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2022 Hurricane Outlooks and 2021 Hurricane Season Review [May 31, 2022]
From the Document: "Many in Congress have expressed interest in increasing scientific understanding of tropical cyclones and improving forecasts to help their constituents prepare for the yearly hurricane season and potentially decrease a storm's impact on an individual or community. The Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is responsible for issuing tropical cyclone forecasts, including track, intensity, storm surge, and rainfall. [...] In May 2022, NOAA issued its initial 2022 Atlantic hurricane outlook [hyperlink], indicating a 65% likelihood of an above-normal season rather than a near- (25%) or below-normal season (10%). The predicted number of named storms, hurricanes, and major hurricanes was similar to the number predicted in August 2021 for the 2021 Atlantic hurricane season. NOAA indicated that the higher level of activity is attributed to climate factors [hyperlink], such as the ongoing periodic cooling of sea surface temperatures in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific (La Niña phenomenon), warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, weaker tropical Atlantic trade winds, and an enhanced West African monsoon system."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Lipiec, Eva
2022-05-31
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Department of Defense Counter-Unmanned Aircraft Systems [Updated May 31, 2022]
From the Document: "Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), commonly called drones, have proliferated rapidly and are available to nation states and to nonstate actors and individuals. These systems could provide U.S. adversaries with a low-cost means of conducting intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions against--or attacking--U.S. forces. Furthermore, many smaller UASs cannot be detected by traditional air defense systems due to their size, construction material, and flight altitude. As a result, in FY2023, the Department of Defense (DOD) plans to spend at least $668 million on counter-UAS (C-UAS) research and development and at least $78 million on C-UAS procurement. As DOD continues to develop, procure, and deploy these systems, congressional oversight of their use may increase, and Congress may have to make decisions about future authorizations, appropriations, and other legislative actions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Hoehn, John R.; Sayler, Kelley M.
2022-05-31
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COVID-19 Relief Assistance to Small Businesses: Issues and Policy Options [Updated May 31, 2022]
From the Summary: "The U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) administers several types of programs to support small businesses, including direct disaster loan programs for businesses, homeowners, and renters; loan guaranty and venture capital programs; management and technical assistance training programs; and contracting programs. Congressional interest in these programs has become especially acute in the wake of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic's widespread adverse economic impact on the national economy. This report provides a brief description of the SBA's programs and examines congressional action to assist small businesses during and immediately following the Great Recession (2007- 2009) and during the COVID-19 pandemic[.]"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dilger, Robert Jay, 1954-; Lindsay, Bruce R.
2022-05-31
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U.S. Economic Recovery in the Wake of COVID-19: Successes and Challenges [May 31, 2022]
From the Introduction: "The COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic caused an unprecedented disruption to the basic functioning of the economy in spring 2020. According to the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), an independent, nonprofit research group, the U.S. economy experienced a two-month recession in March and April of 2020. The recession was the deepest since the Great Depression, with gross domestic product (GDP) falling by the largest percentage in one quarter in the history of the data series and unemployment rising to its highest monthly rate in the history of that series. Just as economic activity had declined at a historically fast pace, it also started to recover at a historically fast pace. In May 2020, a new economic expansion began, spurred in large part by the historic nature of both fiscal and monetary stimulus throughout the initial months of the pandemic. The recovery continued throughout 2020 and 2021, bolstered by additional stimulus, the gradual loosening of travel restrictions and stay-at-home orders, and the eventual rollout of COVID-19 vaccines and treatments. [...] This report details the initial economic impact of the pandemic and the ways in which the economy has recovered and continues to recover. This report further explores the ways in which this shock and recovery have been unusual and what this all might mean for the economy in the coming months and years."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Labonte, Marc; Weinstock, Lida R.
2022-05-31
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Export-Import Bank: New Domestic Financing Initiative [May 31, 2022]
From the Document: "The Export-Import Bank of the United States (Ex-Im Bank or the Bank) [hyperlink] has launched a 'Make More in America Initiative' [hyperlink] to support 'export-oriented domestic manufacturing projects.' The initiative extends some of the Bank's existing demand-driven, export-contingent financing programs to a more domestic focus (see 'Table 1'). The Biden Administration [hyperlink] states that the initiative will help in 'revitalizing American manufacturing, improving the resiliency of our supply chains, and leveling the playing field for American companies competing in overseas markets.' The initiative raises issues for Congress regarding the Bank's authorities, operations, and effectiveness."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Akhtar, Shayerah Ilias
2022-05-31
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World Trade Organization [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on January 1, 1995, following the ratification of the Uruguay Round Agreements, and today includes 164 members. It succeeded the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), created as part of the post-WWII effort to build a stable, open international trading system. The WTO has three basic functions: (1) administering its agreements; (2) serving as a negotiating forum for new trade liberalization and rules; and (3) providing a mechanism to settle disputes. [...] The GATT/WTO system over time has led to a significant reduction of trade barriers, supported trade expansion and economic growth, and helped manage trade frictions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Cimino-Isaacs, Cathleen D.; Fefer, Rachel F.
2022-05-27
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U.S.-Kenya FTA Negotiations [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "The United States and Kenya began free trade agreement (FTA) negotiations in 2020 under then-President Trump and President Uhuru Kenyatta of Kenya. The Biden Administration has not resumed the FTA talks, but has stated its interest in deepening bilateral trade relations and sent a high-level U.S. delegation to Kenya in May 2022 to discuss trade issues. Some Members of Congress, including the chair of the Ways and Means committee, and U.S. business groups have pressed the Administration to resume and conclude the FTA. The 2015 grant of Trade Promotion Authority (TPA), under which President Trump initiated the FTA talks, expired in July 2021, potentially complicating congressional consideration of the proposed FTA. A U.S.-Kenya FTA would be the first U.S. FTA with a country in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Congressional interest may include (1) Congress's constitutional authority to regulate foreign commerce; (2) the FTA's potential effects on the U.S. economy, and trade and foreign policy implications; and (3) statutory mandates in the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA, P.L. [Public Law] 106-200, as amended) directing the President to seek FTAs in Africa."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Williams, Brock R.; Blanchard, Lauren Ploch
2022-05-27
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2022 Invocation of the Defense Production Act for Large-Capacity Batteries: In Brief [May 27, 2022]
From the Introduction: "On March 31, 2022, President Joseph R. Biden issued Presidential Determination No. 2022-11, invoking authorities in Section 303 of the Defense Production Act (DPA) of 1950 (P.L. 81-774, 50 U.S.C. §4501 et seq.) and directing the Department of Defense (DOD) to strengthen the U.S. domestic industrial base for large-capacity batteries (i.e., those used in electric vehicles and for grid-connected electricity storage). As justification, the President cited the need to ensure 'a robust, resilient, sustainable, and environmentally responsible domestic industrial base to meet the requirements of the clean energy economy.' The President noted that 'the United States depends on unreliable foreign sources for many of the strategic and critical materials necessary for the clean energy transition.... Demand for such materials is projected to increase exponentially as the world transitions to a clean energy economy' and to reduce reliance on foreign sources of critical materials, including lithium, nickel, cobalt, graphite, and manganese. This In Brief provides an overview of the DPA and presidential delegations of its authorities; discusses actions authorized by the March 2022 Presidential Determination (hereinafter the Presidential Determination); examines potential limitations associated with these authorizations; and provides an overview of recent executive and congressional actions relevant to the invocation of the DPA for critical minerals necessary for large-capacity battery production. It also explores considerations for Congress regarding the implementation, limitation, or expansion of the Presidential Determination."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Peters, Heidi M.; Lee, Erica A.; Hart, Nina M. . . .
2022-05-27
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Automation, Worker Training, and Federal Tax Policy [May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "Technologies that partly or fully automate a variety of tasks are being used with increasing frequency in a range of industries and occupations. These technologies include robotics, machine learning, and other forms of artificial intelligence (AI). This increasing use of automation has fueled the concern that the substitution of machines for humans in a growing number of workplaces will result in massive job losses, especially for unskilled or low-skilled workers. Some predict that if such a scenario were to arise, many displaced workers would face a bleak future marked by fewer job opportunities at lower wages, long-term earnings losses, and poor health. The worker-displacing potential of automation has given rise to a debate over what steps firms, governments, postsecondary schools, and other entities should take, if any, to help displaced workers find well-paying jobs that may or may not be linked to automation. This In Focus looks at how federal tax policy might be used for that purpose. Specifically, it addresses the pros and cons of possible new business tax incentives to encourage employers to invest more in training their employees and to dissuade them from increasing automation investment. This overview does not address possible new tax incentives for individuals to acquire on their own the skills and knowledge they would need to find well-paying jobs."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Guenther, Gary L.
2022-05-27
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Costa Rica: An Overview [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "Costa Rica historically has been a bastion of political and economic stability in an often-turbulent region. The United States has worked closely with Costa Rica to address challenges in Central America and to advance shared values, such as democracy and human rights, worldwide. [...] The Biden Administration has sought to bolster ties with Costa Rica. In April 2022, the State Department congratulated Chaves on his election and expressed interest in working with the new government to advance common interests, including humane migration management and environmental protection. The Biden Administration also has expressed support for the Alliance for Development in Democracy--an informal arrangement among Costa Rica, Panama, and the Dominican Republic intended to accelerate post-pandemic economic recovery, foster sustainable development, and defend democracy and human rights throughout the region. The United States has donated 1.5 million COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] vaccine doses and more than $4 million in other pandemic-related aid to Costa Rica."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Meyer, Peter J.; Klein, Joshua
2022-05-27
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Permitting for Pesticide Discharges into Navigable Waters: Issues and Legislation in the 117th Congress [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "Permitting requirements for using registered pesticides in or around the nation's waters has been a long-standing issue. Under the Clean Water Act (CWA; 33 U.S.C. §1251 et seq.), discharges of pollutants into navigable waters are unlawful unless specifically authorized by a permit. For decades following the enactment of the CWA, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) did not consider registered pesticides used in compliance with the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA; 7 U.S.C. §136 et seq.) as pollutants that required permitting for their discharge into waters. However, in 2009, the U.S. Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that (1) the statutory definition of 'pollutant' in the CWA encompasses biological pesticides and chemical pesticides that leave a residue in navigable waters, and (2) discharges of such pollutants require permitting. In response to the ruling, EPA issued a general discharge permit to cover the majority of pesticide applications resulting in point source discharges. States with delegated authority to issue their own discharge permits issued similar general discharge permits."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gatz, Laura; Yen, Jerry H.
2022-05-27
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Prior Converted Cropland Under the Clean Water Act [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "For decades, the value of wetlands and efforts to protect them have been recognized in different ways through national policies, federal laws, and regulations. The central federal regulatory program, authorized in Clean Water Act (CWA) Section 404 in 1972, requires permits for discharges of dredged or fill material (e.g., sand, soil, excavated material) into wetlands that are considered 'waters of the United States' (WOTUS). Also, the Food Security Act (FSA) of 1985--enacted on December 23, 1985--included a wetland conservation provision (Swampbuster) that indirectly protects wetlands by making producers who farm or convert wetlands to agricultural production ineligible for selected federal farm program benefits. Both FSA and CWA Section 404 regulations include exceptions to their requirements for 'prior converted cropland' (PCC). While both include exceptions for PCC, determinations are made under separate authorities and for different programmatic purposes. This has created confusion for some affected landowners, who argue for greater consistency among PCC determinations. It has also generated some congressional interest in aligning the requirements for PCC."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Gatz, Laura; Stubbs, Megan
2022-05-27
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Marine Corps Advanced Reconnaissance Vehicle (ARV) [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "According to the Marine Corps, the Advanced Reconnaissance Vehicle (ARV) aims to be a new armored vehicle family to replace the Light Armored Vehicle (LAV)[.] [...] The ARV is to be the primary combat system in Light Armored Reconnaissance (LAR) Battalions. The mission of the LAR Battalion is to [1] Conduct mounted and dismounted reconnaissance, surveillance, and security operations in support of maneuver. [2] Conduct offensive and defensive actions, deception, and raids to create decisive conditions for the Marine Division and the supported unit commander."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2022-05-27
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Net Neutrality Law: An Overview [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Summary: "While there is general support for the basic concept of the open internet, net neutrality has been a perennially difficult subject for the Federal Communications Commission (FCC or Commission). The complexity lies, in part, in the fact that the FCC's ability to adopt net neutrality rules depends on the legal classification it gives to broadband internet access service under the Communications Act of 1934. As amended, the Act defines two mutually exclusive categories of services: telecommunications services and information services. While telecommunications service providers are treated as highly regulated common carriers under Title II of the Communications Act, the FCC has much more limited regulatory authority over information service providers. The FCC has alternated between classifying broadband as a telecommunications service and an information service. The U.S. Supreme Court and lower federal courts have affirmed the FCC's discretion to make this classification decision, but courts have also established that the FCC's ability to adopt net neutrality regulations is contingent on its classification choice."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Linebaugh, Chris D.
2022-05-27
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Russia's 2022 Invasion of Ukraine: Related CRS Products [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "On February 24, 2022, the Russian Federation invaded Ukraine, with wide-ranging implications for U.S. national security and an array of global geopolitical and economic issues. This report compiles CRS [Congressional Research Service] products on various aspects of this conflict, and will be updated regularly as new products are developed. It also includes some products published before the invasion that offer relevant background and context."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Danon, Zoe; Blum, David A.
2022-05-27
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U.S.-China Phase One Trade Deal [May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "On January 15, 2020, President Donald J. Trump signed a trade agreement with Vice Premier Liu He of the People's Republic of China (PRC or China) that sought to resolve some long-standing U.S. government and business concerns about China's unfair trade, investment, and technology practices. The negotiations were conducted in response to actions, including imposing tariffs, that the U.S. government took under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 (19 U.S.C. [United States Code] §2411). The deal is called the 'Phase One' agreement because it was to be the first of subsequent agreements to address key U.S. concerns. Many experts assess that PRC negotiators pushed most issues identified by USTR [U.S. Trade Representative] to future talks, but the deal has several commitments from China that were difficult to secure and could help shape U.S. trade policy going forward."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sutter, Karen M.
2022-05-27
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Federal Support for School Safety and Security [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Summary: "In the United States, more than 70 million students are enrolled in public elementary and secondary (K-12) schools or degree-granting postsecondary institutions. School and campus safety and security for these students encompasses many issues, including violence prevention and response, school climate, and the physical and mental health of the school community. Students' safety and security while in school is an area of concern for the federal government and state and local governments, as well as school districts, institutions of higher education, students' families, and Members of Congress. [...] State and local governments oversee K-12 education in public schools. Colleges and universities are a mix of public, private nonprofit, and private for-profit entities with varying governance structures. The federal government's main avenue for supporting schools in general and school and campus safety specifically is through grant programs. This report provides an overview of grant programs at the U.S. Department of Education (ED), U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) that provide direct or indirect funding for school and campus safety and security initiatives. The report also provides an overview of programs and initiatives administered by these departments that support school safety and security efforts in other ways, such as through data collection and reporting and technical assistance."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Dragoo, Kyrie E.; James, Nathan; Duff, Johnathan H. . . .
2022-05-27
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U.S. Gun Policy: Framework and Major Issues [Updated May 27, 2022]
From the Document: "Federal firearms regulation has been a subject of continuous interest for legislators. In recent Congresses, a range of proposals has been introduced, with some seeking to ease various federal firearms restrictions or facilitate reciprocity in state treatment of persons authorized to carry firearms by other states. Other proposals have sought greater restrictions on the federal rules concerning the possession, transfer, or sale of firearms or the expansion of background checks for firearm purchases. These various approaches, in turn, prompt debate about not only their pros and cons but also their legalities, as Congress's ability to legislate on such matters must comport with the Second Amendment and other constitutional constraints."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Foster, Michael A. (Legislative attorney); Krouse, William J.
2022-05-27
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Oversight of Gain of Function Research with Pathogens: Issues for Congress [May 26, 2022]
From the Summary: "The term 'gain of function' refers to any genetic mutation in an organism that confers a new or enhanced ability. Such changes often occur naturally. Additionally, scientists can induce such changes to organisms through experimentation. Gain of function (GOF) research is a broad area of scientific inquiry involving organisms that gain a new property or have an existing property altered. A key area of GOF research is the study of both naturally occurring and experimentally induced changes in viruses to better understand transmission, infection, and pathogenesis. Current U.S. policy focuses on GOF research involving enhanced potential pandemic pathogens. Some in the scientific community argue that this research is needed to better understand how viruses evolve in order to develop better medical countermeasures and surveillance regimes for emerging pathogens. However, an accident, or deliberate misuse of this research, has the potential to impact the larger public, potentially globally. This concern leads some observers to argue that the risks of such research outweigh any potential benefits. An overlapping set of policies and guidance address aspects of biosafety and biosecurity associated with GOF research with pathogens in the United States--some impose requirements, some provide guidance, some apply only to research with select biological agents, and some policies only apply to federally funded research. These policies and guidance include federal regulation of research with select biological agents and toxins, best practice guidance for microbiological and biomedical laboratories, agency guidance on funding research with potential pandemic pathogens, and the institutions and researchers conducting it."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Kuiken, Todd
2022-05-26
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Military Applications of Extended Reality [Updated May 26, 2022]
From the Document: "Although commercial and consumer industries have been investing in extended reality (XR) for decades, recent advances have expanded the number of potential applications for the U.S. military. Indeed, in February 2022, the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering identified human-machine interfaces for XR as 1 of 14 critical technology areas for the Department of Defense (DOD). As DOD increases spending on XR and related applications, Congress may consider the implications for defense authorizations and appropriations, military force structure, and cybersecurity."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sayler, Kelley M.
2022-05-26
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Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) [Updated May 26, 2022]
From the Background: "The Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) Family of Vehicles (FoV) is an Army-led, joint-service program designed to replace a portion of each service's light tactical wheeled vehicle fleets. The JLTV FoV consists of two variants: the four-seat Combat Tactical Vehicle (CTV) ('Figure 1') and the two-seat Combat Support Vehicle (CSV) ('Figure 2'). The CTV is to support the General Purpose, Heavy Gun Carrier and Close Combat Weapon Carrier missions. The CSV is to support the Utility/Shelter Carrier mission. The JLTV is transportable by a range of lift assets, including rotary-wing aircraft. Its maneuverability enables activities across the spectrum of terrain, including urban areas, while providing inherent and supplemental armor against direct fire and improvised explosive device threats."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2022-05-26
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Regulating Drinking Water Contaminants: EPA PFAS Actions [Updated May 26, 2022]
From the Document: "The detection of certain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in some public water supplies has generated public concern and increased attention to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) actions to respond to PFAS using Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) authorities. For more than a decade, EPA has been evaluating PFAS under SDWA to determine whether a national drinking water regulation is warranted for one or more of these substances. In March 2021, EPA finalized determinations to develop SDWA regulations for the two most frequently detected PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (86 'Federal Register' 12272). EPA's determination triggers a SDWA requirement to propose a regulation within 24 months (e.g., by March 2023 for PFOA and PFOS), and finalize the rule within 18 months of the proposal. In EPA's October 2021 'PFAS Strategic Roadmap,' the agency states that it intends to propose a PFOA and PFOS drinking water regulation by fall 2022, and finalize the rule by fall 2023. In addition, the 116 th Congress enacted legislation directing EPA to increase PFAS monitoring in water supplies, and authorizing appropriations for grants to address PFAS in public water supplies, among other provisions. The 117th Congress provided appropriations for such grants."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humphreys, Elena H.
2022-05-26
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Supplemental Funding for Ukraine: Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) [Updated May 26, 2022]
From the Document: "As of May 26, 2022, the Biden Administration has submitted to Congress two emergency supplemental funding requests to address the crisis caused by Russia's invasion of Ukraine. The first, submitted on March 2, 2022, included $5 billion for Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) appropriations accounts, among other funding. On March 15, 2022, Congress enacted the Ukraine Supplemental Appropriations Act (USAA, P.L. [Public Law] 117-103, Div. [division] N), which provided $6.8 billion for SFOPS accounts. The Administration's second supplemental funding request, submitted to Congress on April 28, called for an additional $14.75 billion in SFOPS funding related to Ukraine. On May 21, 2022, Congress enacted the Additional Ukraine Supplemental Appropriations Act (AUSAA, P.L. 117-128), which included $18.946 billion for SFOPS accounts."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Morgenstern, Emily M.
2022-05-26
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Section 301 Tariff Exclusions on U.S. Imports from China [Updated May 26, 2022]
From the Document: "In 2018, the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) determined, pursuant to an investigation under 'Section 301' (Title III of the Trade Act of 1974, 19 U.S.C. [United States Code] §§2411-2420), that China's acts, policies, and practices related to technology transfer, intellectual property (IP), and innovation were unreasonable or discriminatory and burdened or restricted U.S. commerce. In order to counter them and obtain their elimination, the Trump Administration used Section 301 authorities to impose four rounds of increased tariffs on about two-thirds of U.S. imports from China. However, to avoid harm to U.S. interests, the USTR introduced a new policy allowing stakeholders to request 'tariff exclusions' for U.S. imports that would otherwise have been subject to tariffs. Some policymakers and stakeholders have raised concerns about the implementation of the exclusion request process. [...] The Biden Administration continues to review its trade strategy for China. Actions by the USTR during 2021 and early 2022 were not aimed at providing broader tariff relief. They were limited to extending unexpired exclusions on medical supplies relevant to combatting the COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019] pandemic and reinstating certain exclusions that were previously extended. In May 2022, the agency announced a review of all Section 301 actions against China."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Schwarzenberg, Andres B.
2022-05-26
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Russia Sanctions and Cryptocurrencies: Policy Issues [May 26, 2022]
From the Document: "The G-7 [Group of Seven] (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States), the European Union (EU), and other countries have responded to Russia's expanded invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 with swift, coordinated, and broad sanctions [hyperlink] designed to exert significant pressure on key Russian individuals and companies, as well as the broader Russian economy. As the multilateral coalition seeks to sustain economic pressure on Russia, and Russia seeks ways to mitigate the impact of sanctions, some in Congress [hyperlink] are asking whether cryptocurrencies offer Russia a way to evade sanctions. This Insight discusses related policy issues and proposed legislation[.]"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Nelson, Rebecca M.; Scott, Andrew P.
2022-05-26
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International Atrocity Crimes and Their Domestic Counterparts [May 25, 2022]
From the Document: "Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine has prompted widespread attention to the legal framework governing wartime atrocities. In a 2006 article, former U.S. Ambassador at Large for War Crimes Issues David J. Scheffer coined the term 'atrocity crimes' [hyperlink] to describe criminal conduct that is, among other elements, of a significant magnitude, prohibited under international criminal law, and led in its execution by a ruling government group or power elite in society. In 2014, the United Nations defined [hyperlink] atrocity crimes as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. International law also criminalizes related conduct that can take place in wartime, such as torture and the crime of aggression. Some, but not all, of these offenses have counterparts in the United States' criminal code. The Human Rights and Special Prosecution Section [hyperlink] in the Department of Justice (DOJ) is responsible [hyperlink] for investigating and prosecuting atrocity crimes and related offenses under U.S. law, but prosecutions can be limited by the lack of extraterritorial jurisdiction[hyperlink], statutes of limitation [hyperlink], and other facets of the offenses. This Sidebar introduces international atrocity crimes and related offenses, examines their domestic counterparts, and discusses proposals for congressional reform."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Mulligan, Stephen P.
2022-05-25
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Biden Administration's Cuba Policy Changes [May 25, 2022]
From the Document: "On May 16, 2022, the Biden Administration announced several forthcoming changes to U.S. policy [hyperlink] toward Cuba, with the overarching goal of increasing support for the Cuban people. The changes, which emanate from a policy review begun by the Administration in 2021, fall into four broad areas-- facilitating family reunification, expanding authorized travel, supporting Cuba's private sector, and easing some restrictions on remittances. According to the State Department spokesperson, the changes will provide Cubans with 'additional tools to pursue life free from Cuban government oppression and to seek greater economic opportunities [hyperlink].' The Administration stated that it plans to implement the policy changes in the coming weeks through various steps and regulatory changes undertaken by relevant U.S. departments and agencies."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sullivan, Mark P.
2022-05-25
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Army's Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle (AMPV) [Updated May 25, 2022]
From the Document: "The Army describes the Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle (AMPV), a tracked support vehicle, as follows: The Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle (AMPV) is the replacement for the M113 Family of Vehicles (FoV) within the Armored Brigade Combat Team (ABCT), comprising approximately 30% of its tracked vehicle fleet. [...] The AMPV is currently produced by BAE [British Aerospace] Systems in York, PA. On January 25, 2019, the AMPV entered the low-rate initial production phase (LRIP). The Army originally planned for acquiring a total of 2,907 AMPVs, with initial vehicle delivery in 2020. The current AMPV program plans to replace 2,897 M113 vehicles at the brigade and below level within the ABCT. There are an additional 1,922 M113s supporting non-ABCT affiliated units (referred to as Echelons Above Brigade [EAB] units) that are not included in the Army's modernization plan."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Feickert, Andrew
2022-05-25
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Foreign Holdings of Federal Debt [Updated May 25, 2022]
From the Summary: "This report presents current data on ownership of U.S. Treasury securities and major holders of federal debt by country. Federal debt represents the accumulated balance of borrowing by the federal government. The gross debt is composed of debt held by the public and intragovernmental debt held by federal trust funds. To finance the publicly held debt, U.S. Treasury securities are sold to investors. Treasury securities may be purchased directly from the Treasury or on the secondary market by individual private investors; the Federal Reserve; financial institutions in the United States or overseas; and foreign, state, or local governments. As of December 2021, there was $23.1 trillion of publicly held debt outstanding, up from $14.8 trillion in December 2017, an $8.3 trillion increase. During the same period, foreign holdings of debt increased by $1.5 trillion to a total of approximately $7.7 trillion. After increasing for several years, overall foreign holdings were relatively flat from 2013 to 2018 in dollar terms before increasing in 2019, 2020, and 2021. Because the total debt has increased faster than the debt held by foreigners has, the share of federal debt held by foreigners has declined in recent years. In December 2021, foreigners held 33% of the publicly held debt. Interest on the debt paid to foreigners in 2021 was $132.6 billion."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Labonte, Marc; Nagel, Jared C.
2022-05-25
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Responding to State 'Fragility' in Coastal West Africa [May 25, 2022]
From the Document: "In April 2022, the Biden Administration identified [hyperlink] part of coastal West Africa--Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, and Togo--as a priority region pursuant to the 2019 Global Fragility Act (GFA, Title V of Division J, P.L. 116-94). U.S. military officials [hyperlink] and some Members of Congress [hyperlink] have expressed concern over a southward expansion of Islamist insurgent violence from the neighboring Sahel region, centering on Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger (see Figure 1). Benin and Côte d'Ivoire have been the hardest hit, recording at least two dozen attacks since 2020, many targeting military personnel near their northern borders. Togo has suffered [hyperlink] two attacks on northern security outposts since late 2021. Ghana and Guinea have not recorded attacks to date. Analysts have attributed most of these attacks to Sahel-based affiliates of Al Qaeda and the Islamic State that have moved south [hyperlink] to procure supplies and seek refuge, including in wildlife preserves in northern Benin and Côte d'Ivoire. Some warn [hyperlink] that armed groups may expand their presence by exploiting local tensions and grievances, extending approaches pioneered in the Sahel. Disputes between pastoralists and farmers [hyperlink], along with anger at security force abuses [hyperlink], have reportedly driven extremist recruitment elsewhere in West Africa."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Husted, Tomas F.; Arieff, Alexis
2022-05-25
