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• Federal Evacuation Policy: Issues for Congress [January 18, 2011]

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  "When government officials become aware of an impending disaster, they may take steps to protect citizens before the incident occurs. Evacuation of the geographic area that may be affected is one option to ensure public safety. If implemented properly, evacuation can be an effective strategy for saving lives. Evacuations and decisions to evacuate, however, can also entail complex factors and elevated risks. Decisions to evacuate may require officials to balance potentially costly, hazardous, or unnecessary evacuations against the possibility of loss of life due to a delayed order to evacuate. Some observers of evacuations, notably those from New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina, claim evacuations pose unique challenges to certain segments of society. From their perspective, special-needs populations, the transit-dependent, and individuals with pets faced particular hardships associated with the storm. This, they claim, is because some evacuation plans, and the way in which they were carried out, appeared to inadequately address their unique circumstances or needs. […] While federal law provides for certain aspects of civilian emergency evacuation, evacuation policy generally is established and enforced by state and local officials. In recent years, Members of Congress have focused, in part, on policy options that addressed issues of equity during evacuations as well as attempts to integrate federal, state, and local evacuation efforts more fully. This report discusses federal evacuation policy and analyzes potential lessons learned from the evacuations of individuals in response to the Gulf Coast hurricanes of 2005. Several issue areas that might arise concerning potential lawmaking and oversight on evacuation policy are also highlighted."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2011-01-18
• Disaster Relief Funding and Emergency Supplemental Appropriations [April 12, 2011]

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  From the Document: "When a state is overwhelmed by an emergency or disaster, the governor may request assistance from the federal government. Federal assistance is contingent on whether the President issues an emergency or major disaster declaration. Once the declaration has been issued the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provides disaster relief through the use of the Disaster Relief Fund (DRF), which is the source of funding for the Robert T. Stafford Emergency Relief and Disaster Assistance Act response and recovery programs. Congress appropriates money to the DRF to ensure that funding for disaster relief is available to help individuals and communities stricken by emergencies and major disasters (in addition, Congress appropriates disaster funds to other accounts administered by other federal agencies pursuant to federal statutes that authorize specific types of disaster relief). The DRF is generally funded at a level that is sufficient for what are known as 'normal' disasters. [...] This report describes the various components of the DRF, including (1) what authorities have shaped it over the years; (2) how FEMA determines the amount of the appropriation requested to Congress (pertaining to the DRF); and (3) how emergency supplemental appropriations are requested. In addition to the DRF, information is provided on funds appropriated in supplemental appropriations legislation to agencies other than the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Aspects of debate concerning how disaster relief is budgeted are also highlighted and examined, and alternative budgetary options are summarized."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Murray, Justin; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2011-04-12
• FY2010 Supplemental for Wars, Disaster Assistance, Haiti Relief, and Other Programs [July 23, 2010]

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  "Much of the debate about this year's supplemental focused on the effect on the deficit of additional spending. Under budget rules, Congress does not offset spending that is designated as emergency. So much of the debate has focused on what types of spending are appropriately emergency spending, and offsetting non-emergency spending. Offsets can come from either rescissions, which cancel prior year budget authority (BA), and then apply that BA to new spending, reducing the amount of new budget authority required, or mandatory program savings. On March 23, 2010, the House passed H.R. 4899, the Disaster Relief and Summer Jobs Act with $5.1 billion to replenish FEMA's Disaster Assistance Fund, $600 million for a Labor Department summer jobs program, offset by $600 million in rescissions so that the bill required $5.1 billion in new budget authority (BA). On May 26, 2010, the House Appropriations Committee (HAC) scheduled a markup of a draft bill with $84.8 billion in new BA, but that markup was cancelled. . On July 1, 2010, the House passed its amended version of the bill with $81.8 billion including funds for disaster assistance, wars, Haiti relief, preventing teacher layoffs, agricultural and energy loans, and Pell Grants in discretionary spending as well as mandatory funding for new VA benefits and the two court cases. With $12.2 billion in rescissions and ten-year savings of $4.5 billion in mandatory savings over ten years from lower government drug prices, that bill would require $65.1 billion in new BA."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Belasco, Amy; Else, Daniel H.; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2010-07-23
• National Response Framework: Overview and Possible Issues for Congress [November 20, 2008]

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  "In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Congress and the President moved to consolidate numerous federal emergency plans into a single, unified national response plan. The end product of these efforts was the National Response Plan (NRP), which established broad lines of authority for agencies responding to emergencies and major disasters. Perceived problems with the implementation of the NRP during Hurricane Katrina led Congress to enact the Post-Katrina Management Reform Act (P.L. 109- 295) to integrate preparedness and response authorities. The legislation directed DHS to issue a successor plan to the NRP entitled the National Response Framework (NRF). Implemented in March 2008, the NRF establishes a new approach to coordinating federal and nonfederal resources and entities. The Department of Homeland Security maintains that the NRF is an improvement over the NRP. Some, however, assert that the NRF is not an improvement because it does not fully address the problems and challenges associated with the NRP. In the 110th Congress, Members of Congress focused, in part, on policy options that addressed issues concerning the NRF as well as attempts to coordinate federal, state, and local preparedness and response efforts more fully. Some examples of federal laws enacted in the 110th Congress that have affected the NRF include [...]. This report discusses how national response planning documents have evolved over time and describes the authorities that shape the NRF. Several issue areas that might be examined for potential lawmaking and oversight concerning the NRF are also highlighted."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2008-11-20
• FY2010 Supplemental for Wars, Disaster Assistance, Haiti Relief, and Court Cases [May 12, 2010]

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  "The Defense Department, the State Department, FEMA [Federal Emergency Management Agency], and the court plaintiffs have all cited deadlines in May and June for when funding is needed, but there appears to be some flexibility in these dates. Because DOD has already received 80% of its war funding, the supplemental monies may not be needed until the end of July. FEMA has suggested that additional disaster funding is needed by June. Because its disaster funding was tapped to meet Haiti's needs, the State Department argues that it needs its funding by June. And while the plaintiffs in the Cobell and Pigford cases could reject the settlements if funding is not provided by this spring's deadlines, the Administration's support may dissuade them. Congress will consider this supplemental appropriations request within the constraints set forth in the FY2010 congressional budget resolution (S.Con.Res. 13), and other budget rules. Some Members may believe that the request should be exempt from such constraints by designating the additional spending as an emergency, as provided under the rules. Others, in light of the current fiscal environment, may believe that all or portions of the additional spending should be offset, so as not to increase the deficit. Congress could change the Administration's request. For DOD's request, issues could include whether to set a timeline to evaluate the Afghan war troop surge; whether plans and funding to accelerate the training of Afghan security forces are achievable; and whether DOD's basing request signifies a permanent presence."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Belasco, Amy; Else, Daniel H.; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2010-05-12
• Federal Evacuation Policy: Issues for Congress [April 29, 2010]

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  "When government officials become aware of an impending disaster, they may take steps to protect citizens before the incident occurs. Evacuation of the geographic area that may be affected is one option to ensure public safety. If implemented properly, evacuation can be an effective strategy for saving lives. Evacuations and decisions to evacuate, however, can also entail complex factors and elevated risks. Decisions to evacuate may require officials to balance potentially costly, hazardous, or unnecessary evacuations against the possibility of loss of life due to a delayed order to evacuate. […] For short-term sheltering, federally provided resources include food, water, cots, and essential toiletries. When displaced individuals need long-term sheltering, federal policy provides financial assistance for alternative accommodations such as apartments, motels and hotels, recreational vehicles, and modular units. While federal law provides for certain aspects of civilian emergency evacuation, evacuation policy generally is established and enforced by state and local officials. In recent years, Members of Congress have focused, in part, on policy options that addressed issues of equity during evacuations as well as attempts to integrate federal, state, and local evacuation efforts more fully. This report discusses federal evacuation policy and analyzes potential lessons learned from the evacuations of individuals in response to the Gulf Coast hurricanes of 2005. Several issue areas that might arise concerning potential lawmaking and oversight on evacuation policy are also highlighted. This report will be updated as significant legislative or administrative changes occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2010-04-29
• FY2010 Supplemental for Wars, Disaster Assistance, Haiti Relief, and Other Programs [June 30, 2010]

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  "On March 23, 2010, the House passed H.R. 4899, the Disaster Relief and Summer Jobs Act with $5.1 billion to replenish FEMA's Disaster Assistance Fund, and $600 million for a Labor Department summer jobs program. Including $600 million in rescissions, this bill required $5.1 billion in new appropriations. (Rescissions cancel previously appropriated budget authority which then offsets the amount of new budget authority--BA --that needs to be appropriated.) On May 26, 2010, the House Appropriations Committee (HAC) Democratic majority proposed a draft bill with $85.7 billion in funding, including $31 billion in additional domestic spending primarily to prevent layoffs of teachers, law enforcement personnel and firefighters and add more funds for Pell grants. Reflecting $900 million in rescissions, this bill would have required $84.8 billion in new BA. The May 27 markup of that bill was cancelled. On May 27, the Senate passed its version of H.R. 4899 by a vote of 67-28, with $59.6 billion in funding for disaster assistance, war funding, Haiti relief, and VA benefits, but with no additional domestic spending, and without the $4 billion for the two court cases, which were in H.R. 4213, the American Jobs and Closing Tax Loopholes Act of 2010. With rescissions, the Senate version required $59.4 billion in new budget authority. On June 30, 2010, the House Democratic majority leadership posted another draft with $75.3 billion in spending for disaster assistance, war funding, Haiti relief, VA benefits, and $14 billion in additional domestic spending, primarily to prevent teacher layoffs and provide more Pell Grants. With $11.7 billion in rescissions, that bill would require $63.7 billion in new BA."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Belasco, Amy; Else, Daniel H.; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2010-06-30
• FY2010 Supplemental for Wars, Disaster Assistance, Haiti Relief, and Court Cases [June 8, 2010]

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  "On March 23, 2010, the House passed H.R. 4899, the Disaster Relief and Summer Jobs Act with $5.7 billion in funding to replenish FEMA's Disaster Assistance Fund, and $600 million for a Labor Department summer jobs program. After four days of floor debate from May 24 through May 27, 2010, the Senate passed H.R. 4899 by a vote of 67-28, including not only the $5.7 billion for FEMA but also $36.6 for the Afghan and Iraq wars, $2.9 billion for Haiti relief and reconstruction, $193 million for expenses related to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and $13.4 billion for veterans affected by Agent Orange. The Senate bill also adds about $600 million in U.S. disaster aid, $400 million for other foreign aid and deletes the$600 million for summer jobs. The $58.9 billion total in the Senate bill is about $4 billion below the Administration request primarily because funds for the federal two court settlements are not included. Funding for those settlements is included in the House but not the Senate version of H.R. 4213, the American Jobs and Closing Tax Loopholes Act of 2010, and is likely to be settled in conference."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Belasco, Amy; Else, Daniel H.; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2010-06-08
• Federal Evacuation Policy: Issues for Congress [March 30, 2009]

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  "When government officials become aware of an impending disaster they may take steps to protect citizens before the incident occurs. Evacuation of the geographic area that may be affected is an option to ensure public safety. If implemented properly, evacuation can be an effective strategy for saving lives. Evacuations and decisions to evacuate, however, can also entail complex factors and elevated risks. Decisions to evacuate may require officials to balance potentially costly, hazardous, or unnecessary evacuations against the possibility of loss of life due to a delayed order to evacuate. Some observers of evacuations, notably that from New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina, claim evacuations pose unique challenges to certain segments of society. From their perspective, special-needs populations, the transit-dependent, and individuals with pets faced particular hardships associated with the storm. This, they claim, is because some evacuation plans, and the way in which they were carried out, appeared to inadequately address their particular circumstances or needs. In responding to these challenges, Then-senator Obama introduced S. 1685 in the 109th Congress which would have directed the Secretary of Homeland Security to ensure that each state provided detailed and comprehensive information regarding its pre-disaster and post-disaster plans for the evacuation of individuals with special needs in emergencies. President Obama indicated during his campaign that he would continue to pursue similar evacuation polices. Another facet of evacuation is sheltering displaced individuals. For short-term sheltering, federally provided resources include food, water, cots, and essential toiletries."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2009-03-30
• Disaster Relief Funding and Emergency Supplemental Appropriations [January 26, 2010]

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  From the Document: "When a state is overwhelmed by an emergency or disaster, the governor may request assistance from the federal government. Federal assistance is contingent on whether the President issues an emergency or major disaster declaration. Once the declaration has been issued the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provides disaster relief through the use of the Disaster Relief Fund (DRF), which is the source of funding for the Robert T. Stafford Emergency Relief and Disaster Assistance Act response and recovery programs. Congress appropriates money to the DRF to ensure that funding for disaster relief is available to help individuals and communities stricken by emergencies and major disasters (in addition, Congress appropriates disaster funds to other accounts administered by other federal agencies pursuant to federal statutes that authorize specific types of disaster relief). The DRF is generally funded at a level that is sufficient for what are known as 'normal' disasters. These are incidents for which DRF outlays are less than $500 million dollars. When a large disaster occurs, funding for the DRF may be augmented through emergency supplemental appropriations. A supplemental appropriation generally provides additional budget authority during the current fiscal year to: (1) finance activities not provided for in the regular appropriation; or (2) provide funds when the regular appropriation is deemed insufficient."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Murray, Justin; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2010-01-26
• Homeland Emergency Preparedness and the National Exercise Program: Background, Policy Implications, and Issues for Congress [November 10, 2008]

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  "This report, which will be updated as warranted, provides an overview of emergency preparedness authorities and guidance; development and management of the NEP; and current exercise planning, scheduling, and evaluation processes. Additionally, it provides analysis of national preparedness policy issues and exercise operations issues that Congress might wish to consider. […] An emergency preparedness and response program provides resources and support to individuals and communities that might be affected by a broad range of disruptive incidents. These incidents may be caused by natural phenomena such as severe weather, fires, earthquakes, tsunamis, or disease outbreaks. Incidents might result from human activity as well, and could include accidents, criminal acts, terrorism, or other attacks. Concerns have been raised whether current preparedness and response policies and capacities are sufficient. The effectiveness of preparedness doctrine may be demonstrated through responses to real incidents, or through exercises that practice and refine responses to a variety of potential disruptions. Exercises might demonstrate that responders have the capacity to respond effectively to an incident, or identify areas in which improvement is necessary. […] Current homeland emergency preparedness exercises, carried out through authorities that created the National Exercise Program (NEP), evaluate and adapt an integrated, interagency federal, state, territorial, local, and private sector capability to prevent terrorist attacks, and to rapidly and effectively respond to, and recover from, any terrorist attack or major disaster that occurs."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Kapp, Lawrence; Peterman, David Randall; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2008-11-10
• Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Legislation for Disaster Assistance: Summary Data [Updated October 31, 2008]

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  "This report provides summary information on emergency supplemental appropriations enacted after major disasters since 1989. During the 20-year span from FY1989 through the present, Congress appropriated almost $271 billion in constant 2008 dollars. Most of the appropriations were preceded by a presidential request for supplemental funding. In 2008 a number of major natural disasters took place including Hurricanes Ike and Gustav, the California wildfires, and the Midwest floods. To date however, the most costly disasters occurred in the summer of 2005 when Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma made landfall in Gulf Coast states. […] Prior to FY2005 and the hurricanes, only the terrorist attacks of 2001 led to supplemental appropriations legislation that exceeded $20 billion. Congress appropriated a total of more than $26 billion for disaster assistance in response to the attacks. […] At times, the supplementals enacted by Congress have included only disaster funding. The supplementals enacted after Hurricane Hugo and the Loma Prieta earthquake, in addition to the first two enacted after Hurricane Katrina, serve as examples. On other occasions, however, disaster funding has been part of larger pieces of legislation that appropriated funds for purposes other than disaster assistance. The most recent supplemental disaster assistance appropriation occurred on September 30, 2008 when the President signed into law H.R. 2638, the Consolidated Security, Disaster Assistance, and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2009. The statute, P.L.110-329, provides $21.3 billion in emergency supplemental appropriations for relief and recovery from hurricanes, floods, and other natural disasters."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Murray, Justin; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2008-10-31
• Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC): An Overview [July 21, 2008]

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  This CRS report provides an overview of the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC). More specifically, "EMAC is an agreement among member states to provide assistance after disasters overwhelm a state's capacity to manage consequences. The compact, initiated by the states and coordinated by the National Emergency Management Association, provides a structure for requesting emergency assistance from party states. In 1996 Congress approved EMAC as an interstate compact (P.L. 104-321). EMAC also resolves some, but not all, potential legal and administrative obstacles that may hinder such assistance at the state level. EMAC also enhances state preparedness for terrorist attacks by ensuring the availability of resources for fast response and facilitating multi-state cooperation in training activities and preparedness exercises. In June of 2008, a bill to reform mutual aid agreements for the National Capital Region (P.L. 110-250) was enacted to expand the types of organizations and agencies in the region that are authorized to enter into agreements and ease the requirements for agents and volunteers to respond to an incident. Legislation in the 110th Congress (S. 1452) would require EMAC to ensure that licensed mental health professionals with expertise in treating vulnerable populations are included in the leadership of the National Disaster Medical System and are available for deployment with Disaster Medical Assistance Teams."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2008-07-21
• Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Legislation for Disaster Assistance: Summary Data [Updated August 14, 2008]

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  "This report provides summary information on emergency supplemental appropriations enacted after major disasters since 19891. During the 20-year span from FY1989 through the present, Congress appropriated almost $250 billion in constant 2008 dollars. Most of the appropriations were preceded by a presidential request for supplemental funding. The most recent and costly disasters occurred in the summer of 2005 when Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma made landfall in Gulf Coast states. Since Hurricane Katrina struck in August of 2005, more than $130 billion has been appropriated for supplemental disaster funding, most of it needed for the recovery from the 2005 hurricanes. Portions of the appropriations were offset by rescinding more than $34 billion in previously appropriated funds, explained in the section titled 'Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma.' Prior to FY2005 and the hurricanes, only the terrorist attacks of 2001 led to supplemental appropriations legislation that exceeded $20 billion. Congress appropriated a total of more than $26 billion for disaster assistance in response to the attacks. […] On other occasions, however, disaster funding has been part of larger pieces of legislation that appropriated funds for purposes other than disaster assistance. The most recent supplemental disaster assistance appropriation occurred on June 30, 2008 when the President signed into law H.R. 2642, the Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2008. The statute, P.L.110-252, provides $7 billion in disaster related funding, most of which has been appropriated for disaster relief associated with the 2005 hurricane season."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Murray, Justin; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2008-08-14
• Federal Evacuation Policy: Issues for Congress [November 12, 2008]

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  "When government officials become aware of an impending disaster they may take steps to protect citizens before the incident occurs. Evacuation of the geographic area that may be affected is an option to ensure public safety. If implemented properly, evacuation can be an effective strategy for saving lives. Evacuations and decisions to evacuate, however, can also entail complex factors and elevated risks. Decisions to evacuate may require officials to balance potentially costly, hazardous, or unnecessary evacuations against the possibility of loss of life due to a delayed order to evacuate. Some observers of evacuations, notably that from New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina, claim evacuations pose unique challenges to certain segments of society. From their perspective, special-needs populations, the transit-dependent, and individuals with pets faced particular hardships associated with the storm. This, they claim, is because some evacuation plans, and the way in which they were carried out, appeared to inadequately address their particular circumstances or needs. In responding to these challenges, Then-senator Obama introduced S. 1685 in the 109th Congress which would have directed the Secretary of Homeland Security to ensure that each state provided detailed and comprehensive information regarding its pre-disaster and post-disaster plans for the evacuation of individuals with special needs in emergencies. President-elect Obama indicated during his campaign that he would continue to pursue similar evacuation polices. Another facet of evacuation is sheltering displaced individuals. For short-term sheltering, federally provided resources include food, water, cots, and essential toiletries. When displaced individuals need long-term sheltering, federal policy provides financial assistance for alternative accommodations such as apartments, motels and hotels, recreational vehicles, and modular units. [...]This report discusses federal evacuation policy and analyzes potential lessons learned from the evacuation of individuals from Hurricane Katrina. Several issue areas that might arise concerning potential lawmaking and oversight on evacuation policy are also highlighted. This report will be updated as significant legislative or administrative changes occur."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2008-11-12
• FY2010 Supplemental for Wars, Disaster Assistance, Haiti Relief, and Other Programs [July 27, 2010]

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  This report discusses the U.S. budget. From the text: "Much of the debate about this year's supplemental focused on the effect on the deficit of additional spending. Under budget rules, Congress does not offset spending that is designated as emergency. So much of the debate has focused on what types of spending are appropriately emergency spending, and offsetting non-emergency spending. Offsets can come from either rescissions, which cancel prior year budget authority (BA), and then apply that BA to new spending, reducing the amount of new budget authority required, or mandatory program savings. On March 23, 2010, the House passed H.R. 4899, the Disaster Relief and Summer Jobs Act with $5.1 billion to replenish FEMA's [Federal Emergency Management Agency] Disaster Assistance Fund, $600 million for a Labor Department summer jobs program, offset by $600 million in rescissions so that the bill required $5.1 billion in new budget authority (BA). On May 26, 2010, the House Appropriations Committee (HAC) scheduled a markup of a draft bill with $84.8 billion in new BA, but that markup was cancelled."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Belasco, Amy; Else, Daniel H.; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2010-07-27
• SBA Disaster Loan Program: Overview and Possible Issues for Congress [September 2, 2011]

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  "Through its Disaster Loan Program, the Small Business Administration (SBA) has been a major source of assistance for the restoration of commerce and households in areas stricken by natural and human-caused disasters since the agency's creation in 1953. SBA offers direct loans to businesses to help repair, rebuild, and recover from economic losses after a disaster, but approximately 80% of the agency's approved direct disaster loans are made to individuals and households (renters and property owners) to help repair and replace homes and personal property. The SBA Disaster Loan Program includes four categories of loans for disaster-related losses: (1) Home Disaster Loans, (2) Business Disaster Loans, (3) Economic Injury Disaster Loans (EIDL), and (4) Pre-Disaster Mitigation Loans. Home disaster loans are used by homeowners and renters to repair or replace their disaster-damaged primary residences or personal property. SBA regulations limit home loans to $200,000 for the repair or replacement of real estate and $40,000 for the repair or replacement personal property. Business disaster loans help businesses of all sizes and nonprofit organizations repair or replace disaster-damaged property, including inventory and supplies. […] This report also discusses some of the reforms contained in Title VII of H.R. 3854, the Small Business Financing and Investment Act of 2009, which passed the House on October 29, 2009, and was referred to the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship. H.R. 3854 contains provisions intended to address some of the programmatic and policy issues associated with the SBA Disaster Loan Program."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2011-09-02
• Social Media and Disasters: Current Uses, Future Options, and Policy Considerations [September 6, 2011]

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  "The development of new technologies that have emerged since the mid-1990s has led to Internet-based applications known as 'social media' that enable people to interact and share information through media that were non-existent or widely unavailable 15 years ago. Examples of social media include blogs, chat rooms, discussion forums, wikis, YouTube Channels, LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter. Social media can be accessed by computer, tablets, smart and cellular phones, and mobile phone text messaging (SMS). In the last five years social media have played an increasing role in emergencies and disasters. Social media sites rank as the fourth most popular source to access emergency information. They have been used by individuals and communities to warn others of unsafe areas or situations, inform friends and family that someone is safe, and raise funds for disaster relief. Facebook supports numerous emergency-related organizations, including Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management (ISCRAM), The Humanitarian Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) Project, as well as numerous universities with disaster-related programs. The use of social media for emergencies and disasters may be conceptualized as two broad categories. First, social media can be used somewhat passively to disseminate information and receive user feedback via incoming messages, wall posts, and polls. To date, this is how most emergency management organizations, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), use social media. A second approach involves the systematic use of social media as an emergency management tool."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2011-09-06
• Examination of Federal Disaster Relief Under the Budget Control Act [February 10, 2012]

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  "Concern over the size of the federal budget deficit and the national debt has brought congressional attention, as an ancillary issue, to both the amount of funding the federal government provides to states and localities for disaster assistance and the processes the federal government uses to provide that assistance. The amount of funding provided by Congress for declared emergencies and major disasters has grown considerably in the past decade, driven principally by the hurricane season of 2005. Although funds have been reallocated at times from one account to another to provide for disaster-related assistance, disaster relief funding has historically not been fully offset. Disaster relief funding has usually not been tightly constrained, either, with supplemental spending bills often funding these activities outside the allocations of discretionary budget authority and outlays associated with budget resolutions. Two potential methods for reducing the impact of disaster assistance spending on the federal budget are (1) the use of offsets and (2) placing controls on the level of allowable spending. Among its provisions, the Budget Control Act (P.L. 112-25, hereafter the BCA) provides a mechanism designed, arguably, to limit spending on major disasters declared under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (P.L. 93-288, hereafter the Stafford Act), thereby limiting the impact of such spending on the budget deficit. This report reviews current disaster funding practices and examines potential issues presented to disaster funding under the BCA mechanism. The report also discusses how OMB [Office of Management and Budget] calculates the 'allowable adjustment' to discretionary spending caps for disaster relief pursuant to the BCA, and the potential policy implications that may result from that process."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.; Painter, William L.; McCarthy, Francis X.

  2012-02-10
• Considerations for a Catastrophic Declaration: Issues and Analysis [July 6, 2011]

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  "The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (the Stafford Act) is the principal authority governing federal emergency and disaster response in the United States. The act authorizes the President to issue three categories of declaration: (1) major disaster, (2) emergency, or (3) fire assistance declarations in response to incidents that overwhelm the resources of state and local governments. Once a declaration is issued, a wide range of federal disaster assistance becomes available to eligible individuals and households, public entities, and certain nonprofit organizations. Disaster assistance authorized by the Stafford Act is appropriated by Congress and provided through the Disaster Relief Fund. Emergency declarations supplement and promote coordination of local and state efforts such as evacuations and protection of public assets. They may also be declared prior to the impact of an incident to protect property, public health and safety and lessen or avert the threat of a major disaster or catastrophe. […] This report examines concerns expressed by policymakers and experts that current Stafford Act declarations are inadequate to respond to, and recover from, highly destructive events, and presents the arguments for and against amending the act to add a catastrophic declaration amendment. This report also includes data analyses of past and potential disasters to determine what incidents might be deemed as catastrophic, and explores alternative policy options that might obviate the need for catastrophic declarations. This report will be updated as events warrant."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, Francis X.; Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2011-07-06
• Federal Disaster Assistance after Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, Wilma, Gustav, and Ike [July 5, 2013]

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  "This report provides information on federal financial assistance provided to the Gulf States after major disasters were declared in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas in response to the widespread destruction that resulted from Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma in 2005 and Hurricanes Gustav and Ike in 2008. Congressional interest in Gulf Coast assistance has increased in recent years because of the significant amount of assistance provided to the region. Congress has also been interested in how the money has been spent, what resources have been provided to the region, and whether the money has reached the people and entities intended to receive the funds. The financial information is also useful for congressional oversight of the funds to identify the entities that have received the funds and to evaluate the overall effectiveness of the assistance. In addition, the information can help frame the congressional debate concerning federal assistance for current and future disasters."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.; Nagel, Jared C.

  2013-07-05
• FEMA's Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Selected Issues [May 7, 2014]

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  "The Robert T. Stafford Emergency Relief and Disaster Assistance Act (P.L. 93-288, as amended) authorizes the President to issue declarations for incidents ranging from destructive, large-scale disasters to more routine, less damaging events. Declarations trigger federal assistance in the forms of various response and recovery programs under the Stafford Act to state, local, and tribal governments. The Federal Emergency Management Agency's (FEMA's) Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) is the primary funding source for disaster response and recovery. […] This report describes the declaration process and the types of declarations that can be issued under the Stafford Act: (1) emergency and major disaster declarations, and (2) Fire Management Assistance Grants. The report also examines how the DRF is financed. This discussion is followed by an analysis concerning the issues related to the DRF including the debate over supplemental appropriations, how the DRF is budgeted, and the influence the Budget Control Act has had on the DRF."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2014-05-07
• Supplemental Appropriations for Disaster Assistance: Summary Data and Analysis [October 1, 2014]

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  "The federal government has provided a significant amount of money through supplemental appropriations to state, local, and tribal governments to help them repair, rebuild, and recover from catastrophic incidents. For example, Congress provided roughly $120 billion for the 2005 and 2008 Gulf Coast hurricane seasons and $50 billion for Hurricane Sandy recovery. Congressional interest in disaster assistance has always been high given the associated costs. Additional issues associated with disaster assistance have been contentious. These issues include: (1) increasing disagreements over the appropriate role of the federal government in providing assistance including whether some of the federal burden for disaster assistance should be shifted to states and localities; (2) the appropriate use of supplemental appropriations to pay for disaster relief; (3) reducing federal costs by eliminating unrelated spending in disaster funding bills; (4) creating alternative funding methods such as a rainy-day fund or a contingency fund; (5) the use of offsets for disaster assistance; (6) altering policies that would limit the number of declarations issued each year; and (7) converting some or all disaster assistance to disaster loans. This report provides summary information on supplemental appropriations legislation enacted since FY2000 after significant large-scale disasters. It includes funds appropriated to various departments and agencies."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.; Murray, Justin

  2014-10-01
• Major Disaster Declarations for Snow Assistance and Severe Winter Storms: An Overview [December 1, 2014]

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  From the Document: "The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provides two types of assistance for winter incidents: (1) 'snow assistance,' and (2) assistance for 'severe winter storms.' Both types of assistance are triggered by a presidential disaster declaration. The criteria used by FEMA to determine whether to recommend a declaration depend on the type of winter incident. Snow assistance determinations are based on snow accumulations. Determinations for severe winter storms are based on the severity and magnitude of the event and the capabilities of the state and affected local governments to respond to the incident. Requests for snow assistance and assistance for severe winter storms must also include the estimated cost of federal and nonfederal public assistance associated with the incident. FEMA divides the estimated cost of federal and nonfederal public assistance by the statewide population to give some measure of the per capita impact the incident has had on the state. This report describes snow assistance and assistance for severe winter storms, the declaration process, the criteria used to make eligibility determinations, and the types of assistance that are provided after the President has issued a major disaster declaration for the incident. This report also provides historical data on winter incidents since 2009 including obligations for the incidents from FEMA's Disaster Relief Fund (DRF). The DRF is the main account used to fund a wide variety of programs, grants, and other forms of emergency and disaster assistance to states, local governments, certain nonprofit entities, and families and individuals affected by disasters."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2014-12-01
• FEMA DRF Major Disaster Assistance: Wisconsin [January 28, 2015]

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  "The Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) is managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and is the primary source of funding used to provide assistance following a major disaster declaration. The authority to declare a major disaster is provided to the President under the Robert T. Stafford Emergency Relief and Disaster Assistance Act (P.L. [Public Law] 93-288). The information below includes only the funding provided as a result of a major disaster declaration, not other assistance funded through the DRF. Additionally, this information does not include other federal sources of disaster assistance, such as Small Business Administration disaster loans. FEMA administers disaster relief through regional offices around the country. Wisconsin is part of Region V, headquartered in Chicago, IL."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  McCarthy, Francis X.; Lindsay, Bruce R.; Brown, Jared T. . . .

  2015-01-28
• Stafford Act Declarations 1953-2014: Trends, Analyses, and Implications for Congress [July 14, 2015]

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  "The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act authorizes the President to issue declarations that provide states and localities with a range of federal assistance in response to natural and man-made incidents. Since 1953 the number of declarations issued each year has steadily increased. For example, the average number of major disaster declarations issued from 1960 to 1969 was roughly 19 per year. In contrast, the average number of major disaster declarations issued from 2000 to 2009 was 56 per year. The highest number was declared in 2011, with 99 major disaster declarations. Declarations are of congressional concern for at least two reasons: (1) congressional oversight of appropriations and the federal budget has led to an awareness of expenditures for disaster assistance, and (2) some are skeptical that declarations are solely made to provide disaster relief. They argue that declarations have become political tools--especially during election years--to gain political favor. Advocates of this position point to incidents which, in their view, could have been handled without federal assistance. This report describes the declaration process and the types of declarations that can be declared under the Stafford Act: (1) Fire Management Assistance Grants, (2) emergencies, and (3) major disasters."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.; McCarthy, Francis X.

  2015-07-14
• Wildfire Spending: Background, Issues, and Legislation in the 114th Congress [June 26, 2015]

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  "The federal government is responsible for managing wildfires that begin on federal lands--such as national forests or national parks--while the states are responsible for managing wildfires that originate on all other lands. The federal government's wildfire management responsibilities-- provided primarily through the Forest Service (FS) and Department of the Interior (DOI)-- include prevention, detection, response, and recovery. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) may also provide disaster relief for certain nonfederal wildfires. Congress appropriates wildfire management funding to both FS and DOI. Within their overall appropriations for wildfire, suppression operati ons are appropriated through two accounts for each agency: the Wildland Fire Management (WFM) accounts and the Federal Land Assistance, Management, and Enhancement Act (FLAME) reserve accounts. If the suppression funding in both of these accounts is exhausted during any given fiscal year, FS and DOI are authorized to transfer funds from their other accounts to pay for suppression activities. Congress also may provide additional funds for suppression activities through emergency or supplemental appropriations. Thus, for any given year, total suppression appropriations to FS or DOI may be a combination of three sources: the WFM suppression activity, the FLAME account, and supplemental appropriations, and the agencies also may access additional funding as needed through transfers."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hoover, Katie; Lindsay, Bruce R.; McCarthy, Francis X. . . .

  2015-06-26
• Wildfire Spending: Background, Issues, and Legislation in the 114th Congress [July 7, 2015]

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  From the summary: "The federal government is responsible for managing wildfires that begin on federal lands--such as national forests or national parks--while the states are responsible for managing wildfires that originate on all other lands. The federal government's wildfire management responsibilities-- provided primarily through the Forest Service (FS) and Department of the Interior (DOI)-- include prevention, detection, response, and recovery. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) may also provide disaster relief for certain nonfederal wildfires. Congress appropriates wildfire management funding to both FS and DOI. Within their overall appropriations for wildfire, suppression operations are appropriated through two accounts for each agency: the Wildland Fire Management (WFM) accounts and the Federal Land Assistance, Management, and Enhancement Act (FLAME) reserve accounts. If the suppression funding in both of these accounts is exhausted during any given fiscal year, FS and DOI are authorized to transfer funds from their other accounts to pay for suppression activities. Congress also may provide additional funds for suppression activities through emergency or supplemental appropriations. Thus, for any given year, total suppression appropriations to FS or DOI may be a combination of three sources: the WFM suppression activity, the FLAME account, and supplemental appropriations, and the agencies also may access additional funding as needed through transfers."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Hoover, Katie; Lindsay, Bruce R.; McCarthy, Francis X. . . .

  2015-07-07
• DHS Appropriations FY2016: Protection, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery [September 8, 2015]

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  "This report is part of a suite of reports that discuss appropriations for the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) for FY2016. It specifically discusses appropriations for the components of DHS included in the third title of the homeland security appropriations bill--the National Protection and Programs Directorate (NPPD), the Office of Health Affairs (OHA), and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Collectively, Congress has labeled these components in the appropriations act in recent years as 'Protection, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery.' The report provides an overview of the Administration's FY2016 request for Protection, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery, and the appropriations proposed by Congress thus far. Rather than limiting the scope of its review to the third title, the report includes information on provisions throughout the proposed bill and report that directly affect these functions. Protection, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery is the second largest of the four titles that carry the bulk of the funding in the bill. The Administration requested $6,222 million for these components in FY2016, $267 million more than was provided for FY2015. These three components make up 15.0% of the administration's $41.4 billion request for the department in net discretionary budget authority, and the proposed additional funding is 15.5% of the total net increase requested. Most of the proposed net discretionary increase is for NPPD ($157 million, or 10.5% more than last year) and its work in cybersecurity and communications. The administration also requested an additional $6.7 billion not reflected above for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in disaster relief funding, as defined by the Budget Control Act (BCA, P.L. 112-25)."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Painter, William L.; Moteff, John D.; Lister, Sarah A. . . .

  2015-09-08
• SBA Disaster Loan Program: Overview and Possible Issues for Congress [October 23, 2015]

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  "Through its Office of Disaster Assistance (ODA), the Small Business Administration (SBA) has been a major source of assistance for the restoration of commerce and households in areas stricken by natural and human-caused disasters since the agency's creation in 1953. Through its disaster loan program, SBA offers low-interest, long-term loans for physical and economic damages to businesses to help repair, rebuild, and recover from economic losses after a declared disaster. The majority of the agency's disaster loans, however (over 80%) are made to individuals and households (renters and property owners) to help repair and replace homes and personal property. [...] This report describes the SBA Disaster Loan Program, including the types of loans available to individuals, households, businesses, and nonprofit organizations, and highlights issues that may be of potential congressional concern. These concerns include SBA loan processing times, the use of personal residences as collateral for business disaster loans, and the implementation of expedited and immediate assistance programs required by Small Business Disaster Response and Loan Improvements Act of 2008."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lindsay, Bruce R.

  2015-10-23