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• Drug Control: International Policy and Approaches [June 21, 2002]

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  "Efforts to reduce the flow of illicit drugs from abroad into the United States greatly have so far not succeeded. Moreover, over the past decade, worldwide production of illicit drugs has risen dramatically: opium and marijuana production has roughly doubled and coca production tripled. Also, street prices of cocaine and heroin have fallen significantly in the past 20 years, reflecting increased availability. A major area of ongoing concern is: how effective can international narcotics control programs be in helping to reduce consumption? […] P.L. 106-246, 'Plan Colombia,' a $1.3 billion military assistance-focused initiative to provide emergency supplemental narcotics assistance to Colombia, was signed into law July 13, 2000. Recently, U.S. policy toward Colombia has focused increasingly on containing the terrorist threat to that country's security. The Bush Administration's FY2003 and Emergency 2002 Supplemental budget requests would broaden the authorities of the State and Defense Departments to use assistance to Colombia directly for counterterrorism purposes. For instance, U.S. -supplied helicopters and intelligence could be used to support military operations against guerrillas financed by drugs as well as against drug traffickers themselves. Drug control options addressed in this issue brief include: 1) Expansion of efforts to reduce foreign production at the source. 2) Expansion of interdiction and enforcement activities to disrupt supply lines. 3) Expansion of efforts to reduce worldwide demand. 4) Expansion of economic disincentives for international drug trafficking. Current trends in U.S. counternarcotics policy also are discussed in the brief. For a recent analysis of the Andean drug issues and related U.S. legislation see CRS [Congressional Research Service] report RL31383 'Andean Regional Initiative(ARI): FY2002 Supplemental and FY2003 Assistance for Colombia and Neighbors.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-06-21
• Drug Control: International Policy and Approaches [June 05, 2002]

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  "Efforts to reduce the flow of illicit drugs from abroad into the United States greatly have so far not succeeded. Moreover, over the past decade, worldwide production of illicit drugs has risen dramatically: opium and marijuana production has roughly doubled and coca production tripled. Also, street prices of cocaine and heroin have fallen significantly in the past 20 years, reflecting increased availability. A major area of ongoing concern is: how effective can international narcotics control programs be in helping to reduce consumption? […] P.L. 106-246, 'Plan Colombia,' a $1.3 billion military assistance-focused initiative to provide emergency supplemental narcotics assistance to Colombia, was signed into law July 13, 2000. Recently, U.S. policy toward Colombia has focused increasingly on containing the terrorist threat to that country's security. The Bush Administration's FY2003 and Emergency 2002 Supplemental budget requests would broaden the authorities of the State and Defense Departments to use assistance to Colombia directly for counterterrorism purposes. For instance, U.S. -supplied helicopters and intelligence could be used to support military operations against guerrillas financed by drugs as well as against drug traffickers themselves. Drug control options addressed in this issue brief include: 1) Expansion of efforts to reduce foreign production at the source. 2) Expansion of interdiction and enforcement activities to disrupt supply lines. 3) Expansion of efforts to reduce worldwide demand. 4) Expansion of economic disincentives for international drug trafficking. Current trends in U.S. counternarcotics policy also are discussed in the brief. For a recent analysis of the Andean drug issues and related U.S. legislation see CRS [Congressional Research Service] report RL31383 'Andean Regional Initiative(ARI): FY2002 Supplemental and FY2003 Assistance for Colombia and Neighbors.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-06-05
• Drug Control: International Policy and Approaches [May 08, 2002]

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  "Efforts to reduce the flow of illicit drugs from abroad into the United States greatly have so far not succeeded. Moreover, over the past decade, worldwide production of illicit drugs has risen dramatically: opium and marijuana production has roughly doubled and coca production tripled. Also, street prices of cocaine and heroin have fallen significantly in the past 20 years, reflecting increased availability. A major area of ongoing concern is: how effective can international narcotics control programs be in helping to reduce consumption? […] P.L.106-246, 'Plan Colombia,' a $1.3 billion military assistance-focused initiative to provide emergency supplemental narcotics assistance to Colombia, was signed into law July 13, 2000. On April 9, 2001, President Bush unveiled an Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ARI) to succeed Plan Colombia, and requested $882 million in FY2002 funds for the program. On December 20, Congress appropriated $783 million for the program, $99 million below the President's request. Policy options addressed in this brief include: 1) Expansion of efforts to reduce foreign production at the source. 2) Expansion of interdiction and enforcement activities to disrupt supply lines. 3) Expansion of efforts to reduce worldwide demand. 4) Expansion of economic disincentives for international drug trafficking. For CRS [Congressional Research Service] products relevant to this subject, see CRS Issue Brief IB95025, 'Drug Supply Control: Current Legislation'; CRS Report 98-159, 'Narcotics Certification of Drug Producing and Trafficking Nations: Questions and Answers'; CRS Report RL30541, 'Colombia: U.S. Assistance and Current Legislation'; and CRS Report RL31016, 'Andean Regional Initiative (ARI): FY2002 Assistance for Colombia and Neighbors.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-05-08
• Drug Control: International Policy and Approaches [January 31, 2002]

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  "Efforts to reduce the flow of illicit drugs from abroad into the United States greatly have so far not succeeded. Moreover, over the past decade, worldwide production of illicit drugs has risen dramatically: opium and marijuana production has roughly doubled and coca production tripled. Also, street prices of cocaine and heroin have fallen significantly in the past 20 years, reflecting increased availability. A major area of ongoing concern is: how effective can international narcotics control programs be in helping to reduce consumption? […] P.L.106-246, 'Plan Colombia,' a $1.3 billion military assistance-focused initiative to provide emergency supplemental narcotics assistance to Colombia, was signed into law July 13, 2000. On April 9, 2001, President Bush unveiled an Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ACI) to succeed Plan Colombia, and requested $731 million in FY2002 funds for the program. On December 20, Congress appropriated $625 million for the program, $106 million below the President's request. Policy options addressed in this brief include: 1) Expansion of efforts to reduce foreign production at the source. 2) Expansion of interdiction and enforcement activities to disrupt supply lines. 3) Expansion of efforts to reduce worldwide demand. 4) Expansion of economic disincentives for international drug trafficking. For CRS [Congressional Research Service] products relevant to this subject, see CRS Issue Brief IB95025, 'Drug Supply Control: Current Legislation'; CRS Report 98-159, 'Narcotics Certification of Drug Producing and Trafficking Nations: Questions and Answers'; CRS Report RL30541, 'Colombia: U.S. Assistance and Current Legislation'; and CRS Report RL31016, 'Andean Regional Initiative (ARI): FY2002 Assistance for Colombia and Neighbors.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-01-31
• Drug Control: International Policy and Approaches [March 18, 2002]

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  "Efforts to reduce the flow of illicit drugs from abroad into the United States greatly have so far not succeeded. Moreover, over the past decade, worldwide production of illicit drugs has risen dramatically: opium and marijuana production has roughly doubled and coca production tripled. Also, street prices of cocaine and heroin have fallen significantly in the past 20 years, reflecting increased availability. A major area of ongoing concern is: how effective can international narcotics control programs be in helping to reduce consumption? […] P.L.106-246, 'Plan Colombia,' a $1.3 billion military assistance-focused initiative to provide emergency supplemental narcotics assistance to Colombia, was signed into law July 13, 2000. On April 9, 2001, President Bush unveiled an Andean Counterdrug Initiative (ARI) to succeed Plan Colombia, and requested $882 million in FY2002 funds for the program. On December 20, Congress appropriated $783 million for the program, $99 million below the President's request. Policy options addressed in this brief include: 1) Expansion of efforts to reduce foreign production at the source. 2) Expansion of interdiction and enforcement activities to disrupt supply lines. 3) Expansion of efforts to reduce worldwide demand. 4) Expansion of economic disincentives for international drug trafficking. For CRS [Congressional Research Service] products relevant to this subject, see CRS Issue Brief IB95025, 'Drug Supply Control: Current Legislation'; CRS Report 98-159, 'Narcotics Certification of Drug Producing and Trafficking Nations: Questions and Answers'; CRS Report RL30541, 'Colombia: U.S. Assistance and Current Legislation'; and CRS Report RL31016, 'Andean Regional Initiative (ARI): FY2002 Assistance for Colombia and Neighbors.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-03-18
• Drug Control: International Policy and Approaches [July 10, 2002]

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  "Efforts to reduce the flow of illicit drugs from abroad into the United States greatly have so far not succeeded. Moreover, over the past decade, worldwide production of illicit drugs has risen dramatically: opium and marijuana production has roughly doubled and coca production tripled. Also, street prices of cocaine and heroin have fallen significantly in the past 20 years, reflecting increased availability. A major area of ongoing concern is: how effective can international narcotics control programs be in helping to reduce consumption? […] P.L. 106-246, 'Plan Colombia,' a $1.3 billion military assistance-focused initiative to provide emergency supplemental narcotics assistance to Colombia, was signed into law July 13, 2000. Recently, U.S. policy toward Colombia has focused increasingly on containing the terrorist threat to that country's security. The Bush Administration's FY2003 and Emergency 2002 Supplemental budget requests would broaden the authorities of the State and Defense Departments to use assistance to Colombia directly for counterterrorism purposes. For instance, U.S. -supplied helicopters and intelligence could be used to support military operations against guerrillas financed by drugs as well as against drug traffickers themselves. Drug control options addressed in this issue brief include: 1) Expansion of efforts to reduce foreign production at the source. 2) Expansion of interdiction and enforcement activities to disrupt supply lines. 3) Expansion of efforts to reduce worldwide demand. 4) Expansion of economic disincentives for international drug trafficking. Current trends in U.S. counternarcotics policy also are discussed in the brief. For a recent analysis of the Andean drug issues and related U.S. legislation see CRS [Congressional Research Service] report RL31383 'Andean Regional Initiative(ARI): FY2002 Supplemental and FY2003 Assistance for Colombia and Neighbors.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-07-10
• Drug Control: International Policy and Approaches [January 8, 2003]

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  "Efforts to significantly reduce the flow of illicit drugs from abroad into the United States have so far not succeeded. Moreover, over the past decade, worldwide production of illicit drugs has risen dramatically: opium and marijuana production has roughly doubled and coca production tripled. Street prices of cocaine and heroin have fallen significantly in the past 20 years, reflecting increased availability. The effectiveness of international narcotics control programs in reducing consumption is a matter of ongoing concern. […] P.L. 106-246, 'Plan Colombia,' a $1.3 billion military assistance-focused initiative to provide emergency supplemental narcotics assistance to Colombia, was signed into law July 13, 2000. Recently, U.S. policy toward Colombia has focused increasingly on containing the terrorist threat to that country's security. The Bush Administration's FY2003 and Emergency 2002 Supplemental budget requests would broaden the authorities of the State and Defense Departments to supply assistance to Colombia for counter-terrorism purposes. For instance, U.S.-supplied helicopters and intelligence could be used to support military operations against guerrillas financed by drugs as well as against drug traffickers themselves. Drug control approaches addressed in this issue brief include: 1) Expansion of efforts to reduce foreign production at the source. 2) Expansion of interdiction and enforcement activities to disrupt supply lines. 3) Expansion of efforts to reduce worldwide demand. 4) Expansion of economic disincentives for international drug trafficking. Current trends in U.S. counternarcotics policy also are discussed in the brief. For analysis of the Andean drug issues, see CRS [Congressional Research Service] Report RL31383, 'Andean Regional Initiative( ARI): FY2002 Supplemental and FY2003 Assistance for Colombia and Neighbors.'"

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2003-01-08
• Homeland Security Office: Issues and Options [May 20, 2002]

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  "President George W. Bush created the Office of Homeland Security (OHS) within the Executive Office of the President after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks as a federal focal point for coordinating domestic efforts against terrorism. [...] Such a high-level unit, it was hoped, could bring direction and coherence to federal homeland security-related activities that were spread among more than 40 different departments and agencies. Yet OHS has been controversial almost since its inception. Despite some high-profile results such as highlighting priorities in the President's FY2003 budget and negotiating a border security accord with Canada, OHS remains very much an organizational work in progress-one seeking to carve out a unique identity and mission. [...] Proposals have been introduced in Congress, in the Administration and in various think tanks for reorganizing OHS, reshaping its mandate, or replacing it with an entirely new federal agency. Whether the Office will continue to exist in its present form is by no means assured; ultimately, its future character may well be influenced less by its ability to coordinate the federal terrorism response than by its ability to create a new dialogue on anti-terrorism coordination between federal authorities and their state and local counterparts."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-05-20
• Nuclear Smuggling: Patterns and Responses

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  "Political and economic upheavals over the past decade have weakened the ability of Soviet successor states to monitor and control their potentially dangerous nuclear assets. A strong theoretical possibility exists, and has existed for some time, that nuclear material and even complete weapons could be removed from insecure stockpiles, trafficked abroad, and sold to virulently anti- Western states and groups. Several factors underscore the significance of this threat. One is the enormous quantity of former Soviet fissile material stored outside of weapons, some 600 to 650 tons scattered among 300 buildings at more than 50 nuclear facilities. A second factor relates to reputedly lax physical security and accounting systems at many nuclear weapons enterprises. A third is the depressed economic situation of employees in parts of the nuclear complex, reflected in relatively low pay, a shrinking social safety net, and uncertain professional prospects. These factors are widely believed to constitute a prime source of proliferation danger on the supply side. A fourth concern, frequently cited by US authorities, is that outside adversaries such as Iraq, Iran, and the al Qaeda organization have made efforts to acquire nuclear weapons or sufficient materials and expertise to make them. There seems little doubt that Russia's vast and troubled nuclear complex has been a target of such attempts, although adversaries also may have looked to other nuclear-armed states (such as Pakistan) to supply their weapons of mass destruction (WMD) requirements. Finally, existing US nuclear security programs have only modestly reduced the nuclear proliferation threat from Russia and other newly independent states (NIS). [...] The extraordinary length of Russia's border with neighboring countries, which runs some 12,000 miles, underscores the immense challenge of preventing clandestine exports of nuclear goods from that country."

  Army War College (U.S.)

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2003
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [January 8, 2003]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2003-01-08
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [December 12, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-12-12
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [July 10, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-07-10
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [March 26, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. […] A modern trend in terrorism is toward loosely organized, self-financed, international networks of terrorists. Another trend istoward terrorism that is religiously- or ideologicallymotivated. Radical Islamic fundamentalist groups, or groups using religion as a pretext, pose terrorist threats of varying kinds to U.S. interests and to friendly regimes. Some nations facing difficult challenges include Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, the Philippines, and, to a certain extent, Russia and Saudi Arabia. Looming over the entire issue of international terrorism is a trend toward proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). For instance Iran, seen as the most active state sponsor of terrorism, has been aggressively seeking a nuclear arms capability. Iraq is thought to be stockpiling chemical and biological agents. Also, indications have surfaced that the al Qaeda organization attempted to acquire chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear weapons. As a result, stakes in the war against international terrorism and its supporters are increasing and margins for error in selecting appropriate policy instruments or combinations of them to prevent terrorist attacks are diminishing correspondingly."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-03-26
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [November 4, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-11-04
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [December 3, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-12-03
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [October 18, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-10-18
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [September 3, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Perl, Raphael; Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-09-03
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [May 30, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-05-30
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [August 6, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to unconventional weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and intelligence capabilities is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-08-06
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [February 25, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. Terrorist activities supported by sophisticated planning and logistics as well as possible access to chemical, biological, or nuclear weaponry raise a host of new issues. Some analysts' long-held belief that a comprehensive review of U.S. terrorism policy, organizational structure, and preparedness is needed has now become a mainstream view."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-02-25
• Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy [June 21, 2002]

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  "International terrorism has long been recognized as a foreign and domestic security threat. The tragic events of September 11 in New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized the nation's focus and resolve on terrorism. This issue brief examines international terrorist actions and threats and the U.S. policy response. Available policy options range from diplomacy, international cooperation, and constructive engagement to economic sanctions, covert action, physical security enhancement, and military force. The September 11th terrorist incidents in the United States, the subsequent anthrax attacks, as well as bombings of the U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade Center in 1993, and of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, have brought the issue of terrorism to the forefront of American public interest. Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and organizational mechanisms are adequate to deal with both state-sponsored or -abetted terrorism and that undertaken by independent groups. […] Looming over the entire issue of international terrorism is a trend toward proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). For instance Iran, seen as the most active state sponsor of terrorism, has been aggressively seeking a nuclear arms capability. Iraq is thought to be stockpiling chemical and biological agents. Also, indications have surfaced that the Al Qaeda organization attempted to acquire chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear weapons. As a result, stakes in the war against international terrorism and its supporters are increasing and margins for error in selecting appropriate policy instruments or combinations of them to prevent terrorist attacks are diminishing correspondingly."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-; Perl, Raphael

  2002-06-21
• Terrorist Financing: The U.S. and International Response [Updated December 6, 2002]

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  "The U.S.-led international campaign to deprive terrorists of funding has so far produced mixed results. Though more than $120 million in terrorists' accounts reportedly has been blocked since September 11, 2001, less than 20 percent of this total has been frozen in the past 11 months. The al Qaeda network increasingly is shifting to non-bank methods of moving and storing value and is relying on a decentralized structure of largely self-financing cells; moreover, Middle Eastern donors apparently continue to provide funds to al Qaeda and other terrorist groups. In addition, the campaign has aroused controversy on various political, religious and humanitarian grounds and is viewed in some quarters as broadly anti-Islamic. How the crackdown on terror finance should be prioritized and integrated with a comprehensive global struggle against terrorism thus becomes an issue of considerable significance for U.S. policymakers and for Congress."

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-12-06
• Nuclear Smuggling and International Terrorism: Issues and Options for U.S. Policy [Updated October 22, 2002]

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  "The collapse of the USSR and its framework of totalitarian control raised fears of rampant nuclear proliferation, fueled by leakages of fissile materials from increasingly insecure Russian stockpiles. A major U.S. concern is that such materials and even complete nuclear weapons could gravitate into dangerous hands, increasing the array of potentially lethal dangers to Western security and stability. The dimensions of this threat have not been precisely calibrated...Indeed, terrorists and rogues may place a higher priority on other weapons of mass destruction (WMD) objectives or, in the case of states, on domestic manufacture of nuclear bomb ingredients. Nevertheless, the possibility can be considered that the observed market in the West does not reflect the true state of affairs, because many smuggling incidents might go undetected or unreported...The United States is funding a broad range of activities in Russia and other newly independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union designed to stem outflows of nuclear material, weapons and weapons design intelligence. Such programs have been controversial: some believe that they have been under-funded and advocate major expansion, while others see the programs as intrinsically unworkable in the Russian context or - put bluntly, that "nothing much can be done." Pervasive crime and corruption and Russia's nuclear cooperation with Iran (which seemingly contradicts the goal of non-proliferation) are cited to support the latter position. Recent congressional budget decisions and bipartisan legislation currently before Congress, indicate a desire that investment in proliferation prevention in the NIS should be increased significantly." - From Summary

  Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service

  Lee, Rensselaer W., 1937-

  2002-10-22