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Turkey's 2007 Elections: Crisis of Identity and Power [August 6, 2007]
"The effort of Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) to elect one of its own to be president of the Republic provoked a crisis. The nominee, the otherwise respected Foreign Minister Abdullah Gul, has roots in Turkey's Islamist movement and his wife wears a head scarf, which some secularists consider a symbol of both Islamism and backwardness. Moreover, because AKP already controls the prime ministry and parliament, it was argued that the balance of political power would be disturbed if the party also assumed the presidency. The opposition engaged in mass demonstrations, boycotted the first round of the vote for president in parliament, and petitioned the Constitutional Court to annul the vote, while the General Staff of the armed forces warned that the military would act if 'needs be' as the defender of secularism. After the Court invalidated the vote, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan called early national elections and proposed a package of constitutional amendments, including one for the direct election of president. […] Terrorism was a major issue in the campaign, and tensions between Turkey and the United States continue over U.S. inaction against the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), a Turkish terrorist group harbored in northern Iraq. AKP's views on this issue are somewhat more considered than the nationalist opposition parties in parliament. Prime Minister Erdogan is likely to pursue a diplomatic approach at first, but the possibility of a Turkish military incursion into Iraq with attendant consequences for U.S. policy and Iraqi stability persists. This report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2007-08-06
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Turkey's 2007 Elections: Crisis of Identity and Power [Updated September 10, 2007]
"The European Union and the United States have urged Turks to adhere to their constitutional processes and warned the military not to intervene. Turkey is a candidate for EU membership, which might give the EU some influence. Yet, that influence is limited because some European countries and many Turks have lost their enthusiasm for Turkey's accession. The official U.S. reaction to events in Turkey appeared to lag behind that of the EU. Early statements encouraged Turkey to follow its constitutional processes, while later ones added a warning to the military. Terrorism has emerged as the major issue in the campaign, which may exacerbate tensions between Turkey and the United States over U.S. inaction against the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), a Turkish terrorist group harbored in northern Iraq. The Turkish government and military may take U.S. warnings and domestic political considerations into account in decision-making on a possible incursion into Iraq to fight the PKK."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2007-09-10
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Turkey's 2007 Elections: Crisis of Identity and Power [Updated July 11, 2007]
"The European Union and the United States have urged Turks to adhere to their constitutional processes and warned the military not to intervene. Turkey is a candidate for EU membership, which might give the EU some influence. Yet, that influence is limited because some European countries and many Turks have lost their enthusiasm for Turkey's accession. The official U.S. reaction to events in Turkey appeared to lag behind that of the EU. Early statements encouraged Turkey to follow its constitutional processes, while later ones added a warning to the military. Terrorism has emerged as the major issue in the campaign, which may exacerbate tensions between Turkey and the United States over U.S. inaction against the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), a Turkish terrorist group harbored in northern Iraq. The Turkish government and military may take U.S. warnings and domestic political considerations into account in decision-making on a possible incursion into Iraq to fight the PKK."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2007-07-11
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Western Sahara: Status of Settlement Efforts [September 29, 2006]
"Since the 1970s, Morocco and the independence-seeking Popular Front for the Liberation of Saqiat al Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario) have vied for control of the Western Sahara, a former Spanish territory. In 1991, the United Nations arranged a cease-fire and proposed a settlement plan that called for a referendum to allow the people of the Western Sahara to choose between independence and integration into Morocco. A long deadlock on determining the electorate for a referendum ensued. Since 2001, the U.N. has unsuccessfully suggested alternatives to the unfulfilled settlement plan, particularly one formulated by James Baker. Latterly, the U.N. has called on the parties to negotiate. An end to the impasse is not in sight, and it has affected Algerian-Moroccan bilateral relations and wider regional cooperation. The United States supports U.N. efforts and a solution that would not destabilize its ally, Morocco. Congress supports a referendum and is frustrated by delays. This report will be updated if developments warrant. See also CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS21579, 'Morocco: Current Issues', and CRS Report RS21532, 'Algeria: Current Issues.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2006-09-29
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Western Sahara: Status of Settlement Efforts [December 11, 2008]
"Since the 1970s, Morocco and the independence-seeking Popular Front for the Liberation of Saqiat al Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario) have vied for control of the Western Sahara, a former Spanish territory. In 1991, the United Nations arranged a cease-fire and proposed a settlement plan that called for a referendum to allow the people of the Western Sahara to choose between independence and integration into Morocco. A long deadlock on determining the electorate for a referendum ensued. The U.N. then unsuccessfully suggested alternatives to the unfulfilled settlement plan and later called on the parties to negotiate. In April 2007, Morocco offered an autonomy plan. In 2007 and 2008, the two sides met under U.N. auspices, but made no progress due to their unwillingness to compromise. The issue has affected Algerian-Moroccan bilateral relations and wider regional cooperation. The United States supports the U.N. effort and has urged the parties to focus on autonomy--a solution that would not destabilize its ally, Morocco. Some Members of Congress support a referendum and are frustrated by delays. P.L. 110-161, December 26, 2007, contains a provision expressing concern about human rights in the Western Sahara. This report will be updated if developments warrant. See also CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RS21579, 'Morocco: Current Issues', by Carol Migdalovitz, and CRS Report RS21532, 'Algeria: Current Issues', by Carol Migdalovitz."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-12-11
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Turkey: Issues for U.S. Policy [May 22, 2002]
Turkey has long been considered a strategic U.S. and NATO ally. That it
combines a predominantly Muslim identity with a secular democratic government has added to Turkey's significance to the United States since September 11, 2001. A number of foreign policy issues join U.S. and Turkish interests. In the war
on terrorism, Turkey is playing a major role in Afghanistan, where it will assume command of the international peacekeeping force. Yet, Turkey is reluctant to see the
war expand to Iraq. The United States has been Turkey's main arms source and, after a three-year
hiatus, the United States resumed providing assistance to Turkey after September 11. The amount of aid is expected to increase sharply in view of U.S. support for Turkey's command of peacekeeping forces in Afghanistan. For its part, Turkey
would like U.S.-Turkish trade to get more attention.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2002-05-22
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Iraq: The Turkish Factor [Updated October 31, 2002]
Turkey will likely be pivotal to any U.S. military operation against Iraq, but it has many concerns. Foremost, it seeks to preserve Iraq's territorial integrity and prevent the emergence of a Kurdish state in northern Iraq. It wants its linguistic/ethnic kin in that
region, the Iraqi Turkomans, to be fairly represented in a future government. Turkey also is worried about the economic consequences of a war, especially since it is just
recovering from a devastating recession. Finally, it is concerned about the possibilities for a humanitarian refugee crisis and regional instability. The Bush Administration is consulting closely with Turkish officials to assuage their concerns and has provided
increased economic assistance while attempting to enhance trade through (free trade)qualified industrial zones in H.R. 5385. Turkey expects still greater rewards for its
support. See also CRS Report RL31429, Turkey: Issues for U.S. Policy and CRS Report RL31339, Iraq: U.S. Efforts to Change the Regime. This report will be updated if
developments warrant.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2002-10-31
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Nuclear Weapons R&D Organizations in Nine Nations [March 16, 2009]
"Seven nations--China, France, India, Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States--possess nuclear weapons. In addition, North Korea tested a nuclear explosive device, and Israel is widely thought to have nuclear weapons. As an aid to Congress in understanding nuclear weapons, nuclear proliferation, and arms control matters, this report describes which agency is responsible for research and development (R&D) of nuclear weapons (i.e., nuclear explosive devices, as distinct from the bombers and missiles that deliver them) in these nations and whether these agencies are civilian or military. It also traces the history of such agencies in the United States from 1942 to the present. This report may be updated annually."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Medalia, Jonathan E.; Kan, Shirley; Kerr, Paul K. . . .
2009-03-16
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Greece Update [December 16, 2009]
"The Greek city-state of Athens is believed to have developed the first known democracy around 500 B.C. Modern Greece has been a democracy since the toppling of a military junta in 1974. Since then, the New Democracy (ND) party and the PanHellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) have alternated leadership of the government. ND ruled from March 2004 until October 4, 2009, when PASOK won national elections and a clear majority of the seats in parliament. PASOK's victory has been attributed to anti-ND public sentiment caused by the economic recession, corruption scandals, and law-and-order issues. On taking power, PASOK inherited a severe financial crisis: economic growth has contracted for three consecutive quarters in 2009, and the budget deficit is projected to be 12.7.% of gross domestic product (GDP) and debt to be 125% of GDP in 2010. Therefore, the economy is the dominating issue on the government's agenda. The Greek government's foreign policy focuses on the European Union (EU), sometimes-strained relations with Turkey, reunifying Cyprus, resolving a dispute with Macedonia over its name, other Balkan issues, and sustaining good relations with the United States. Greece has assisted with the war on terrorism, but is not a member of the U.S.-led coalition in Iraq and has a limited presence with NATO in Afghanistan."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-12-16
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [October 26, 2005]
"On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence and was immediately engaged in a war with all of its neighbors. Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a vibrant parliamentary democracy, albeit with relatively fragile governments. Prime Minister Ariel Sharon formed the current three-party coalition in January 2005 in order to secure support for his plan to withdraw from the Gaza Strip and four small settlements in the West Bank. Evacuation of the settlers was completed on August 23. Some observers are predicting an early national election in 2006. Israel has an advanced industrial, market economy in which the government plays a substantial role. The economy has recovered from declines experienced due to the Palestinian 'intifadah' (uprising) against Israeli occupation and the international high-tech crash. The government is attempting to reduce the role of government in the economy. Israel's foreign policy is focused largely on its region, Europe, and the United States. The government views Iran as an existential threat due to its nuclear ambitions, and blames Iran for supporting anti-Israel terrorists. Israel negotiated a series of agreements with the Palestinians in the 1990's, but the Oslo peace process ended in 2000, shortly after the beginning of the 'intifadah'."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2005-10-26
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Algeria: Current Issues [November 22, 2010]
"The focus of this report is Algeria, a country in North Africa that is increasingly important for U.S. efforts to counter international terrorism as a key partner in the fight against Al Qaeda linked groups. As an energy producer, it also is a significant source of natural gas for the United States and not a major recipient of U.S. aid. The overall domestic situation in Algeria remains relatively stable. An elected president dominates the political system, but the military, the most significant political force since independence in 1962, still is viewed as the ultimate arbiter of who fills the office. It backed Abdelaziz Bouteflika for the presidency in 1999. He was reelected for a third term in April 2009 and has no clear successor. The voice of the military has been muted publicly since Bouteflika was first selected, but may be heard during presidential succession. Low voter turnout in the May 2007 parliamentary election may have reflected general lack of public faith in the political system as well as common knowledge that the legislature is weak. Authorities specifically boasted of a higher turnout in the 2009 presidential election. The major domestic problem is terrorism, which has spread beyond Algeria's borders. It persists at home while Algerian terrorists operate across the southern border in the Sahel and are linked to terrorism abroad. The U.S. State Department lists two Algerian groups as Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs). The more notorious and active is Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), which pledged allegiance to Al Qaeda in 2006 and may increasingly be described as a criminal-terrorist mutation. Algeria, as the dominant economic and military power in the region, has attempted to take the lead in developing a regional approach to counterterrorism in the Sahel. In addition to addressing the threat, Algiers seeks to prevent foreign, that is, French and U.S., intervention justified by the need to combat terrorists. However, it does welcome other kinds of outside support for the effort.The United States has increasingly viewed the government of Algeria as an important partner in counterterrorism and the fight against Al Qaeda-linked groups in North Africa. The Algerian economy is largely based on hydrocarbons, and the country is a significant source of natural gas for the United States and Europe. Algeria receives little development assistance from the United States, but its security forces benefit from U.S. security assistance and participation in bilateral and regional military cooperation programs. Algeria's relative stability, always tenuous, has most recently been challenged by a series of riots, strikes, and popular demonstrations that have occurred since early January 2011."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2010-11-22
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Algeria: Current Issues [April 16, 2009]
"The situation in Algeria is fluid. Parliament passed a constitutional amendment abolishing term limits, allowing President Abdelaziz Bouteflika to be reelected for a third term in April 2009. The voice of the military, the most significant political force since independence, has been muted. Low voter turnout in the May 2007 parliamentary election may have indicated lack of public faith in the political system, and so the authorities specifically boasted a higher turnout in the 2009 presidential election. Domestic terrorism persists and Algerians continue to be linked to terror abroad. The U.S. State Departments lists the two Algerian groups as Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs). The most notorious is Al Qaeda in the Land of the Islamic Maghreb (AQLIM), which pledged allegiance to Al Qaeda. Terrorism provides a rationale for Algeria's uneven human rights record. Oil and gas revenues have grown markedly, but public investment has yet to remedy the country's many socioeconomic ills. Bouteflika has energized foreign policy and broadened cooperation with the United States. This report will be updated if warranted."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-04-16
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Turkey: Politics of Identity and Power [August 13, 2010]
"Turkey has long been a valued U.S. NATO ally and strategic partner. Successive administrations have viewed it as a secular democracy that could serve as an inspiration or model for other Muslim majority countries. However, the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) has made foreign policy decisions that have led some longtime U.S. observers to question its future course. Domestic political developments may be enabling the AKP's greater assertiveness in international affairs and are, therefore, worthy of closer scrutiny. This report provides that examination via an overview of the current Turkish domestic political scene. The main theme of the report is that the ongoing struggle for power in Turkey will determine the country's identity, and that will have enormous consequences for U.S. policymakers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2010-08-13
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Turkey: Selected Foreign Policy Issues and U.S. Views [August 29, 2008]
"During a period of domestic political turmoil in spring and summer 2008, the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) government of Turkey continued to conduct a very active foreign policy aimed at portraying the country as a regional power and at improving relations with its neighbors. It has engaged Iraq in order to fight the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO); prevent the emergence of an independent Kurdish state in northern Iraq; and ensure the development of a stable neighbor. This engagement includes advances in both political and economic bilateral relations. Turkey also has been facilitating indirect Israeli-Syrian peace talks and improving political and economic ties to Syria. More controversially, the AKP has drawn closer to Iran, partly because Turkey believes that it would be harmed by a possible conflict over Iran's nuclear program and partly because it seeks to diversify its sources of energy. The AKP has continued to act on its EU ambitions and offers Turkey as a bridge between its neighbors and Europe. However, Turkey's policy toward Cyprus may impede progress toward EU membership, and its approach to the Cyprus settlement talks may not be as constructive as it was in 2004. Finally, Turkey's relations with Armenia have been troubled, ma inly because of its refusal to recognize the Armenian 'genocide' of the early 20th century and Nagorno-Karabakh issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2008-08-29
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Iraq: Regional Perspectives and U.S. Policy [October 6, 2009]
"Iraq's neighbors have influenced events in Iraq since the fall of the Saddam Hussein regime in 2003, and developments in Iraq have had political, economic, and security implications for Iraq's neighbors and the broader Middle East. Lower levels of violence in Iraq and the planned drawdown of U.S. forces in Iraq are fueling consideration of Iraq's future and the current and potential policies by Iraq's neighbors. Policy makers and observers are now considering several potential 'Iraq scenarios,' ranging from the resolution of outstanding Iraqi political disputes and the successful consolidation of Iraq's government and security forces, to a competition among Iraq's neighbors for influence in Iraq or the return to widespread civil violence. Members of the 111th Congress have sought to understand regional perspectives on Iraq and the potential nature and likelihood of regional policies toward Iraq as they have considered planned troop withdrawals, the future of U.S. policy, the implementation of U.S.-Iraq security agreements, and annual appropriations and authorization legislation. The National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) on Iraq released in August 2007 assessed that 'Iraq's neighbors will continue to focus on improving their leverage in Iraq in anticipation of a Coalition drawdown.' The NIE identified Iranian assistance to armed groups and the 'reluctance' of Iraq's Sunni Arab neighbors to support the Iraqi government as particularly problematic. More recent U.S. government assessments continue to express these concerns. This report provides information about the current perspectives and policies of Iraq's neighbors; analyzes potential regional responses to renewed violence and longer-term stabilization efforts; discusses shared concerns and U.S. long-term regional interests; and reviews U.S. policy options for responding to various contingencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.; Katzman, Kenneth; Migdalovitz, Carol . . .
2009-10-06
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Tunisia: Current Issues [June 29, 2009]
"Tunisia has a stable, highly authoritarian government led by President Zine ben Ali, who was elected to a fourth term on October 24, 2004 and will run for a fifth term in October 2009. Ben Ali's Constitutional Democratic Rally party controls parliament, state and local governments, and most political activity. There are significant limitations on human rights but marked advancements for women and girls. Tunisia has experienced occasional attacks by Islamist terrorists, and Tunisian expatriates have been arrested in Europe and North America on terrorism- related charges. Tunisia is a non-oil-exporting, middle-class country with a diverse, growing economy, and high unemployment. U.S.-Tunisian relations today largely emphasize cooperation in terrorism, although Tunisia would like greater focus on trade."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-06-29
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European Union Enlargement: A Status Report on Turkey's Accession Negotiations [January 4, 2010]
"October 2009 marked the fourth anniversary of the European Union's decision to proceed with formal negotiations with Turkey toward full membership in the Union and launched the annual period when all three European Union institutions, the Council, Commission, and Parliament, would be required to assess the progress Turkey had made or failed to accomplish in the accession process and to issue recommendations on whether and how the process should continue. Many 'Turkey-skeptics' saw the end of 2009 as a deadline for Turkish action that would have marked a critical juncture for the future of Europe's relationship with Turkey. At issue was not only the positive progress Turkey had achieved in meeting the requirements of the EU's 'acquis communautaire' but whether a specific lack of progress by Turkey would force EU member states into a difficult debate pitting loyalty to another member state, being shunned by a candidate for Union membership, versus Europe's long-term strategic interests in Turkey. The principal issues regarding Turkey's accession center around what the EU believes has been too slow of a pace for certain critical reforms within Turkey; a perceived ambivalence toward the EU by the current Turkish leadership; Turkey's failure to live up to its agreement to extend the benefits of its customs union with the EU to Cyprus, including the continued reluctance by Turkey to open its sea and air ports to Cypriot shipping and commerce until a political settlement has been achieved on Cyprus; and a continued skepticism on the part of many Europeans about whether Turkey should be embraced as a member of the European family. Further complicating the attitude toward Turkey was the lack of a settlement of the political stalemate on Cyprus and the ongoing debate within parts of Europe over the implications of the growing Muslim population in Europe and the impact Turkey's admission into the Union would have on Europe's future. Thus, the talk once again was of a potential 'train wreck,' the suspension of negotiations, revised talk of a different relationship with Turkey, and renewed expressions of doubt over whether Turkey should ever be admitted into the Union."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.; Migdalovitz, Carol
2010-01-04
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European Union Enlargement: A Status Report on Turkey's Accession Negotiations [December 1, 2009]
"October 2009 marked the fourth anniversary of the European Union's decision to proceed with formal negotiations with Turkey toward full membership in the Union. And, on October 15, the European Commission issued its fourth formal report on Turkey's accession progress. The Commission's 2009 report, like its previous reports, was marked by a mixed assessment of Turkey's accomplishments thus far in working through the various chapters of the accession process that have been opened. The report, while noting some progress in judicial reform and relations with the Kurds and Armenia, and little progress in other areas, contained nothing new or dramatic. Contrary to some views within Europe, the Commission did not view its 2009 report as any more significant or important than previous annual reports. For some in Europe, the focus now shifts to December 2009, when the EU Parliament will issue its own progress report and the EU Council must decide the next steps in the accession process. Many 'Turkey-skeptics' see December as a deadline for Turkish action that could mark a critical juncture for the future of Europe's relationship with Turkey and perhaps force EU member states into a difficult debate pitting loyalty to another member state, being shunned by a candidate for Union membership, versus Europe's long-term strategic interests in Turkey. The principal issues regarding Turkey's accession center around what the EU believes has been too slow of a pace for certain critical reforms within Turkey; a perceived ambivalence toward the EU by the current Turkish leadership; Turkey's failure to live up to its agreement to extend the benefits of its customs union with the EU to Cyprus, including the continued reluctance by Turkey to open its sea and air ports to Cypriot shipping and commerce until a political settlement has been achieved on Cyprus; and a continued skepticism on the part of many Europeans about whether Turkey should be embraced as a member of the European family. Further complicating the attitude toward Turkey is the ongoing debate within parts of Europe over the implications of the growing Muslim population in Europe and the impact Turkey's admission into the Union would have on Europe's future."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.; Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-12-01
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European Union Enlargement: A Status Report on Turkey's Accession Negotiations [October 8, 2009]
"October 2009 marks the fourth anniversary of the European Union's decision to proceed with formal negotiations with Turkey toward full membership in the Union. It will also mark the fourth time a formal report on Turkey's accession progress will be issued by the European Commission. The occasion will likely be marked by a mixed assessment of Turkey's accomplishments thus far in working through the various chapters of the accession process that have been opened, as well as continued skepticism on the part of many Europeans about whether Turkey should be embraced as a member of the European family. The principal issues center around what the EU believes has been a slowing of certain critical reforms within Turkey, a perceived ambivalence toward the EU by the current Turkish leadership, and Turkey's failure to live up to its agreement to extend the benefits of its customs union with the EU to Cyprus, including the continued reluctance by Turkey to open its sea and air ports to Cypriot shipping and commerce until a political settlement has been achieved on Cyprus. Further complicating the accession process is the ongoing debate within parts of Europe over the implications of the growing Muslim population in Europe and the impact Turkey's admission into the Union would have on Europe's future."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morelli, Vincent L.; Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-10-08
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [Update January 31, 2007]
"On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence and was immediately engaged in a war with all of its neighbors. Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a vibrant parliamentary democracy, albeit with relatively fragile governments. The Kadima Party placed first in the March 28, 2006, Knesset (parliament) election; Prime Minister Ehud Olmert formed a four-party coalition government that has been enlarged to include one more. Israel has an advanced industrial, market economy in which the government plays a substantial role... Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. U.S.-Israeli bilateral relations are multidimensional. The United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process, but U.S. and Israeli views have differed on various issues, such as the fate of the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and Israeli settlements. The United States and Israel concluded a free-trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. Israel is a prominent recipient of U.S. foreign aid. The two countries also have close security relations. Other issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales to China, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage-related cases."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2007-01-31
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [Update July 26, 2006]
"On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel declared its independence and was immediately engaged in a war with all of its neighbors. Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a vibrant parliamentary democracy, albeit with relatively fragile governments. Most recently, the Kadima Party placed first in the March 28, 2006, Knesset (parliament) election, and Prime Minister Ehud Olmert formed a four-party coalition government. Israel has an advanced industrial, market economy in which the government plays a substantial role. The economy is now doing very well, and increased social spending is expected...Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. U.S.-Israeli bilateral relations are multidimensional. The United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process, but U.S. and Israeli views differ on various peace process issues, such as the fate of the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and Israeli settlements. The United States and Israel concluded a free-trade agreement in 1985, and the United States is Israel's largest trading partner. Since 1976, Israel has been the largest recipient of U.S. foreign aid. The two countries also have close security relations. Current issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales to China, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage related cases."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2006-07-26
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Israel: Background and Relations with the United States [January 7, 2010]
"Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. U.S.-Israeli bilateral relations are multidimensional. The United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process, but U.S. and Israeli views differ on some issues, such as the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and settlements. Israel and the Bush Administration enjoyed particularly close relations. The latter and Congress supported Israel's 2006 military campaigns against Hezbollah and Hamas and its 2008/2009 offensive against Hamas as acts of self-defense. Shortly after taking office in January 2009, President Obama stated that he considers Israel to be a strong ally of the United States. Yet relations have sometimes appeared strained as Administration officials and the Netanyahu government have differed markedly over how to resume the peace process. The United States and Israel concluded a free-trade agreement in 1985. Israel is a prominent recipient of U.S. foreign aid and the two countries also have close security relations. Other issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage-related cases. See also CRS Report RL33530, 'Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy', by Carol Migdalovitz, and CRS Report RL33222, 'U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel ', by Jeremy M. Sharp."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2010-01-07
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Turkey: Politics of Identity and Power [September 21, 2010]
"The main theme of the report is that the ongoing struggle for power in Turkey will determine the country's identity, and that will have consequences for U.S. policymakers. Turkey's secular identity has long been considered unique among majority Muslim states, as secularism was a founding principle of the modern Turkish Republic as well as the principle that has produced the most domestic political tension. The AKP [Justice and Development Party], formed in 2001, has Islamist roots but claims to be conservative and democratic. Its emergence and acquisition of power have exacerbated concerns, especially in secularist circles, about whether AKP is intent on altering Turkey's identity. Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his AKP have governed in an increasingly confident manner since a court refused to ban the party for being 'a focal point of anti-secular activities' in 2008. Already in control of the executive and legislature, they have gained influence over bastions of secularism in the judiciary and military. These developments may enable the AKP to implement a domestic agenda that is more consistent with its core identity. However, the AKP has failed to deal comprehensively with a significant domestic group's struggle for recognition of its own identity--the Kurds in a majority Turkish state. The government initiated a 'Kurdish opening,' but managed it poorly, produced unfulfilled expectations, and may have contributed to an escalation in terrorism. [...] For in-depth information on the period prior to this report, see CRS Report RL34646, 'Turkey: Update on Crisis of Identity and Power', by Carol Migdalovitz."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2010-09-21
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Israeli-Arab Negotiations: Background, Conflicts, and U.S. Policy [September 25, 2009]
"Congress is interested in issues related to Middle East peace because of its oversight role in the conduct of U.S. foreign policy, its support for Israel, and keen constituent interest. It is especially concerned about U.S. financial and other commitments to the parties, and the 111th Congress is engaged in these matters. Congress also has endorsed Jerusalem as the undivided capital of Israel, although U.S. Administrations have consistently maintained that the fate of the city is the subject of final status negotiations."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-09-25
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Greece Update [Updated August 25, 2009]
"In June 2009, the conservative New Democracy (ND) party, in power since 2004, experienced losses in the elections for the European Parliament and it is having to respond to the consequences of an economic downturn that may be prolonged. Kostas Karamanlis, who is ND's leader and Greece's Prime Minister, continues to advocate for economic reforms to enhance growth and create jobs. The government's foreign policy focuses on the European Union (EU), sometimes strained relations with Turkey, reunifying Cyprus, resolving a dispute with Macedonia over its name, other Balkan issues, and sustaining good relations with the United States. Greece has assisted with the war on terrorism, but is not a member of the U.S.-led coalition in Iraq and has a limited presence with NATO in Afghanistan."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2009-08-25
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Israel's Disengagement from Gaza [Updated September 16, 2005]
"In December 2003, Prime Minister Sharon announced that Israel would unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip; the evacuation of settlers began on August 17, 2005, and was completed on August 23. Disengagement was carried out efficiently, rapidly, and without major violence. Related issues coordinated with the Palestinians included disposition of settler assets and security. The implications of disengagement for the West Bank, the 'Road Map,' and a future Palestinian state are uncertain. The total cost of disengagement exceeds $2 billion, and Congress may deal with a special Israeli aid request in the future. See also CRS Issue Brief IB91137, 'The Middle East Peace Talks,' and CRS Issue Brief IB82008, 'Israel: Background and Relations with the United States."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2005-09-16
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Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict [Updated August 8, 2003]
"The Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict, a clash between the principles of territorial integrity and self-determination, is the longest interethnic dispute in the former Soviet Union. Ethnic Armenians, the majority in the Nagorno Karabakh region of Azerbaijan, have a different culture, religion, and language than Azeris. They seek to join Armenia or to become independent. Azerbaijan seeks to preserve its national integrity. The dispute has produced violence, mutual expulsion of rival nationals, charges and countercharges. After the December 1991 demise of the Soviet Union and subsequent dispersal of sophisticated Soviet weaponry, the Nagorno Karabakh conflict worsened, and thousands of deaths and 1.4 million refugees resulted...The United States is officially neutral in the dispute in part because it is a Minsk Group co-chair and mediator. Congress has tended to favor Armenia. Sec. 907 of P.L. 102-511, October 24, 1992, is a ban on U.S. aid to the Azerbaijan government aimed at pressuring it to lift its blockades of Armenia and Karabakh. Subsequent legislation modified the ban but retained it. P.L. 107-115, January 10, 2002, the foreign operations appropriations bill for 2002, granted the President authority to waive 907. The President did so in January 2002 and 2003.
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Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2003-08-08
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Cyprus: Status of U.N. Negotiations [Updated December 8, 2005]
From the Summary: "Cyprus has been divided since 1974. Greek Cypriots, nearly 80% of the population, live in the southern two-thirds of the island. Turkish Cypriots live in the 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' (TRNC, recognized only by Turkey), with about 36,000 Turkish troops providing security. United Nations (U.N.) peacekeeping forces maintain a buffer zone between the two. Since the late 1970s, the U.N., with U.S. support, has promoted negotiations aimed at creating a federal, bicommunal, bizonal republic on Cyprus. [...] Members of Congress have urged the Administration to be more active, although they have not proposed an alternative to the U.N.-sponsored talks. Since the referenda, the Administration has been working to end the isolation of the Turkish Cypriots in order to limit economic disparities between the two communities on the island and pave the way for reunification. Some Members have questioned the Administration's methods."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2005-12-08
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Kosovo: Greek and Turkish Perspectives [Updated May 27, 1999]
From the Document: "Western governments have cited a danger of the Kosovo conflict spreading to NATO allies Greece and Turkey as justification for military intervention in Kosovo. These two eastern Mediterranean neighbors have difficult bilateral relations. Their overarching goals for Kosovo are similar, but their views of NATO's military campaign differ. Greece opposes NATO's approach for reasons based on history, culture, competing foreign policy goals, and public opinion. Its sympathies lie with the Serbs. Turkey supports NATO out of alliance loyalty and because of its shared history, culture, and attendant sympathies with the Kosovar Albanians. Turkey is participating in the military operation; Greece is not. Greece and Turkey both reject the notion that a war between them might arise from the current conflict. Greece is concerned about the refugee crisis destabilizing the region. It also is concerned about the implications that its position on Kosovo might have on relations with the United States and Europe, while Turkey does not accept that the crisis might have implications for its southeast and Kurds. See CRS Issue Brief 98041, Kosovo and U.S. Policy, and CRS Issue Brief IB10027 Kosovo: U.S. and Allied Military Operations. This report will be updated if developments warrant.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
1999-05-27
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Cyprus: Status of U.N. Negotiations and Related Issues [Updated March 16, 2007]
From the Summary: "Cyprus has been divided since 1974. Greek Cypriots, 76% of the population, live in the southern two-thirds of the island. Turkish Cypriots, 19% of the populace, live in the 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' (TRNC), recognized only by Turkey, with about 36,000 Turkish troops providing security. United Nations peacekeeping forces (UNFICYP) maintain a buffer zone between the two. Since the late 1970s, the U.N., with U.S. support, has promoted negotiations aimed at reuniting the island as a federal, bicommunal, bizonal republic. [...] Some Members of Congress have urged the Administration to be more active, although they have not proposed an alternative to the U.N.-sponsored talks. Since the referenda, the Administration has been working to end the isolation of the Turkish Cypriots in order to diminish economic disparities between them and the Greek Cypriots and pave the way for reunification. Some Members have questioned this policy. Members are likely maintain their interest in Cyprus in the 110th Congress partly due to keen constituent concern. This CRS report will be updated as developments warrant."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Migdalovitz, Carol
2007-03-16
