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Appropriations for FY2003: Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs [Updated June 13, 2002]
The annual Foreign Operations appropriations bill is the primary legislative vehicle through which Congress reviews the U.S. foreign aid budget and influences executive branch foreign policy making generally. President Bush has requested $16.12 billion for FY2003 Foreign Operations, an amount 5% higher than regular FY2002 appropriations, but somewhat less than enacted FY2002 foreign aid appropriations when amounts allocated from the Emergency Terrorism Response (ETR) fund are included. Overall, the FY2003 request includes $3.5 billion in aid for "front-line" states in the war on terrorism. Key Foreign Operations issues that are likely to attract considerable debate this year include: size and composition of aid to help combat terrorism, including amounts proposed as an FY2002 supplemental; the President's pledge to increase U.S. economic assistance by $5 billion by FY2006 and whether the initiative should begin immediately; development aid funding priorities, especially the adequacy of U.S. support for international HIV/AIDS programs and proposed reductions for other global health programs; funding for family planning programs and eligibility of the U.N. Population Fund; and assistance to Colombia, especially proposals to expand aid beyond counter-narcotics to a broader counter-terrorism focus.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nowels, Larry Q.
2002-06-13
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FEMA's Mission: Policy Directives for the Federal Emergency Management Agency [Updated March 13, 2002]
"The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) assists states and localities overwhelmed by, or at risk from, disasters. FEMA also coordinates federal emergency management activities and planning for the continuity of government should national security be threatened. [...] This report identifies authorities drawn from public sources. It does not refer to classified authorities not available to the public, does not include references to temporary authorities that require FEMA to provide assistance for specific disasters or needs, and does not include information on plans, regulations, or operating manuals developed to implement these policies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bea, Keith
2002-03-13
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Operations Enduring Freedom and Noble Eagle: Questions and Answers About U.S. Military Personnel, Compensation, and Force Structure [Updated September 16, 2004]
"This report provides short answers to commonly asked questions about military personnel, compensation, and force structure issues related to Operation Noble Eagle (ONE), Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). [...] The section on personnel addresses issues such as casualties, reserve mobilization, 'sole surviving son or daughter' status, conscientious objection, and 'stop-loss.' The section on compensation addresses issues related to the pay and benefits - including death benefits - provided to members of the U.S. military participating in OEF/ONE and their families. The section on force structure addresses issues related to how ONE/OEF/OIF might affect the number of personnel needed by the military, and responds to common questions about whether a return to conscription is likely under current circumstances."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kapp, Lawrence
2002-03-19
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Selected Procedural Safeguards in Federal, Military, and International Courts [January 30, 2002]
"Declaring it necessary to bring to justice those responsible for the terrorist attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001, President Bush signed a Military Order (M.O.) authorizing the trial by military commission of certain non-citizens. The order directs the Secretary of Defense to establish the procedural rules for the operation of the military commissions convened pursuant to the M.O. The Department of Defense is reportedly drafting regulations, but few details have been released. In the meantime, there has been much discussion about the procedural safeguards to be applied by the military commissions. The chart that follows compares selected procedural safeguards employed in criminal trials in federal criminal court with parallel protective measures in military general courts-martial, military commissions as authorized under the Military Order of November 13, and, as a possible benchmark of international standards, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Elsea, Jennifer
2002-01-30
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September 11th Victim Compensation Fund of 2001 [Updated March 13, 2002]
"'September 11th Victim Compensation Fund of 2001,' creates a federal program to compensate victims of the September 11 attacks. A victim or, if he is deceased, his 'personal representative,' may seek no-fault compensation from the program or may bring a tort action against an airline or any other party, but may not do both, unless the other party is a terrorist. [...] The final two sections of this report discuss, respectively, the interaction of the USA PATRIOT ACT of 2001, P.L. [Public Law] 107-56, with the September 11th Victims Compensation Fund of 2001; and the final rule issued by the Special Master on March 7, 2002 to implement the September 11th Victim Compensation Fund of 2001; it replaced the interim final rule that had taken effect on December 21, 2001."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cohen, Henry, 1949-
2002-03-13
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Bioterrorism: Summary of a CRS/National Health Policy Forum Seminar on Federal, State, and Local Public Health Preparedness [Updated March 8, 2002]
"The September 11th attack and subsequent intentional release of anthrax spores via the U.S. postal system have focused policymakers' attention on the preparedness and response capability of the nation's public health system. [...] Mending the gaps in the current public health fabric will require significant long-term commitments from the federal government, including investments and improvements in: laboratory capacity, regional planning, workforce training, epidemiology and surveillance systems, information systems, communication systems, and media relations. [...] It is imperative that all preparedness efforts be coordinated at all levels of government-federal, state, and local."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Strongin, Robin J.; Redhead, C. Stephen
2002-03-08
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Terrorism Funding: FY2002 Appropriation Bills [October 25, 2001]
"Using baseline data provided by the Office of Management and Budget, this report organizes and tracks U.S. spending to combat terrorism across the 13 appropriation bills, including amounts allocated from the $40 billion emergency supplemental. Over 80% of the estimated $11 billion requested for FY2002 to combat terrorism falls in two appropriation measures: the Defense Department appropriation and the Departments of Commerce, Justice, State, the Judiciary and Related Agencies appropriation. Table 1 provides a summary for each bill and a total for all 13. Tables 2 through 13 present separate pages for each appropriation measure, listing in most cases spending at the account level. [...] Data presented in this report indicate where funds are concentrated and highlight new spending initiatives that have emerged since September 11."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nowels, Larry Q.
2001-10-25
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National Security Agency: Issues for Congress [Updated January 16, 2001]
The National Security Agency (NSA), one of the largest components of the U.S.
Intelligence Community, has reached a major watershed in its history. Responsible for obtaining intelligence from international communications, NSA's efforts are being challenged by the multiplicity of new types of communications links, by the widespread availability of low-cost encryption systems, and by changes in the international environment in which dangerous security threats can come from small, but well organized, terrorist groups as well as hostile nation states. Reacting in large measure to congressional concerns, NSA launched two separate management reviews, one by outside experts, the other by longtime Agency officials. Both made strong criticisms of Agency personnel policies, an outmoded organizational structure, and an unwillingness to utilize civilian practices that more effective than those available in-house. The current NSA Director, Lt. General Michael V. Hayden, USAF, has used these analysis to launch a series of major initiatives designed to improve NSA's operations, to attract and reward more qualified people from outside industry, and is developing a major contract for outside support of its non-sensitive Information Technology (IT) functions. A major renewal effort is underway, but observers believe many challenges lie ahead that will require congressional oversight. Many of the reforms in personnel policies recommended are difficult to implement in a government organization, especially in an extremely tight market for technical specialists. The technical complexities of dealing with widespread and sophisticated encryption as well as the proliferation of communications devices remain to be resolved. NSA is, along with other intelligence agencies, not well-positioned to analyze developments among the assortment of terrorist groups and narcotics smugglers around the world that can seriously affect U.S. interests. NSA has also come under heated criticism in the European Parliament for allegedly collecting, in cooperation with the British, commercial intelligence to benefit U.S. corporations.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2001-01-16
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Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons and Missiles: The Current Situation and Trends [Updated August 10, 2001]
Nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons (NBCW) pose the most serious threats to the United States and its foreign interests. Ballistic and cruise missiles, aircraft, covert forces, and terrorist groups are considered possible means of delivering these weapons of mass destruction. U.S. and allied policy makers debate the rate of proliferation and the nature and extent of the threat to the United States and its allies, and the weapons' effects on international stability. The purpose of this paper is to assemble current information on the status of weapons programs around the globe and analyze patterns regarding the threats posed by these weapons.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Shuey, Robert
2001-08-10
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Capitol Visitors' Center: An Overview [Updated December 21, 2001]
"On June 20, 2000, congressional leaders of both parties gathered on the east front plaza of the Capitol for a symbolic groundbreaking ceremony for a Capitol visitors' center. In March 1999, the Architect of the Capitol was authorized $2.8 million to revalidate a 1995 design study of the project. To simplify the approval process for the design and construction phases, Congress in September 1999 transferred that authority to the U.S. Capitol Preservation Commission. In November 1999, the commission approved the revised conceptional design for the center. A design and engineering obligation plan was approved by the House and Senate legislative appropriations subcommittees in November 1999 and January 2000, respectively. Construction of the center is scheduled to begin in 2002 and is expected to be completed in 2005."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Stathis, Stephen W.
2001-12-21
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Assassination Ban and E.O. 12333: A Brief Summary [Updated January 4, 2002]
"In the wake of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the New York World Trade Center and the Pentagon, some attention has been focused upon the assassination ban contained in Executive Order (E.O.) 12333, Section 2.11, and whether it would prohibit the United States from responding to the attacks by targeting those who orchestrated these acts of terrorism. In considering the challenges involved in effectively combating terrorism and protecting the United States from future terrorist attacks, there has been wide-ranging debate as to what approaches might be beneficial. Part of that discussion has centered around whether assassination of terrorist leaders is, or should be, one of the options available. This report offers a summary discussion of the assassination ban in E.O. 12333, its context, and possible interpretations of its scope."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bazan, Elizabeth B.
2002-01-04
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Recovery from Terrorist Attacks: A Catalog of Selected Federal Assistance Programs [Updated February 1, 2002]
"Following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, on New York City and Washington, DC, Members of Congress from affected jurisdictions asked CRS to compile a list of federal programs that could assist recovery from the results of such attacks in urban areas. Subsequently, Members from jurisdictions not directly affected have requested such a compilation, in the event their jurisdiction were to experience an attack. The programs listed in this catalog can be classified into two broad categories. First are programs specifically for disaster situations. Second are general assistance programs that may apply to disaster situations. The programs can also be classified by recipients, primarily individuals, state and local governments, or businesses. The programs address such short-term needs as food and shelter, and such long-term needs as repair of public utilities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2002-02-01
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Combating Terrorism: 2001 Congressional Debate on Emergency Supplemental Allocations [Updated March 20, 2002]
Within days of the September 11 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, Congress approved a $40 billion emergency supplemental appropriations (P.L. 107-38/H.R. 2888) to aid victims of the terrorist attacks, to bolster security at airports and other sites, to pursue the investigation and prosecution of those responsible, and to support national security. The appropriation measure partitioned the $40 billion into three clusters. The first $10 billion was available immediately for allocation by the President. The second $10 billion was available 15 days after the President notified Congress about how he would distribute the funds. The final $20 billion would be allocated within an enacted FY2002 appropriation bill.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Belasco, Amy; Nowels, Larry Q.
2002-03-20
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State and Local Preparedness for Terrorism: Policy Issues and Options [Updated May 9, 2002]
"The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have prompted Members of the 107th Congress to consider enhancing state and local response capabilities to better prepare for terrorist attacks, particularly attacks involving weapons of mass destruction. At present, Congress authorizes several programs designed to help state and local responders enhance their preparedness for terrorist attacks. These programs cover a range of activities, including emergency planning; training and equipment; response to chemical and biological attacks; law enforcement; and public health. Since the September attacks, however, emergency managers and analysts have asked Congress to address several issues in federal policy on state and local preparedness." This report includes some of the frequently mentioned policy issues.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2002-05-09
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Department of Homeland Security: Consolidation of Border and Transportation Security Agencies [Updated December 24, 2002]
The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296) transfers several border and transportation security agencies to the newly established Department of Homeland Security, consolidating some of them in a Directorate of Border and Transportation Security. The Act charges this new directorate with securing the borders; territorial waters; terminals; waterways; and air, land and sea transportation systems of the United States; and managing the nation's ports of entry. As in the past, the challenge for policymakers is to provide a level of border and transportation security that is commensurate with a multitude of threats, while facilitating legitimate travel and commerce, as well as protecting civil liberties. Included in this report are conceptual definitions for "border management" and "border security;" descriptions of the missions of the principal border management agencies; brief discussion of seaport and transportation security, since both are integral to border security; and a brief exploration of issues raised by transferring the Federal Protective Service, the Office for Domestic Preparedness, and the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center to this new directorate. The report concludes with a summary of major issues that are likely to emerge regarding the establishment and effective operations of the Border and Transportation Security Directorate.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Krouse, William J.
2002-12-24
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Critical Infrastructure Information: Disclosure and Homeland Security [Updated January 29, 2003]
One of the findings of the President's Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection, established by President Clinton in 1996, was the need for the federal government and owners and operators of the nation's critical infrastructures to share information on vulnerabilities and threats. Among the strategies to help owners and operators share information with the federal government was a proposal to exempt the information they share from disclosure under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). Three of the nine exemptions provide possible protection against the release of critical infrastructure information: exemption 1 (national security information); exemption 3 (information exempted by statute); and exemption 4 (confidential business information). Public interest groups argue that the language in the House bill is far too broad and would allow a wide range of information to be protected from disclosure (including information previously available under FOIA), and that existing FOIA exemptions and case law provide sufficient protections.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.; Stevens, Gina Marie
2003-01-29
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Department of Homeland Security: Appropriations Transfer Authority [Updated November 15, 2002]
The establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), as proposed by President George W. Bush and Members of Congress, involves in large part the transfer to the new department of existing functions carried out by many different agencies and programs. Along with the authority to transfer functions, the legislative proposals include authority to transfer related personnel and assets (including appropriations). The proposals for appropriations transfer authority for the new department have engendered controversy regarding the appropriate balance between providing executive flexibility and retaining congressional control over spending. Congress has granted transfer authority to the executive branch in two types of measures---in substantive legislation, under the jurisdiction of House and Senate legislative committees, and in annual appropriations acts, under the jurisdiction of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. Transfer authority in substantive law pertains mainly to agency reorganization; most appropriations transfer authority available to executive agencies on a regular basis is provided in annual appropriations acts and is renewed from year to year.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Keith, Robert
2002-11-15
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Critical Infrastructures: What Makes an Infrastructure Critical? [August 30, 2002]
The Bush Administration's proposal for establishing a Department of Homeland Security includes a function whose responsibilities include the coordination of policies and actions to protect the nation's critical infrastructure. However, the proposal did not specify criteria for how to determine criticality or which infrastructures should be considered critical. Over the last few years, a number of documents concerned with critical infrastructure protection have offered general definitions for critical infrastructures and have provided short lists of which infrastructures should be included. Critical infrastructures now include national monuments (e.g. Washington Monument), where an attack might cause a large loss of life or adversely affect the nation's morale. They also include the chemical industry. Essentially the federal government will have to try to minimize the impact on the nation's critical infrastructure of any future terrorist attack, taking into account what those impacts might be and the likelihood of their occurring, and will set priorities for critical infrastructure protection based on a consistent methodology and an approach that will allow it to balance the cost and expected benefits.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Moteff, John D.; Copeland, Claudia; Fischer, John
2002-08-30
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Department of Homeland Security: State and Local Preparedness Issues [Updated August 14, 2002]
The House and Senate proposals for a new Department of Homeland Security would make the new department responsible for coordinating activities with, and providing assistance to, state and local governments to ensure adequate preparedness for possible terrorist attacks. H.R. 5005 and S. 2452 would place these functions within the Emergency Preparedness and Response division (EPR), which would integrate existing agencies with functions relating to state and local preparedness. Congress will likely debate a number of issues as it considers H.R. 5005 and S. 2452, including how best to structure the department to act as a single point of contact for state and local officials. As part of this issue, Congress will consider the authority and duties of an Office of State and Local Government Coordination. Another issue is how the department will set standards and evaluate state and local preparedness. Congress may also be asked to consider the way in which the department will integrate training programs from different agencies. A final issue is whether integrating FEMA into the new department would impact state and local preparedness for natural disasters.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Canada, Ben
2002-08-14
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Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act: An Overview of the Statutory Framework for Electronic Surveillance [Updated September 18, 2001]
The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, 50 U.S.C. § 1801 et seq., provides a statutory framework for electronic surveillance in the context of foreign intelligence gathering. In so doing, the Congress sought to strike a delicate balance between national security interests and personal privacy rights. This report will examine the detailed statutory structure provided by this act and related provisions of E.O. 12333. This report is current through the changes to FISA in P.L. 106-567, Title VI (Dec. 27, 2000).
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Bazan, Elizabeth B.
2001-09-18
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Insurance Coverage of the World Trade Center: Interpretation of 'War Risk' Exclusion Clauses under New York Contract Law [September 18, 2001]
This report addresses the interpretation of war risk exclusion clauses under New York contract and insurance law. The purpose of excluding "war risks" from insurance policies is to prevent the insurer from being bankrupted by shouldering countrywide losses from war. The widespread characterization of the events of September 11th as an "act of war" raises the possibility that insurable risks to life and property in the World Trade Center may not receive coverage due to the enforcement of these clauses. This report suggests that any such enforcement might not be successful under New York law, as the insured enjoy favorable state rules of procedure and norms of contract construction. However, as this issue essentially boils down to one of contract interpretation -- where courts will construe the "exclusions as the parties would reasonably have expected them to be construed" -- how public officials characterize the events of September 11th could inform a judicial determination of whether those events constitute "acts of war" for purposes of insurance law
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jennings, Christopher A.
2001-09-18
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National Ignition Facility: Management, Technical, and Other Issues [Updated November 8, 2001]
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is building a very large laser facility to provide scientific support for its program to maintain the safety, reliability, and performance levels of the nation's stockpile of nuclear weapons in the absence of nuclear testing. This National Ignition Facility (NIF), which is designed to simulate the behavior of nuclear explosions, is under construction at DOE's Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL).
In August 1999, however, DOE announced that the project had run into some serious problems that would likely result in a significant increase in its cost estimate.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Rowberg, Richard
2001-11-08
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Intelligence to Counter Terrorism: Issues for Congress [Updated May 27, 2003]
"The struggle against international terrorism places new and difficult demands on the U.S. Intelligence Community. Acquiring information about the composition, location, capabilities, plans, and ambitions of terrorist groups is an enormous challenge for intelligence agencies; meeting this challenge requires different skills than were needed to keep informed about the capabilities and intentions of Communist governments. At the same time, requirements continue for coverage of geopolitical developments around the world and other transnational issues such as narcotics smuggling. [...] For well over a decade international terrorism has been a major concern of the U.S. Intelligence Community. Collection assets of all kinds have long been focused on Al Qaeda and other terrorist groups. [...] Countering terrorism requires close cooperation between law enforcement and intelligence agencies; some terrorists will need to be brought to justice in courts, but others are dealt with by military forces or covert actions. [...] Military operations to counter terrorism will be dependent on the availability of precise, real-time intelligence to support bombing campaigns using precision guided munitions. The linkage between sensor and 'shooters' will be crucial as will access to global geospatial databases. As defense transformation progresses, Congress will also oversee the development of increased intelligence support to military operations including, especially, counterterrorist missions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Best, Richard A.
2003-05-27
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Terrorism and the Military's Role in Domestic Crisis Management: Background and Issues for Congress [April 19, 2001]
"The United States faces a number of significant national security threats, ranging in scope from intercontinental ballistic missiles to the use of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) by terrorists. The debate over the seriousness of the various threats has intensified recently. Many experts believe the probable long term effects of a WMD attack by terrorists on the population, environment, and the economy make it imperative that the U.S. be fully prepared to either deter or interdict an attempted terrorist attack. This paper reviews the current legislation and policies that govern the military's role when supporting law enforcement in a domestic terrorism crisis and highlights some of the issues confronting the U.S. government."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Brake, Jeffrey D.
2001-04-19
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Airline Passenger Rights Legislation in the 107th Congress [Updated August 17, 2001]
"Congressional advocates of enhanced airline passenger rights have introduced legislation in the 107th Congress that proposes remedies to a variety of consumer complaints. Most of the bills include provisions requiring prompt and truthful disclosure of reasons for delays, cancellations, and diverted flights. Others, found in some of the bills, include: preventing airlines from assessing a fee against, or prohibiting a ticket holder from using, only part of a ticket; requiring airlines to make available information on all fares offered through any media (phone, internet, etc.); and giving passengers the right to exit flights delayed on the ground beyond a certain length of time. Some bills would increase penalties for violating aviation consumer protection law or increase the airlines' liability for mistreatment of passengers."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kirk, Robert S.
2001-08-17
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Suspension of Budget Enforcement Procedures During Hostilities Abroad [Updated July 27, 2001]
"Federal budget policies are enforced by two major statutes-the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 and the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985. The first act establishes the congressional budget process; the second act establishes discretionary spending limits and a 'pay-as-you-go' (PAYGO) requirement, enforced by sequestration. [...] During the years that these suspension provisions have been available, the United States has been involved in several instances of armed hostilities abroad, including the Persian Gulf War, but budget enforcement procedures were not suspended in any of these instances because no declaration of war was enacted. Congress and the President met the additional spending needs associated with these hostilities largely by using procedures that allow such spending to be declared 'emergency requirements,' thus freeing it from budget enforcement constraints."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Keith, Robert
2001-07-27
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Initial Federal Budget Response to the 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor [September 13, 2001]
"The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, occurred as the federal government was half way through FY1942. Congress and the President immediately responded by enacting into law declarations of war against Japan, Germany, and Italy, in which the President was directed to prosecute the war to its successful conclusion and Congress pledged 'all of the resources of the country' to the effort. [...] President Roosevelt did not seek, and Congress did not provide, a 'blank check' for war spending. Instead, the President made specific requests for funds, which Congress dealt with through the usual annual appropriations process."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Keith, Robert
2001-09-13
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Executive Order 12919: Emergency Powers of the President [October 23, 2000]
Executive Order 12919 concerns industrial preparedness during times of war and national emergency. This brief report uses simple language to describe what Executive Order 12919 does. It is intended to clarify common misunderstandings about the Order's purpose and scope. Executive Order 12919 relates exclusively to the preparedness of U.S. defense-related industries in times of war or other national emergencies. It has nothing whatever to do with declarations of martial law. It has no effect at all on the continued powers of Congress and the federal courts during periods of war or other national emergencies.
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Burdette, Robert B.
2000-10-23
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Stock Market's Response to Dramatic Historical Events [September 14, 2001]
"The events of September 11, 2001 have caused speculation that the U.S. stock market may crash when trading resumes. History, however, suggests that there is no uniform pattern in which bad news is followed by a stock market plunge. This report presents data on the stock market response to four episodes: Pearl Harbor, the Kennedy assassination, the October 1987 stock market crash, and the Asian financial crisis of 1997. There is, of course, no guarantee that the market will behave now or in the future as it did then."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Jickling, Mark
2001-09-14
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Terrorism: World Trade Center and the Pentagon - Applicable Federal Criminal Law [September 13, 2001]
"The death and destruction associated with the hijacking of four commercial airliners constitute federal crimes that outlaw air piracy, murder, and kidnapping. Relevant statutes carry the death penalty and apply to any accomplices or coconspirators here or abroad. [...] On September 11, 2001, four commercial airliners were hijacked. Two crashed into the World Trade Center towers; one into the Pentagon; and a fourth in Pennsylvania. Casualties number in the thousands. [...] The existence of multiple murder victims; the risk of death of others; the heinous nature of a murder; and the fact a murder occurred during the commission of air piracy, destruction of federal buildings or those whose activities affect interstate commerce, kidnapping, or destruction of commercial aircraft, are all aggravating factors which a jury may consider in determining whether the death penalty should be imposed on those guilty of federal capital offenses."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Doyle, Charles
2001-09-13
