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COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment-- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated December 30, 2020]

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From the Introduction: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. This report provides a brief overview of some potential implications the COVID-19 pandemic might have for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world, and a bibliography of CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports and other writings for further reading. Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. Congress's decisions regarding these issues could have significant and even profound implications for U.S. foreign and defense policy, and for the status of Congress as a co-equal branch relative to the executive branch in setting and overseeing the implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-12-30
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment-- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated December 14, 2020]

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From the Summary: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. Observers who argue the COVID-19 pandemic could be world-changing for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world have focused on several areas of potential change[.] [...] Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. Congress's decisions regarding these issues could have significant and even profound implications for U.S. foreign and defense policy, and for the status of Congress as a co-equal branch relative to the executive branch in setting and overseeing the implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; Moodie, Michael, 1948-; McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-12-14
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment-- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated November 3, 2020]

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From the Introduction: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. This report provides a brief overview of some potential implications the COVID-19 pandemic might have for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world, and a bibliography of CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports and other writings for further reading. [...] Appendix A presents a list of CRS reports that provide more in-depth discussions of issues presented in this report. Appendix B presents a list of additional writings reflecting various perspectives on these issues. A separate CRS report discusses the question of whether the U.S. role in the world is changing as a result of factors other than the COVID-19 pandemic."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; Moodie, Michael, 1948-; McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-11-03
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment-- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated August 31, 2020]

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From the Introduction: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. This report provides a brief overview of some potential implications the COVID-19 pandemic might have for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world, and a bibliography of CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports and other writings for further reading. Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. Congress's decisions regarding these issues could have significant and even profound implications for U.S. foreign and defense policy, and for the status of Congress as a co-equal branch relative to the executive branch in setting and overseeing the implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; Moodie, Michael, 1948-; McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-08-31
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment -- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated August 12, 2020]

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From the Summary: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; Moodie, Michael, 1948-; McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-08-12
U.S. Military Presence in Poland [Updated August 4, 2020]

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From the Introduction: "Poland has been a major focus of U.S. and NATO efforts to deter potential Russian aggression in Europe. This is due in part to its geographic location on NATO's eastern flank, providing land access to the Baltic States. Although Ukraine is not a NATO ally, the Russian occupation of Ukraine's Crimea region in 2014 and subsequent initiation of a separatist war in eastern Ukraine underscored to many observers that NATO allies, particularly those in Eastern Europe, could once again be threatened by Moscow. In response, the United States and its NATO allies have undertaken a number of initiatives to emphasize NATO's collective defense agreements, thereby assuring allies of their own security while simultaneously deterring Russian aggression. Poland is a critical partner in these efforts. The United States has bolstered security in Central and Eastern Europe with an increased rotational military presence, additional exercises and training with allies and partners, improved infrastructure to allow greater responsiveness, enhanced prepositioning of U.S. equipment, and intensified efforts to build partner capacity for newer NATO members and non-NATO countries. The European Deterrence Initiative (EDI), launched in 2014 (originally called the European Reassurance Initiative), an Overseas Contingency Operations account in the U.S. defense budget, is the key fiscal mechanism by which it does so. U.S. military operational activities of EDI are executed as part of Operation Atlantic Resolve (OAR). Approximately 6,000 U.S. military personnel are involved in OAR at any given time, with units typically operating in the region under a rotational nine-month deployment."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Feickert, Andrew; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Mix, Derek E.

2020-08-04
United States European Command: Overview and Key Issues [Updated August 4, 2020]

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From the Document: "United States European Command (or EUCOM, pronounced 'YEW-com') is headquartered in Stuttgart, Germany, and was established in 1952. Today its area of responsibility comprises 51 countries stretching from Portugal's Azores Islands to Iceland and Israel. USEUCOM's commander is currently U.S. Air Force General Tod Wolters, who is simultaneously the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). During the Cold War, the European theater was a primary focus for U.S. defense and national security and EUCOM was focused almost exclusively on deterring, and if necessary defeating, the Soviet Union. At the height of the Cold War, there were more than 400,000 U.S. troops stationed in Europe. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a withdrawal of the bulk of forward-deployed U.S. troops in the European theater. Decisions to do so were arguably based on a number of strategic assumptions held by successive administrations after the end of the Cold War, including that Europe could be stable, whole, and free; Russia could be a constructive partner in the Euro-Atlantic security architecture; and particularly prior to September 11, 2001, threats posed by terrorism and migration from the Middle East/North Africa region were limited."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

2020-08-04
U.S. Military Presence in Poland [Updated July 2, 2020]

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From the Introduction: "Poland has been a major focus of U.S. and NATO efforts to deter potential Russian aggression in Europe. This is due in part to its geographic location on NATO's eastern flank, providing land access to the Baltic states. Although Ukraine is not a NATO ally, the Russian occupation of Ukraine's Crimea region in 2014 and subsequent initiation of a separatist war in eastern Ukraine underscored to many observers that NATO allies, particularly those in Eastern Europe, could once again be threatened by Moscow. In response, the United States and its NATO allies have undertaken a number of initiatives to emphasize NATO's collective defense agreements, thereby assuring allies of their own security while simultaneously deterring Russian aggression. Poland is a critical partner in these efforts."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Feickert, Andrew; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Mix, Derek E.

2020-07-02
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment-- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated June 29, 2020]

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From the Introduction: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. This report provides a brief overview of some potential implications the COVID-19 pandemic might have for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world, and a bibliography of CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports and other writings for further reading. Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Moodie, Michael, 1948-

2020-06-29
Congress, Civilian Control of the Military, and Nonpartisanship [Updated June 11, 2020]

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From the Document: "The possible use of federal armed forces as part of the U.S. executive branch's response to incidents of violence during racial justice protests has raised questions about how the military is controlled by domestic political institutions and the U.S. military's relationship with American society. Article I of the U.S. Constitution grants specific powers to Congress, making the legislative branch a key actor in governing, overseeing, and funding the U.S. military."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-06-11
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment -- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated May 28, 2020]

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From the Introduction: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. This report provides a brief overview of some potential implications the COVID-19 pandemic might have for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world, and a bibliography of CRS [Congressional Research Service] reports and other writings for further reading. Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. Congress's decisions regarding these issues could have significant and even profound implications for U.S. foreign and defense policy, and for the status of Congress as a co-equal branch relative to the executive branch in setting and overseeing the implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Moodie, Michael, 1948-

2020-05-28
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment -- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated May 27, 2020]

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From the Summary: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Moodie, Michael, 1948-

2020-05-27
U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated May 8, 2020]

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From the Document: "Since May 2019, U.S.-Iran tensions have heightened significantly, and evolved into conflict after U.S. military forces killed Qasem Soleimani, the commander of the Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Quds Force (IRGC-QF) and one of Iran's most important military commanders, in a U.S. airstrike in Baghdad on January 3, 2020. The United States and Iran have appeared to be on the brink of additional hostilities since, as attacks by Iran-backed groups on bases in Iraq inhabited by U.S. forces have continued."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Katzman, Kenneth; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-05-08
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment-- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated May 8, 2020]

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From the Summary: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects. Observers who argue the COVID-19 pandemic could be world-changing for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world have focused on several areas of potential change. [...] Issues for Congress may include whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic could change the international security environment, whether the Trump Administration's actions for responding to such change are appropriate and sufficient, and what implications such change could have for the role of Congress in setting and overseeing the execution of U.S. foreign and defense policy. Congress's decisions regarding these issues could have significant and even profound implications for U.S. foreign and defense policy, and for the status of Congress as a co-equal branch relative to the executive branch in setting and overseeing the implementation of U.S. foreign and defense policy."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Moodie, Michael, 1948-

2020-05-08
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment -- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [Updated May 4, 2020]

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From the Summary: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Moodie, Michael, 1948-

2020-05-04
COVID-19: National Security and Defense Strategy [April 30, 2020]

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From the Document: "The outbreak of the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic has prompted questions about U.S. national security and crisis preparedness. Inherent to those discussions are broader, foundational questions about how the United States government conceptualizes national security, and the currently held view by many of the relative prioritization of the Department of Defense (DOD) over other instruments of national power."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-04-30
COVID-19: Potential Implications for International Security Environment -- Overview of Issues and Further Reading for Congress [April 30, 2020]

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From the Summary: "Some observers argue the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic could be a world-changing event with potentially profound and long-lasting implications for the international security environment and the U.S. role in the world. Other observers are more skeptical that the COVID-19 pandemic will have such effects."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

O'Rourke, Ronald; McInnis, Kathleen J.; Moodie, Michael, 1948-

2020-04-30
Overview: The Department of Defense and COVID-19 [March 31, 2020]

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From the Document: "The Department of Defense (DOD) is one of many U.S. government agencies participating in the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)-led COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] national response framework. As developments unfold, interest has grown regarding what DOD might be able to contribute to the U.S. government's COVID-19 response. On March 24, 2020, Secretary of Defense Esper stated that DOD's top COVID-19 priorities are protecting the Defense Department's people, maintaining military readiness, and supporting the whole-of-government interagency response. With respect to whole-of-government response, below is a non-exhaustive survey of some DOD capabilities that might be applied to the current situation if directed to do so."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-03-31
United States Southern Command (SOUTHCOM) [March 17, 2020]

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From the Document: "United States Southern Command (SOUTHCOM), headquartered in Miami, FL, was officially established in 1963. Prior to that, U.S. military elements in the Western hemisphere had been organized under the U.S. Caribbean Defense Command. SOUTHCOM's area of responsibility (AOR) begins at the southern Mexican border and contains the remaining elements of Central and South America, adjacent Atlantic and Pacific waters, as well as the Caribbean Sea, ultimately encompassing 31 countries and 16 dependencies and areas of special sovereignty. The region represents about one-sixth of the landmass of the world assigned to regional unified commands. SOUTHCOM is led by U.S. Navy Admiral Craig S. Faller."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

2020-03-17
Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations [Updated February 18, 2020]

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From the Document: "Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an inherently complex undertaking. One key to success, therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This enables senior leaders in the U.S. government--in particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense--to command and control military forces around the world."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-02-18
United States European Command: Overview and Key Issues [Updated February 13, 2020]

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From the History: "The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a withdrawal of the bulk of forward-deployed U.S. troops in the European theater. Decisions to do so were arguably based on a number of strategic assumptions held by successive administrations after the end of the Cold War, including that: [1] Europe could be stable, whole, and free; [2] Russia could be a constructive partner in the Euro-Atlantic security architecture; and [3] particularly prior to September 11, 2001, threats posed by terrorism and migration from the Middle East/North Africa region were limited. EUCOM [United States European Command] subsequently focused its activities on non-warfighting missions, including building the security capacity and capability of former Soviet bloc states, prosecuting 'crisis management' operations in the Balkans, and logistically supporting other combatant commands (by providing, in particular, critical medical evacuation facilities at Landstuhl), including U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) and U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM). Over the past 25 years, decisions regarding U.S. basing and posture in the European theater have largely reflected these assumptions. The bulk of U.S. forces in Europe have been withdrawn and many bases and outposts were either consolidated or closed. However, two Brigade Combat Teams (BCTs) were retained (in Italy and Germany) as were some naval bases, particularly those along NATO's southern flank, and a number of Air Force bases that were deemed critical for supporting operations in the Middle East, Africa and Europe."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

2020-02-13
United States Central Command [February 13, 2020]

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From the Document: "According to the U.S. Unified Command Plan, the Department of Defense (DOD) document that articulates the division of operational responsibilities amongst the 11 Combatant Commands (CoCOMs), United States Central Command (CENTCOM) has command authority over U.S. forces in the Middle East and West/Central Asia. CENTCOM was formally established by DOD on January 1, 1983. Its area of responsibility (AOR) comprises Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen, Iran, Turkmenistan, Lebanon, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Accordingly, its geography spans more than 4 million square miles and is populated by more than 550 million people from 22 ethnic groups, speaking 18 languages with hundreds of dialects and professing multiple religions that transcend national borders. Headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base (AFB) in Tampa, Florida, CENTCOM is commanded by Marine Corps General Kenneth F. McKenzie, who previously served as the Director of Strategic Plans and Policy in the Joint Staff."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

2020-02-13
Defense Primer: The Department of Defense [Updated January 24, 2020]

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From the Document: "The Department of Defense (DOD) was established after World War II through the 1947 National Security Act. At the time, some, including President Truman, took the view that the different components of the U.S. military had been insufficiently integrated to wage World War II effectively. The intention of the 1947 Act was therefore to create, for the first time, an integrated institution that combined the Departments of War and Navy, and to establish a policy architecture for overseeing the newly reorganized military apparatus. Over time, DOD has grown into one of the largest bureaucracies in the world, comprising over 3 million employees stationed across the United States and around the globe."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-01-24
Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations [Updated January 24, 2020]

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From the Document: "Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an inherently complex undertaking. One key to success, therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This enables senior leaders in the U.S. government--in particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense--to command and control military forces around the world."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-01-24
Defender Europe 20 Military Exercise, Historical (REFORGER) Exercises, and U.S. Force Posture in Europe [January 14, 2020]

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From the Document: "On October 7, 2019, the U.S. Army announced it would conduct the largest U.S.-based exercise of forces deploying to Europe in the past 25 years: Defender Europe 20. While some have compared it to annual Cold War-era REFORGER [Return of Forces to Germany] military exercises, the Army suggests that while similar, Defender Europe 20 will be a more complex exercise than historical REFORGER exercises in terms of logistics, multinational command and control, and multidomain operations."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Feickert, Andrew; McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-01-14
U.S. Killing of Qasem Soleimani: Frequently Asked Questions [Updated January 13, 2020]

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From the Document: "The January 2, 2020, U.S. killing in Iraq of Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Qods Force (IRGC-QF) Commander Qasem Soleimani, generally regarded as one of the most powerful and important officials in Iran, has potentially dramatic implications for the United States. For Congress, it raises possible questions about U.S. policy in the Middle East, broader U.S. global strategy, U.S. relations with partners and allies, the authorization and legality of U.S. military action abroad, U.S. measures to protect its servicemembers and diplomatic personnel, and congressional oversight of these and related issues."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); Katzman, Kenneth; Blanchard, Christopher M. . . .

2020-01-13
2019-2020 Iran Crisis and U.S. Military Deployments [January 9, 2020]

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From the Document: "The January 2, 2020, U.S. drone strike against Iranian Major General Qasem Soleimani, the subsequent Iranian counter-strike on bases hosting U.S. personnel in Iraq, and recent deployments of U.S. military forces to the Middle East have prompted widespread concerns about whether the United States is preparing to engage in another major military campaign in the region. Yet at present, the flow of additional forces into the U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) area of responsibility (AOR) suggests that the Department of Defense (DOD) is posturing itself in the region defensively, with the ability to respond to aggression, if necessary. The design of this posture may be altered should there be changes to security or political conditions on the ground, or political objectives for the region."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-01-09
U.S. Killing of Qasem Soleimani: Frequently Asked Questions [January 8, 2020]

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From the Document: "The January 2, 2020, U.S. killing in Iraq of Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Qods Force (IRGC-QF) Commander Qasem Soleimani, generally regarded as one of the most powerful and important officials in Iran, has potentially dramatic implications for the United States. For Congress, it raises possible questions about U.S. policy in the Middle East, broader U.S. global strategy, U.S. relations with partners and allies, the authorization and legality of U.S. military action abroad, U.S. measures to protect its service members and diplomatic personnel, and congressional oversight of these and related issues. This report provides background information in response to some frequently asked questions related to the strike and its aftermath."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); Katzman, Kenneth; Blanchard, Christopher M. . . .

2020-01-08
U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated January 6, 2020]

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From the Document: "Since May 2019, U.S.-Iran tensions have heightened significantly, and evolved into conflict after U.S. military forces killed Qasem Soleimani, the commander of the Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Quds Force (IRGC-QF) and one of Iran's most important military commanders, in a U.S. airstrike in Baghdad on January 2, 2020. In 2018, the Trump Administration withdrew from the 2015 multilateral nuclear agreement with Iran (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, JCPOA), and since mid-2019 has taken several steps in its campaign of applying 'maximum pressure' on Iran. Apparently in response to the maximum pressure campaign, Iran and Iran-linked forces have attacked and seized commercial ships, caused destruction of some critical infrastructure in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, attacked facilities used by U.S. military personnel in Iraq, and downed a U.S. unmanned aerial vehicle. As part of an effort its leaders term 'maximum resistance,' Iran has also reduced its compliance with the provisions of the JCPOA. The Administration has been deploying additional military assets to the region to try to deter future Iranian actions."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Katzman, Kenneth; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); McInnis, Kathleen J.

2020-01-06
U.S.-Iran Tensions and Implications for U.S. Policy [Updated September 23, 2019]

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From the Document: "Since May 2019, U.S.-Iran tensions have escalated significantly, but have stopped short of erupting into armed conflict. The Trump Administration, following its 2018 withdrawal from the 2015 multilateral nuclear agreement with Iran (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, JCPOA), has taken several steps in its campaign of applying 'maximum pressure' on Iran. Iran and Iranlinked forces have attacked and seized commercial ships, caused destruction of some critical infrastructure in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and posed threats to U.S. forces and interests, including downing a U.S. unmanned aerial vehicle. Iran has exceeded some nuclear limitations stipulated in the JCPOA. The Administration has sent additional military assets to the region to try to deter future Iranian actions and has continued to impose additional U.S. sanctions on Iran."

Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

Katzman, Kenneth; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); McInnis, Kathleen J.

2019-09-23

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