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Lebanon's 2022 Parliamentary Elections [May 12, 2022]
From the Document: "Lebanon plans to hold parliamentary elections on May 15, the first since the emergence in 2019 of a protest movement calling for the removal of the country's ruling political elite. Parties allied with the March 14 political coalition--which seeks close ties with the United States, France, and Saudi Arabia-- hope to win a majority in parliament. The 2018 elections resulted in a parliamentary--and therefore cabinet--majority for the March 8 political coalition of Hezbollah and its allies, which seeks close ties with Syria and Iran[.] As of 2022, forces opposed to Hezbollah remain splintered, and some analysts question [hyperlink] whether the election can overturn the current March 8 majority. The relative strength of Hezbollah and its allies in the next government may impact congressional consideration of additional aid to Lebanon, as the country struggles with an economic crisis the World Bank described [hyperlink] as possibly among the top three 'most severe crises episodes globally since the mid-nineteenth century.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2022-05-12
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Islamic State [Updated May 10, 2022]
From the Document: "The Islamic State (IS, also known as ISIL, ISIS, or the Arabic acronym 'Da'esh') is a transnational Sunni Islamist insurgent and terrorist group. At its 2015 height, the group controlled large areas of Iraq and Syria, including some cities, from which it launched attacks in the region and beyond. While the group no longer controls territory outright in Syria and Iraq, U.S. military officials warn that it maintains a low-level insurgency and has worked to expand its global presence via a burgeoning number of affiliate groups. The 2022 Annual Threat Assessment of the U.S. Intelligence Community (IC) stated that 'ISIS leaders remain committed to their vision of building a self-styled global caliphate headquartered in Iraq and Syria and are working to rebuild capabilities and wear down opponents until conditions are ripe for seizing and holding territory.' [...] The Islamic State continues to wage a low-level insurgency across Syria and Iraq. In 2021, U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) assessed that, 'ISIS likely has sufficient manpower and resources to operate indefinitely at its present level in the Syrian desert.' [...] The 2022 IC Annual Threat Assessment reported that the threat posed by the Islamic State to U.S. persons and interests 'probably will remain greatest in regions where the group has an operational presence; ISIS's ideology and propaganda, however, almost certainly will continue to inspire attacks in the West, including in the United States.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2022-05-10
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Syria and U.S. Policy [Updated April 19, 2022]
From the Document: "Since 2011, conflict between the government of Syrian President Bashar al Asad and opposition forces seeking his removal has displaced roughly half of the country's population and killed over half a million people. Five countries operate in or maintain military forces in Syria: Russia, Turkey, Iran, Israel, and the United States. The United States seeks a negotiated political settlement to the Syria conflict and the enduring defeat of the Islamic State (IS, aka ISIS/ISIL). Challenges for U.S. policymakers include responding to threats posed by IS remnants and detainees, countering groups linked to Al Qaeda, facilitating humanitarian access, and managing Russian and Iranian challenges to U.S. operations in Syria."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2022-04-19
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Attacks Against the United Arab Emirates: Issues for Congress [March 16, 2022]
From the Overview: "In early 2022, the Iran-backed, Yemen-based Ansar Allah/Houthi movement ('the Houthis') launched several missile and drone attacks against targets in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), killing three foreign nationals. Targets in the UAE included Al Dhafra Air Base, which hosts the United States Air Forces Central (AFCENT) 380th Air Expeditionary Wing [hyperlink]. In Congress, Houthi attacks against the UAE have renewed debate over whether to redesignate the Houthis as a Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) [hyperlink]. President Trump designated the Houthis as an FTO in January 2021; President Biden reversed that decision citing concerns [hyperlink] that the designation could impede the delivery of humanitarian assistance in Houthi-controlled areas. The Biden Administration has designated individual Houthi leaders and financiers [hyperlink] and said a review is underway [hyperlink] regarding redesignating the group"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Humud, Carla E.
2022-03-10
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Congress and the War in Yemen: Oversight and Legislation 2015-2021 [Updated February 10, 2022]
From the Summary: "This CRS [congressinal research service] report provides an overview of the role Congress has played in shaping U.S. policy toward the conflict in Yemen, with summary tables providing information on various legislative proposals considered in the 114th , 115th , 116th, and 117th Congresses. These proposals have reflected a range of congressional perspectives and priorities, including [1] the authorization of the activities of the U.S. Armed Forces related to the conflict; [2] the extent of U.S. logistical, material, advisory, and intelligence support for the coalition led by Saudi Arabia; [3] the approval, disapproval, or conditioning of U.S. arms sales to Saudi Arabia; [4] the appropriation of funds for U.S. operations in support of the Saudi-led coalition; [5] the conduct of the Saudi-led coalition's air campaign and its adherence to international humanitarian law and the laws of armed conflict; [6] the demand for greater humanitarian access to Yemen; [7] the call for a wider government assessment of U.S. policy toward Yemen and U.S. support to parties to the conflict; [8] the nature and extent of U.S.-Saudi counterterrorism and border security cooperation; and [9] the role of Iran in supplying missile technology and other weapons to the forces of the Houthi movement. The 117th Congress may continue to debate U.S. support for the Saudi-led coalition and Saudi Arabia's conduct of the war in Yemen, where fighting has continued since March 2015."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.; Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Humud, Carla E.
2022-02-10
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Lebanon [Updated November 8, 2021]
From the Document: "Lebanon, a country of 5.5 million people, faces the worst economic crisis in its history amid ongoing political unrest, the spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), and in the aftermath of an August 2020 explosion that severely damaged the port of Beirut and surrounding areas. Lebanon hosts the largest number of refugees in the world per capita (over 1 million, mostly Syrians), which has raised social tensions and strained public services. U.S. policy has focused on countering the influence of Iran and Hezbollah and on bolstering the Lebanese state while calling for reforms to counter corruption and mismanagement. Lebanon's leaders have warned that the country's economic crisis could lead to a collapse of state institutions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-11-08
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Lebanon: New Mikati Government Faces Challenges [October 18, 2021]
From the Document: "After 13 months of paralysis, and facing economic crisis, Lebanese Prime Minister Najib Mikati and President Michel Aoun agreed on the composition of a new government in September 2021, following mediation efforts by France and Iran. The new government--dominated by a coalition of Hezbollah and its political allies--faces pressure to implement wide-ranging reforms sought by international donors as a prerequisite for urgently needed economic assistance. The government's mandate will expire following parliamentary elections scheduled for early 2022. The government will administer these elections amid concerns that amendments to the electoral law could limit the impact of opposition voters and candidates."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-10-18
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Syria and U.S. Policy [September 20, 2021]
From the Document: "Since 2011, conflict between the government of Syrian President Bashar al Asad and opposition forces seeking his removal has displaced roughly half of the country's population and killed nearly 600,000 people. Although conflict has abated in many areas following military intervention on Asad's behalf from Russia, Iran, and Hezbollah, fighting is ongoing in Idlib province, and pockets of armed resistance to the Asad government have re-emerged in Syria's southwest. U.S. officials in 2021 assessed that humanitarian needs in Syria have increased by more than 20% over the last year amid international sanctions, the effects of the Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and Syrian government restrictions on humanitarian access. U.S. military forces operate in Syria, where U.S. and coalition air operations against the Islamic State (IS) group began in 2014, and partner support operations have continued with specific authorization from Congress since 2015. U.S. operations face challenges from external actors including Iranian-backed militia groups, the Russian military, and Turkish-backed militia groups that control a buffer zone in northeastern Syria. IS fighters lost the last territory under their control in 2019, but remnants of the group remain active. Thousands of IS prisoners remain in the custody of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), a Kurdish-led force supported by the United States and coalition partners. The United States seeks a negotiated political settlement to the Syria conflict and the enduring defeat of the Islamic State."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-09-20
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Lebanon [Updated August 10, 2021]
From the Document: "Lebanon, a country of 5.5 million people, faces the worst economic crisis in its history amid ongoing political unrest, the spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), and an August 2020 explosion that severely damaged the port of Beirut and surrounding densely populated areas. Lebanon hosts the largest number of refugees in the world per capita (over 1 million, mostly Syrians), which has raised social tensions and strained public services. U.S. policy has focused on countering the influence of Iran and Hezbollah and on bolstering the Lebanese state while calling for reforms to counter corruption and mismanagement. Lebanon's leaders have warned that the country's economic crisis could lead to a collapse of state institutions."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-08-10
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Congress and the Middle East, 2011-2020: Selected Case Studies [May 21, 2021]
From the Summary: "Congress shaped U.S. national security policy toward several critical crises and contingencies in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) during the decade from 2011 through 2020--a period of upheaval, conflict, and change in that region. [...] Congress may examine the experiences over the decade to assess the results of its use of legislative tools to influence U.S. foreign policy. Analysis of case studies of various specific legislative interventions in specific events and countries shows use of a range of congressional policy tools with varied outcomes. Key considerations include how chosen congressional policy tools relate to executive branch-led foreign relations initiatives and the effects that country- and context-specific factors may have on policy results."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Blanchard, Christopher M.; Arieff, Alexis; Humud, Carla E. . . .
2021-05-21
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Islamic State [Updated May 10, 2021]
From the Document: "The Islamic State (IS, also known as ISIL, ISIS, or the Arabic acronym 'Da'esh') is a transnational Sunni Islamist insurgent and terrorist group. At its 2015 height, the group controlled large areas of Iraq and Syria, including some cities, from which it launched attacks in the region and beyond. While the group no longer controls territory outright in Syria and Iraq, U.S. military officials warn that it has maintained a low-level insurgency and has worked to expand its global presence via a burgeoning number of affiliate groups. The 2021 Annual Threat Assessment of the U.S. Intelligence Community (IC) warned that the Islamic State and sometimes rival Al Qaeda 'have shown great resiliency' and together remain the 'the greatest Sunni terrorist threats to U.S. interests overseas.'"
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-05-10
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Lebanon [Updated April 21, 2021]
From the Summary: "Since having its boundaries drawn by France after the First World War, Lebanon has struggled to define its national identity. Its population then included Christian, Sunni Muslim, and Shi'a Muslim communities of roughly comparable size, and with competing visions for the country. Seeking to avoid sectarian conflict, Lebanese leaders created a confessional system that allocated power among the country's religious sects according to their percentage of the population. Since then, Lebanon's demographics and political dynamics have shifted, exacerbating tension among groups. Sectarian divisions have stoked violence, such as during the 1975-1990 civil war, as well as political gridlock on issues that require dividing power, such as government formation. These dynamics are intensified by external actors--including Syria and Iran--that maintain influence in Lebanon by backing Hezbollah and its political allies. Other states, such as Saudi Arabia, have backed Sunni communities as part of a broader effort to curtail Iran's regional influence. The United States has sought to bolster forces that could serve as a counterweight to Syrian and Iranian influence in Lebanon, providing more than $2 billion in military assistance to the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) since 2006, with the aim of creating a national force strong enough to counter nonstate actors like Hezbollah and secure the country's borders against extremist groups operating in neighboring Syria, including those affiliated with Al Qaeda and the Islamic State."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-04-21
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Syria Conflict Overview: 2011-2021 [Updated February 10, 2021]
From the Document: "The conflict in Syria is entering its tenth year and has displaced roughly half of the country's pre-war population. As of 2021, five countries regularly operate in or maintain military forces in Syria: Russia, Turkey, Iran, Israel, and the United States--as well as transnational terrorist groups such as the Islamic State, Al Qaeda (AQ), and Lebanese Hezbollah. This piece provides a historical overview of the conflict."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-02-10
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Lebanese Hezbollah [Updated February 1, 2021]
From the Overview: "Hezbollah ('Party of God') is an Iran-backed Lebanese Shi'a militia and U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO). Formed in 1982, in the wake of the Israeli invasion of southern Lebanon, the group has described itself as the leader of Islamic resistance to Israel and has conducted numerous attacks against Israeli and Western targets. Hezbollah currently operates regionally as a militia force, while also playing a powerful role as a Lebanese political party and provider of social services."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-02-01
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Middle East: Key Issues for the 117th Congress [January 13, 2021]
From the Document: "The Middle East in 2021 faces continued political instability, civil wars, terrorist threats, economic crises, the proliferation of unconventional weapons, external military intervention, and the ongoing spread of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). It remains to be seen whether the territorial defeat of the Islamic State (IS) organization and the recent diplomatic normalization agreements brokered by the Trump Administration between Israel and several Arab states augur improved regional stability. U.S. stated policy goals have remained broadly consistent across Administrations: deter interstate conflict, counter terrorism, ensure the global flow of energy resources, and preserve U.S. influence in the face of rival power competition. The 116th Congress shaped U.S. policy in the Middle East through various legislative tools. Congress appropriated funds for issues Members deemed a priority--such as stabilization efforts in Syria. Some Members sought to place conditions on U.S. foreign aid and/or block arms sales to express concern with particular developments--such as Saudi use of U.S. military equipment to target civilians in Yemen. The 116th Congress maintained and expanded sanctions--such as those in place against Iran--in an effort to change state behavior. Congress also continued to shape the U.S. military footprint in the region through its annual defense authorization and appropriation measures."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2021-01-13
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Lebanon [Updated September 1, 2020]
From the Document: "Lebanon, a country of 5.5 million people, faces the worst economic crisis in its history amid ongoing political unrest, the spread of COVID-19 [coronavirus disease 2019], and an August 2020 explosion that severely damaged the port of Beirut and surrounding densely populated areas. Lebanon hosts the largest number of refugees in the world per capita (over one million, mostly Syrians), which has raised social tensions and strained public services. U.S. policy toward Lebanon has focused on countering the influence of Iran and Hezbollah, and on bolstering the Lebanese state--while calling for reforms to counter corruption and mismanagement."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2020-09-01
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Lebanon: Renewed Instability Following August Blast [August 17, 2020]
From the Document: "On August 10, Lebanese Prime Minister Hassan Diab and his cabinet resigned in the wake of a massive explosion at the port of Beirut that killed at least 178 people and injured thousands. The blast displaced an estimated 300,000 people, and Lebanese President Michel Aoun estimated the damage at the port to be roughly $15 billion. The explosion triggered widespread outrage among citizens, and has generated renewed protests--at times violent--against Lebanon's political leaders. Diab's resignation leaves Lebanon's government in caretaker status with reduced authorities. Observers speculate that the country could become mired in months of government formation at a time of economic and humanitarian crisis, leaving it vulnerable to paralysis and greater social unrest. Policymakers may review U.S. assistance to Lebanon in the wake of growing humanitarian and economic needs, and in the context of potential shifts in the country's political leadership."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2020-08-17
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Lebanon [August 7, 2020]
From the Document: "Lebanon, a country of 5.5 million people, currently faces the worst economic crisis in its history amid ongoing political unrest,the spread of COVID-19, and an August 2020 explosion that severely damaged the port of Beirut. Lebanon hosts the largest number of refugees in the world per capita (over one million, mostly Syrians), which has raised social tensions and strained public services. U.S. policy toward Lebanon has focused on countering the influence of Iran and Hezbollah, and on bolstering the capabilities of the Lebanese state--while also calling for reforms to counter corruption and mismanagement."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2020-08-07
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Armed Conflict in Syria: Overview and U.S. Response [Updated July 27, 2020]
From the Summary: "As of 2020, Syria faces growing economic instability and pockets of renewed political unrest, amid ongoing interventions by outside states and new public health challenges posed by the spread of the coronavirus (COVID-19). The government of Syrian President Bashar al Asad-- backed by Russia, Iran, and Hezbollah--has recaptured most areas formerly held by opposition forces but faces persistent challenges from fighters linked to the Islamic State (IS, also known as ISIL/ISIS), as well as new protests stemming from deteriorating economic conditions. U.S.- backed local forces have recovered most territory formerly held by the Islamic State, but the group continues to maintain a low-level insurgency. U.S. policy toward Syria since 2014 has prioritized counterterrorism operations against the Islamic State, which sought to direct external attacks from areas under the group's control in northeast Syria. [...] In addition to counterterrorism operations against the Islamic State, the United States also has responded to Syria's ongoing civil conflict by providing nonlethal assistance to Syrian opposition and civil society groups, encouraging diplomatic efforts to reach a political settlement to the civil war, and serving as the largest single donor of humanitarian aid to Syria and regional countries affected by refugee outflows. The Trump Administration has described U.S. policy towards Syria as seeking (1) the enduring defeat of the Islamic State; (2) a political settlement to the Syrian civil war; and (3) the withdrawal of Iranian-commanded forces."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.; Blanchard, Christopher M.
2020-07-27
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U.S. Foreign Assistance to the Middle East: Historical Background, Recent Trends, and the FY2021 Request [May 5, 2020]
From the Introduction: "This report is an overview of U.S. foreign assistance to the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). It includes a brief historical review of foreign aid levels, a description of specific country programs, and analysis of current foreign aid issues. It also provides analysis of the Administration's FY2021 budget request for State Department and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) Foreign Operations and Related Programs (SFOPS) appropriations in the MENA region."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Sharp, Jeremy Maxwell; Collins, Sarah R.; Humud, Carla E.
2020-05-05
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Lebanon Forms New Government Amid Economic Crisis, Ongoing Protests [Updated January 31, 2020]
From the Document: "On January 21, Lebanese Prime Minister Hassan Diab announced the formation of a new Lebanese government, 85 days after nationwide protests triggered the resignation of former Prime Minister Saad Hariri. The new cabinet is comprised entirely of parties allied with the March 8 political bloc--headed by the Christian Free Patriotic Movement (FPM), Hezbollah, and the Amal Movement--leading some to describe it as one-sided. The new government faces significant challenges, including ongoing protests and an escalating economic crisis. However, the political composition of the new government--and the perceived influence of Hezbollah in its formation--may reduce the willingness of some international donors to provide financial assistance absent significant economic reforms."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2020-01-31
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U.S. Killing of Qasem Soleimani: Frequently Asked Questions [Updated January 13, 2020]
From the Document: "The January 2, 2020, U.S. killing in Iraq of Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Qods Force (IRGC-QF) Commander Qasem Soleimani, generally regarded as one of the most powerful and important officials in Iran, has potentially dramatic implications for the United States. For Congress, it raises possible questions about U.S. policy in the Middle East, broader U.S. global strategy, U.S. relations with partners and allies, the authorization and legality of U.S. military action abroad, U.S. measures to protect its servicemembers and diplomatic personnel, and congressional oversight of these and related issues."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); Katzman, Kenneth; Blanchard, Christopher M. . . .
2020-01-13
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U.S. Killing of Qasem Soleimani: Frequently Asked Questions [January 8, 2020]
From the Document: "The January 2, 2020, U.S. killing in Iraq of Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps-Qods Force (IRGC-QF) Commander Qasem Soleimani, generally regarded as one of the most powerful and important officials in Iran, has potentially dramatic implications for the United States. For Congress, it raises possible questions about U.S. policy in the Middle East, broader U.S. global strategy, U.S. relations with partners and allies, the authorization and legality of U.S. military action abroad, U.S. measures to protect its service members and diplomatic personnel, and congressional oversight of these and related issues. This report provides background information in response to some frequently asked questions related to the strike and its aftermath."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); Katzman, Kenneth; Blanchard, Christopher M. . . .
2020-01-08
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Lebanon: Protests and Appointment of New Prime Minister-Designate [Updated December 20, 2019]
From the Document: "On December 19, Lebanese President Michel Aoun appointed Hassan Diab--an engineering professor at the American University of Beirut--as prime minister-designate. Diab will replace former Prime Minister Saad Hariri, who resigned on October 29 following nationwide mass protests. While Diab was backed by a simple majority in Lebanon's parliament, he lacks support from some key constituencies, and may struggle to form a new government. Protestors have opposed Diab's nomination, and security and economic conditions in the country continue to deteriorate. Instability in Lebanon could create opportunities for actors of concern to the United States, including Hezbollah and Iran."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2019-12-20
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Lebanon: Protests and Government Resignation [November 1, 2019]
From the Document: "On October 29, Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Hariri announced his resignation, automatically triggering the resignation of his government. The move followed nearly two weeks of nationwide mass protests, described as potentially the largest in Lebanese history. Protestors represent a broad economic, political, and sectarian cross-section of Lebanese society, and have continued to call for a comprehensive change in political leadership even after the resignation of the Hariri government. The protests, and uncertainty over the formation of a new government, represent a significant challenge for Lebanese institutions, particularly against the backdrop of an ongoing financial crisis. Instability in Lebanon could create opportunities for actors of concern to the United States, including Hezbollah and Iran."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2019-11-01
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Turkish Incursion into Syria: U.S. Policy Implications [October 11, 2019]
From the Document: "On October 9, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan announced the start of 'Operation Peace Spring,' which he stated would target both Kurdish and Islamic State (IS, aka ISIL/ISIS) fighters in northern Syria. Turkey then launched an air and ground assault against Kurdish forces. Turkey's foreign minister has stated that Turkish forces plan to go 18 miles into Syrian territory, and eventually to occupy a corridor along the border. The commander of the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) had stated that the SDF would resist, and fighting has escalated. The launch of the operation followed an October 6 call between President Donald Trump and Erdogan, after which the White House announced that Turkey would 'soon be moving forward with its long-planned operation into Northern Syria,' and that U.S. forces would 'no longer be in the immediate area.' Some Members of Congress then argued that a 'precipitous withdrawal' of U.S. forces would benefit Russia, Iran, the Islamic State, and the Syrian regime."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.; Thomas, Clayton (Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs); Zanotti, Jim
2019-10-11
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Iran and Israel: Tension Over Syria [Updated June 5, 2019]
From the Document: "Iranian military operations in support of the Syrian government since 2011 have exacerbated longstanding tensions between Iran and Israel. These tensions have worsened considerably since late 2016 as Iran has helped Syria's government regain key territory, and in turn has sought a more permanent military presence in Syria. Israeli officials have described the deployment of Iran-backed forces in Syria--particularly in the southwest, near Israel's northern border--as a significant security threat compelling Israeli action. In January 2019, Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu said that Israel had struck Iranian and Hezbollah targets in Syria 'hundreds of times.' In 2018, Israeli and Iranian forces repeatedly targeted one another in and over Syrian- and Israeli-controlled areas. While Israel had conducted numerous air strikes inside Syria since 2012--mostly on targets linked to weapons shipments to Lebanese Hezbollah--the 2018 strikes appeared for the first time to have directly targeted Iranian infrastructure in Syria, and reportedly killed dozens of Iranian personnel. In articulating their 'redlines,' Israeli leaders indicated that Israel would act in Syria to prevent Iran from establishing permanent military bases or weapons factories, and opening new 'terror fronts' against Israel. They also suggested that Israel might attack Iran directly if Iran-backed attacks target major Israeli cities."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.; Katzman, Kenneth; Zanotti, Jim
2019-06-05
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Israel and Syria in the Golan Heights: U.S. Recognition of Israel's Sovereignty Claim [Updated March 26, 2019]
From the Document: "On March 25, 2019, President Trump signed a proclamation stating that the United States recognizes the Golan Heights (hereinafter, the Golan) to be part of the State of Israel, based on the rationale that any future peace agreement should address threats Israel encounters from Syria-- including from Iran and the Iran-backed Lebanese group Hezbollah. The President did not specify the territorial bounds of Israeli sovereignty that the United States recognizes in the Golan. Israel gained control of the Golan from Syria during the 1967 Arab- Israeli war, and effectively annexed it unilaterally by applying Israeli law to the region in 1981 (see Figure 1 and textbox below for a map, synopsis, and timeline)."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Zanotti, Jim; Humud, Carla E.
2019-03-26
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Armed Conflict in Syria: Overview and U.S. Response [Updated March 25, 2019]
From the Document: "Since 2011, the Syria conflict has presented significant policy challenges for the United States. (For a brief conflict summary, see Figure 2). U.S. policy toward Syria since 2014 has prioritized counterterrorism operations against the Islamic State (IS, also known as ISIL/ISIS), but also has included nonlethal assistance to Syrian opposition groups, diplomatic efforts to reach a political settlement to the civil war, and humanitarian aid to Syria and regional countries affected by refugee outflows. U.S. forces deployed to Syria have trained, equipped, and advised local partners under special authorization from Congress and have worked primarily 'by, with, and through' those local partners to retake nearly all areas formerly held by the Islamic State."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.; Blanchard, Christopher M.; Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham
2019-03-25
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Syria Conflict Overview: 2011-2018 [January 23, 2019]
From the Document: "In March 2011, the arrest of a group of school children triggered protests in the southern Syrian province of Dar'a. Mostly peaceful demonstrations called for political and economic reform, although violence was reported at times. As security forces responded with mass arrests and at times opened fire, protests spread to other provinces. The opposition movement eventually coalesced into two umbrella groups--one political, one armed--with the leadership of both based primarily in exile. Political groups established the Syrian National Council (SNC), which remained fractured in the absence of a shared vision for Syria's future. Military defectors formed the Free Syrian Army (FSA), which claimed leadership over the armed opposition but whose authority was generally unrecognized by local armed groups, including armed Islamists. Ongoing violence, primarily but not exclusively on the part of the Syrian government, prompted President Obama in August 2011 to call for Syrian President Asad to step aside. Meanwhile, the Al Qaeda (AQ) affiliate in neighboring Iraq (the Islamic State of Iraq, ISI) sent members to Syria under the banner of a new group known as the Nusra Front. In December 2011, the first Nusra Front suicide attacks hit government buildings in Damascus."
Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service
Humud, Carla E.
2019-01-23
