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• Defense Primer: Defense Appropriations Process [November 16, 2018]

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  From the Document: "The Constitution gives Congress the power of the purse in Article I, Section 9, which provides that 'No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law.' To fulfill this duty, Congress annually considers appropriations measures, which provide funding for numerous activities--such as national defense, education, and homeland security--consistent with policies and priorities established through legislation such as the National Defense Authorization Act. The congressional appropriations process includes various rules and practices that Congress has adopted to distinguish appropriations measures and facilitate their consideration. These measures generally provide funding authority in response to the President's budget request for a fiscal year (October 1 - September 30)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Saturno, James; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2018-11-16
• Defense Primer: DOD Transfer and Reprogramming Authorities [June 7, 2019]

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  From the Document: "In the 'United States Code' and annual authorization and appropriations acts, Congress provides the Department of Defense (DOD) limited authority to obligate funds for purposes other than originally approved. These authorities allow the department to 'transfer or reprogram' funds. A transfer involves shifting funds from one appropriations account to another, while a reprogramming involves shifting funds within the same account. DOD uses the term 'reprogramming action' to describe both types of transactions. This primer focuses on authorities provided in the fiscal year ending September 30, 2018."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Walenga, Aaron D.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2019-06-07
• Defense Primer: Procurement [December 20, 2018]

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  From the Document: "While the common use of the word procurement implies the process of obtaining goods or services, uses of the word procurement by national security experts and practitioners generally refers to a specific title within the annual National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) and defense appropriations legislation. [...] In FY2019, DOD received $135.4 billion in base budget procurement funding, as well as $12.6 billion in procurement funding designated for DOD overseas contingency operations (OCO)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Peters, Heidi M.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2018-12-20
• Defense Primer: Navigating the NDAA [November 16, 2018]

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  From the Document: "The annual National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) has a legacy of regular passage. FY2019 marked the 58th consecutive year for which an annual defense authorization was enacted. Many defense policymakers and officials see the bill as a reliable legislative vehicle for a range of policy matters. The NDAA routinely exceeds several hundred pages. It is comprised of policy provisions and annual authorizations of appropriations recently in excess of $700 billion. Unlike an appropriations bill, the NDAA does not provide budget authority for the Department of Defense (DOD). Instead, the NDAA establishes or continues defense programs, policies, projects, or activities at DOD and other federal agencies, and provides guidance on how the appropriated funds are to be used in carrying out those authorized activities. This primer provides an overview of the structure and organization of the NDAA."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Heitshusen, Valerie; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2018-11-16
• Defense Primer: Planning, Programming, Budgeting and Execution (PPBE) Process [Updated January 27, 2020]

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  From the Introduction:"Planning, Programming, Budgeting, and Execution (PPBE) is the Department of Defense (DOD) process for allocating resources. The annual process serves as the framework for DOD civilian and military leaders to decide which programs and force structure requirements to fund based on strategic objectives. The department's Defense Acquisition University (DAU) defines PPBE in part as 'a formal, systematic structure for making decisions on policy, strategy, and the development of forces and capabilities to accomplish anticipated missions.' DOD Directive 7045.14 states the objective of PPBE 'is to provide the DOD with the most effective mix of forces, equipment, manpower, and support attainable within fiscal constraints.' The process is designed to produce DOD's portion of the President's annual budget request to Congress and updates to the department's five-year spending plan known as the Future Years Defense Program, or FYDP (pronounced 'fiddip'). The process is also one leg of a triad of acquisition-related decision support systems that includes the Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System (JCIDS) for developing requirements to address capability gaps and the Defense Acquisition System (DAS) for managing acquisition."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Williams, Lynn M.

  2020-01-27
• Defense Primer: Navigating the NDAA [Updated January 29, 2020]

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  From the Document: "The annual National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) has a legacy of regular passage. FY2020 marked the 59th consecutive year for which an annual defense authorization was enacted. Many defense policymakers and officials see the bill as a reliable legislative vehicle for a range of policy matters. In recent years, the NDAA has included several hundred pages of policy provisions and annual authorizations of appropriations in excess of $700 billion. Unlike an appropriations bill, the NDAA does not provide budget authority for the Department of Defense (DOD). Instead, the NDAA establishes or continues defense programs, policies, projects, or activities at DOD and other federal agencies, and provides guidance on how the appropriated funds are to be used in carrying out those authorized activities. This primer provides an overview of the structure and organization of the NDAA."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-01-29
• Defense Primer: The NDAA Process [Updated January 8, 2020]

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  From the Document: "The National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) provides authorization of appropriations for the Department of Defense (DOD), nuclear weapons programs of the Department of Energy, DOD elements of the Intelligence Community, and defense-related activities at other federal agencies. In addition to serving as an authorization of appropriations, the NDAA establishes defense policies and restrictions, and addresses organizational administrative matters related to the DOD. Unlike an appropriations bill, the NDAA does not provide budget authority for government activities. Nevertheless, historically it has provided a fairly reliable indicator of congressional sentiment on subsequent appropriations for particular programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Heitshusen, Valerie; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-01-08
• FY2020 Military Construction Appropriations: An Overview of P.L. 116-94 (Division F) [January 8, 2020]

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  From the Document: "On December 20, 2019, President Donald Trump signed the Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020 (H.R. 1865; P.L. 116-94)--a package of multiple appropriations acts known as a 'minibus'--which included the Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2020 (Division F). Division F of P.L. 116-94 provides $18.2 billion in discretionary budget authority for Department of Defense (DOD) military construction (MILCON) projects-- including for Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) and natural disaster relief--and family housing, an increase of $5.4 billion (42%) from the FY2019 enacted level and $2.9 billion (14%) less than the President's budget request."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Herrera, G. James

  2020-01-08
• Defense Primer: Defense Appropriations Process [Updated December 23, 2019]

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  From the Document: "The Constitution gives Congress the power of the purse in Article I, Section 9, which provides that 'No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law.' To fulfill this duty, Congress annually considers appropriations measures, which provide funding for numerous activities--such as national defense, education, and homeland security--consistent with policies and priorities established through legislation such as the National Defense Authorization Act. The congressional appropriations process includes various rules and practices that Congress has adopted to distinguish appropriations measures and facilitate their consideration. These measures generally provide funding authority in response to the President's budget request for a fiscal year (October 1 through September 30)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Saturno, James; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2019-12-23
• Military Construction Funding in the Event of a National Emergency [Updated January 11, 2019]

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  "The President's reported consideration of whether to invoke various statutory authorities (including some triggered by a declaration of a national emergency) to direct the Department of Defense (DOD) to construct 'a physical barrier' along the U.S.-Mexico border has raised questions about potentially available appropriated funds. This Insight identifies previous military construction projects funded through emergency authorities and unobligated military construction funding balances. Title 10 U.S.C. Section 2808 is entitled Construction authority in the event of a declaration of war or national emergency and depends upon a 'declaration of war or the declaration by the President of a national emergency in accordance with the National Emergencies Act [NEA] (50 U.S.C. 1601 et seq.) that requires use of the armed forces.' A declaration by the President under the NEA must detail the statute under which action will proceed."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Vassalotti, Michael J.

  2019-01-11
• FY2020 National Security Space Budget Request: An Overview [June 7, 2019]

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  From the Background: "NSS [National Security Space] is a Major Force Program (MFP) of the Department of Defense (DOD). An MFP is an aggregation of resources necessary to achieve DOD objectives or plans. Of the dozen MFPs, six are combat force programs and six are support programs. The MFP for National Security Space, MFP-12, is the newest. Congress directed its establishment in the FY2016 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 114-92). MFP-12, a support program, includes funding for some classified programs. It generally excludes funding for National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) and National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) programs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCall, Stephen M.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2019-06-07
• FY2020 National Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 2500, S. 1790) [June 26, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Of the $750 billion requested by the Trump Administration for discretionary spending on National Defense-related activities in FY2020, approximately $742 billion falls within the scope of the National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA). The request includes $718.4 billion for operations of the Department of Defense (DOD) and $23.2 billion for defense-related work by the Energy Department involving nuclear energy, mostly related to nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants for warships. Other funding for defense-related activities, such as counter-intelligence work of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), falls under the jurisdiction of other congressional committees."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Towell, Pat; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2019-06-26
• FY2018 Defense Appropriations Act: An Overview [April 5, 2018]

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  "The FY2018 defense appropriations bill, Division C of the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2018 (H.R. 1625; P.L. 115-141), appropriates $647 billion for the Department of Defense (DOD). This amounts to an increase of $61 billion (about 10%) over the enacted FY2017 level and an increase of $24 billion over the President's FY2018 budget request for such activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Towell, Pat

  2018-04-05
• FY2019 National Defense Authorization Act: An Overview of H.R. 5515 [August 7, 2018]

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  "The FY2019 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) approved by Congress would authorize $708.1 billion in discretionary appropriations for national defense-related activities of the Department of Defense (DOD) and other agencies. The bill (H.R. 5515) would authorize $16 billion (2.3%) more than the amount authorized by the FY2018 NDAA (P.L. 115-91) and match the amount requested by the Administration. The bill would authorize $639.1 billion for so-called base budget activities--activities DOD and other agencies would pursue even if U.S. forces were not engaged in operations in Iraq, Syria, Afghanistan, and elsewhere. This figure includes $616.9 billion for DOD, $21.9 billion for defenserelated atomic energy programs of the Department of Energy, and $300 million for other defense-related activities. The bill would also authorize additional DOD appropriations totaling $69 billion--funding designated for Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO)--to cover the incremental cost of U.S. operations in the Middle East and South Asia as well as other costs Congress and President Donald Trump agree to designate for OCO."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Towell, Pat

  2018-08-07
• FY2019 Defense Appropriations Bill: An Overview of S. 3159, as Reported [July 27, 2018]

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  "The FY2019 Defense Appropriations Bill approved by the Senate Appropriations Committee on June 28 would appropriate $668 billion for the Department of Defense (DOD). This amount excludes appropriations for military facility construction and family housing, which are provided in a separate appropriations bill."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.

  2018-07-27
• Overseas Contingency Operations Funding: Background and Status [Updated September 6, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Congressional interest in Overseas Contingency Operation (OCO) funding has continued as Members debate ways of funding priorities without breaching discretionary spending limits set in law. Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Congress has appropriated $2 trillion in discretionary budget authority designated as 'emergency requirements or for Overseas Contingency Operations/Global War on Terrorism' (OCO/GWOT) in support of the broad U.S. government response to the 9/11 attacks and for other related international affairs activities. This figure amounts to 9.5% of total discretionary spending during this period. [...] While there is no overall statutory limit on the amount of emergency or OCO/GWOT spending, both Congress and the President have fundamental roles in determining how much of the spending to provide each fiscal year."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Morgenstern, Emily M.

  2019-09-06
• Overseas Contingency Operations Funding: Background and Status [Updated January 15, 2019]

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  "This report provides background information and potential oversight issues for Congress on warrelated and other international emergency or contingency-designated funding since FY2001. [...] This CRS [Congressional Research Service] report is meant to serve as a reference on certain funding designated as emergency requirements or for Overseas Contingency Operations/Global War on Terrorism (OCO/GWOT), as well as related budgetary and policy issues. It does not provide an estimate of war costs within the OCO/GWOT account (all of which may not be for activities associated with war or defense) or such costs in the DOD base budget or other agency funding (which may be related to war activities, such as the cost of health care for combat veterans)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Epstein, Susan B.

  2019-01-15
• FY2020 Defense Budget Request: An Overview [Updated March 26, 2019]

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  From the Document: "The President's FY2020 budget request includes $761.8 billion in budget authority for national defense, a major function of the federal budget that includes funding primarily for Department of Defense (DOD) programs but also for defense-related activities administered by other federal agencies, including the Department of Energy. National defense is one of 20 major functions used by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) to organize budget data―and the largest in terms of discretionary spending. The national defense budget function (identified by the numerical notation 050) comprises three subfunctions: DOD-Military (051); atomic energy defense activities primarily of the Department of Energy (053); and other defense-related activities (054), such as FBI counterintelligence activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Mann, Christopher; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2019-03-26
• Defense Primer: The NDAA Process [Updated November 9, 2018]

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  From the Document: "The National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) provides authorization of appropriations for the Department of Defense (DOD), nuclear weapons programs of the Department of Energy, DOD elements of the Intelligence Community, and defense-related activities at other federal agencies. In addition to serving as an authorization of appropriations, the NDAA establishes defense policies and restrictions, and addresses organizational administrative matters related to the DOD. Unlike an appropriations bill, the NDAA does not provide budget authority for government activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Heitshusen, Valerie; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2018-11-09
• Defense Primer: Planning, Programming, Budgeting and Execution (PPBE) Process [Updated November 30, 2018]

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  From the Introduction: "Planning, Programming, Budgeting, and Execution (PPBE) is an annual Department of Defense (DOD) process for allocating resources. It serves as the framework for DOD civilian and military leaders to decide which programs and force structure requirements to fund based on strategic objectives. The department's Defense Acquisition University (DAU) defines PPBE in part as 'a formal, systematic structure for making decisions on policy, strategy, and the development of forces and capabilities to accomplish anticipated missions.' DOD Directive 7045.14 states the objective of PPBE 'is to provide the DOD with the most effective mix of forces, equipment, manpower, and support attainable within fiscal constraints.' The process is designed to produce DOD's portion of the President's annual budget request to Congress and updates to the department's five-year spending plan known as the Future Years Defense Program, or FYDP (pronounced 'fiddip')."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Peters, Heidi M.

  2018-11-30
• Defense Primer: Future Years Defense Program (FYDP) [Updated December 13, 2018]

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  From the Document: "The primary mechanism for the Secretary of Defense to request, allocate, track, and expend DOD funds is known as the Planning, Programing, Budgeting, and Execution (PPBE) process. The 'Future Years Defense Program' (FYDP) is an annually compiled summary of the forces, resources, and programs associated with DOD operations. The FYDP is typically completed during the 'programming' phase of the PPBE process, and is generally updated during the 'budgeting' phase to reflect DOD's final funding decisions presented in the annual Presidential Budget Request (PBR). [...] Formally approved by the Secretary of Defense, the FYDP projects DOD funding, manpower, and force structure needs over a 5-year period. The FYDP depicts the allocation of defense resources in the two previous fiscal years and the current fiscal year and it provides force structure estimates for eight years. Section 221 of Title 10, United States Code, requires the Secretary of Defense to submit the FYDP to Congress in conjunction with the President's annual budget request. The FYDP is generally submitted to the congressional committees with jurisdiction over defense matters."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Peters, Heidi M.

  2018-12-13
• Defense Budget and the Budget Control Act: Frequently Asked Questions [July 13, 2018]

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  "Enacted on August 2, 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011 as amended (P.L. 112-25, P.L. 112240, P.L. 113-67, P.L. 114-74, and P.L. 115-123) sets limits on defense and nondefense spending. As part of an agreement to increase the statutory limit on public debt, the BCA aimed to reduce annual federal budget deficits by a total of at least $2.1 trillion from FY2012 through FY2021, with approximately half of the savings to come from defense. The spending limits (or caps) apply separately to defense and nondefense discretionary budget authority. Budget authority is authority provided by law to a federal agency to obligate money for goods and services. The caps are enforced by a mechanism called sequestration. Sequestration automatically cancels previously enacted appropriations (a form of budget authority) by an amount necessary to reach prespecified levels. The defense spending limits apply to national defense (budget function 050) but not to funding designated for Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) or emergencies. Some defense policymakers and officials argue the spending restrictions impede the Department of Defense's (DOD's) ability to adequately prepare military personnel and equipment for operations and other national security requirements. Others argue the limits are necessary to curb rising deficits and debt."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.

  2018-07-13
• Defense Budget and the Budget Control Act: Frequently Asked Questions [Updated September 30, 2019]

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  From the Document: "Enacted on August 2, 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011 as amended (P.L. 112-25, P.L. 112-240, P.L. 113-67, P.L. 114-74, P.L. 115-123, and P.L. 116-37) sets limits on defense and nondefense discretionary spending. As part of an agreement to increase the statutory limit on public debt, the BCA [Budget Control Act] aimed to reduce annual federal budget deficits by a total of at least $2.1 trillion from FY2012 through FY2021, with approximately half of the savings to come from defense. [...] Some defense policymakers and officials argue the BCA spending restrictions impede the Department of Defense's (DOD's) ability to adequately resource military personnel and equipment for operations and other national security requirements. Others argue the limits are necessary to curb rising deficits and debt."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.

  2019-09-30
• Defense Primer: Future Years Defense Program (FYDP) [Updated January 28, 2020]

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  From the Background: "The Future Years Defense Program (FYDP) is a projection of the forces, resources, and programs to support Department of Defense (DOD) operations. The FYDP is compiled every year and typically completed during the 'programming' phase of the Planning, Programming, Budgeting, and Execution (PPBE) process. The program is updated during the 'budgeting' phase to reflect DOD's final funding decisions presented in the annual President's budget request. The FYDP captures resource management decisions for projected DOD activities associated with normal, peacetime operations. Grouping funding by programs--rather than activities, as depicted in the annual budget justification documents--the FYDP reflects the planned allocation of DOD resources to major strategic efforts over a multiyear period."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.; Peters, Heidi M.

  2020-01-28
• Army's Modernization Strategy: Congressional Oversight Considerations [February 7, 2020]

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  From the Document: "In October 2019, the Army published a new modernization strategy aimed at transforming the Army in order to conduct Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) which are intended to address the current and future actions of near-peer competitors Russia and China. The Army's Modernization Strategy is part of a hierarchy of strategies designed, among other things, to inform the Service's respective modernization plans. These strategies include the National Security Strategy (NSS), the National Defense Strategy (NDS), the National Military Strategy (NMS), and the Army Strategy. The Army's Modernization Strategy establishes six material modernization priorities: [1] Long Range Precision Fires; [2] Next Generation of Combat Vehicles; [3] Future Vertical Lift; [4] Army Network; [5] Air and Missile Defense; [6] Soldier Lethality. [...] This report provides a number of possible questions and observations related to a potential Army modernization oversight architecture which could serve to provide both an element of continuity for hearings and a standard by which Congress might evaluate the efficacy of Army Modernization."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Feickert, Andrew; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-02-07
• Defense Primer: Procurement [Updated February 7, 2020]

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  From the Document: "While the common use of the word 'procurement' implies the process of obtaining goods or services, uses of the word 'procurement' by national security experts and practitioners generally refers to a specific title within the annual National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) and defense appropriations legislation. [...] Procurement funding authorized in a given fiscal year can usually be obligated over a period of three years. The most prominent exception is Navy Shipbuilding and Conversion funding, which is available for five years. The Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2020 (Division A of P.L. 116-93) provided $133.9 billion in procurement funding for DOD in the regular, or 'base', budget, [...] in addition to $11.8 billion in procurement funding designated for Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Peters, Heidi M.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-02-07
• FY2021 Defense Budget Request: An Overview [February 20, 2020]

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  From the Document: "The FY2021 President's budget request includes $753.5 billion in budget authority for national defense. National defense is one of 20 major functions used by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) to aggregate budget data―and the largest in terms of discretionary spending. The national defense budget function (identified by the numerical notation 050) comprises three subfunctions: Department of Defense (DOD)-Military (051); atomic energy defense activities primarily of the Department of Energy (053); and other defense-related activities (054), such as FBI counterintelligence activities."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-02-20
• Defense Primer: DOD Transfer and Reprogramming Authorities [Updated February 14, 2020]

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  From the Document: "In provisions of the 'U.S. Code' and on an annual basis through authorization and appropriations acts, Congress provides the Department of Defense (DOD) limited authority to obligate funds for purposes other than originally approved. These authorities allow the department to 'transfer' or 'reprogram' funds. A transfer involves shifting funds from one appropriations account to another, while a reprogramming involves shifting funds within the same account. DOD uses the term 'reprogramming' action to describe both types of transactions."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-02-14
• United States Central Command [February 13, 2020]

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  From the Document: "According to the U.S. Unified Command Plan, the Department of Defense (DOD) document that articulates the division of operational responsibilities amongst the 11 Combatant Commands (CoCOMs), United States Central Command (CENTCOM) has command authority over U.S. forces in the Middle East and West/Central Asia. CENTCOM was formally established by DOD on January 1, 1983. Its area of responsibility (AOR) comprises Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen, Iran, Turkmenistan, Lebanon, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Accordingly, its geography spans more than 4 million square miles and is populated by more than 550 million people from 22 ethnic groups, speaking 18 languages with hundreds of dialects and professing multiple religions that transcend national borders. Headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base (AFB) in Tampa, Florida, CENTCOM is commanded by Marine Corps General Kenneth F. McKenzie, who previously served as the Director of Strategic Plans and Policy in the Joint Staff."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-02-13
• United States European Command: Overview and Key Issues [Updated February 13, 2020]

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  From the History: "The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a withdrawal of the bulk of forward-deployed U.S. troops in the European theater. Decisions to do so were arguably based on a number of strategic assumptions held by successive administrations after the end of the Cold War, including that: [1] Europe could be stable, whole, and free; [2] Russia could be a constructive partner in the Euro-Atlantic security architecture; and [3] particularly prior to September 11, 2001, threats posed by terrorism and migration from the Middle East/North Africa region were limited. EUCOM [United States European Command] subsequently focused its activities on non-warfighting missions, including building the security capacity and capability of former Soviet bloc states, prosecuting 'crisis management' operations in the Balkans, and logistically supporting other combatant commands (by providing, in particular, critical medical evacuation facilities at Landstuhl), including U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) and U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM). Over the past 25 years, decisions regarding U.S. basing and posture in the European theater have largely reflected these assumptions. The bulk of U.S. forces in Europe have been withdrawn and many bases and outposts were either consolidated or closed. However, two Brigade Combat Teams (BCTs) were retained (in Italy and Germany) as were some naval bases, particularly those along NATO's southern flank, and a number of Air Force bases that were deemed critical for supporting operations in the Middle East, Africa and Europe."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McInnis, Kathleen J.; McGarry, Brendan W.

  2020-02-13