994, and the Interim Self-Rule in the West Bank or Oslo II accord of September 28, 1995, which led to the formation of the Palestinian Authority (PA) to govern the West Bank and Gaza. However, Israeli-Syrian negotiations were intermittent and difficult, and postponed indefinitely in 2000. Negotiations with Lebanon also were unsuccessful, leading Israel to withdraw unilaterally from south Lebanon on May 24, 2000. President Clinton held a summit with Israeli and Palestinian leaders at Camp David on final status issues that July, but they did not produce an accord. A Palestinian uprising or 'intifadah' began in September. On February 6, 2001, Ariel Sharon was elected Prime Minister of Israel, and rejected steps taken at Camp David and afterwards. […] Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties. Members also have endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations. This CRS report replaces CRS Issue Brief IB91137, 'The Middle East Peace Talks', and will be updated as developments warrant. See also CRS Report RL33566, 'Lebanon: The Israel-Hamas-Hezbollah Conflict', coordinated by Jeremy Sharp."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-11-14
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Iraq: Regional Perspectives and U.S. Policy [January 12, 2007]
"Iraq's neighbors have influenced events in Iraq since the fall of the Saddam Hussein regime in 2003, and developments in Iraq have had political, economic, and security implications for Iraq's neighbors and the broader Middle East. Ongoing insurgency and sectarian violence in Iraq and discussion of options for modifying U.S. policy toward Iraq are fueling intense consideration of Iraq's future and the current and potential policies of Iraq's neighbors. Policymakers and observers are considering a number of different 'Iraq scenarios,' ranging from the resolution of outstanding Iraqi political disputes and the successful consolidation of Iraq's government and security forces, to greater escalation of sectarian violence into nationwide civil war and the potential for greater intervention by Iraq's neighbors. […] This report provides information about the current perspectives and policies of Iraq's neighbors; analyzes potential regional responses to continued insurgency, wider sectarian or ethnic violence, and long-term stabilization; discusses shared concerns and U.S. long-term regional interests; and reviews U.S. policy options for responding to various contingencies. For more information on Iraq and regional perspectives, see CRS Report RL31339, 'Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and Security'; CRS Report RS22079, 'The Kurds in Post-Saddam Iraq'; and CRS Report RS22323, 'Iran's Influence in Iraq'. This report will be updated to reflect major developments."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.; Katzman, Kenneth; Migdalovitz, Carol
2007-01-12
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Cyprus: Status of U.N. Negotiations and Related Issues [Updated March 16, 2007]
From the Summary: "Cyprus has been divided since 1974. Greek Cypriots, 76% of the population, live in the southern two-thirds of the island. Turkish Cypriots, 19% of the populace, live in the 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' (TRNC), recognized only by Turkey, with about 36,000 Turkish troops providing security. United Nations peacekeeping forces (UNFICYP) maintain a buffer zone between the two. Since the late 1970s, the U.N., with U.S. support, has promoted negotiations aimed at reuniting the island as a federal, bicommunal, bizonal republic. [...] Some Members of Congress have urged the Administration to be more active, although they have not proposed an alternative to the U.N.-sponsored talks. Since the referenda, the Administration has been working to end the isolation of the Turkish Cypriots in order to diminish economic disparities between them and the Greek Cypriots and pave the way for reunification. Some Members have questioned this policy. Members are likely maintain their interest in Cyprus in the 110th Congress partly due to keen constituent concern. This CRS report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2007-03-16
